Communication

Chapter 1 Communication Theory

1.1 COMMUNICATION THEORY

Specific OutcomesThe student should be able to: * Identify the four needs underlying communication. * Describe the process of communication and show how it applies to various situations within the industry. * Recognise and explain in his/her own words the terminology of the process of communication. * Distinguish between the different types of communication. * Determine the internal and external factors that influence communication. * Distinguish between the two main types of barriers to effective communication. * Critically evaluate a case study. |

| Content: * The 4 needs of communication. * The process of communication. * Relevant terminology relating to the process. * 4 different types of communication. * The five contexts that influence communication. * The barriers to communication. | | Resources: * UJ Communication 1 manual and the reference books in the learner guide * Louw, M., & Du Plooy-Cilliers, F. 2003. Let’s Talk About Interpersonal Communication. Cape Town: Heinemann | | Assessment:Assessment will take place in the form of a: * Case study * Multiple choice quiz * Cloze technique exercise * True and False self-test. |

INTRODUCTION
Communication is a phenomenon that is found amongst all living and replicating creatures from viruses up to more biologically complex species such as humans, and may include non-organic (non-living) entities such as Artificial Intelligence programs (A.I.). In a definitional sense, Communication is simply the transference/sending of information from one entity to another. In terms of humans, however, communication entails much more than this — communication involves languages, reading, writing, listening, speaking and a vast repertoire of non-verbal signals. As a matter of fact, humans spend all of their time communicating (even whilst sleeping). We, therefore, study communication to gain an understanding of ourselves, other people and our relationships with them. In this chapter, we hope to explore what Communication is, how it works, and how it changes.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
There are several types of communication. Each type occurs in a different context. This section will provide you with an overview of the different types of communication.

1. INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
This occurs when you are communicating with yourself. It happens when you listen to that little voice inside your head. When communicating intrapersonally, you could be evaluating, persuading, rehearsing a scenario, daydreaming or thinking. But, all this happens in your own head! Sometimes we think in pictures, we don't always think in words. The way we view ourselves is influenced by the way we talk to ourselves and what we say.

2. INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
Interpersonal communication involves interaction with others on a personal level. We reveal what we are to other people and learn about them through this type of communication. Through interpersonal communication we establish, maintain, destroy or repair relationships.

3. SMALL GROUP COMMUNICATION
Small groups are a fixture of everyday life: Your family is a group and your circle of friends is a small group. These groups are used to solve problems, develop ideas, share knowledge and experience and generally support each other. They may be informal — meetings at tea-time — or more formal departmental meetings.

4. PUBLIC COMMUNICATION
This occurs when the group becomes too large for all the members to contribute equally. It is characterised by an unequal amount of speaking between the sender and the receiver: the sender is normally one person and the receivers are generally the audience. There is little feedback in this type of communication. A public meeting in a hall is a good example of public communication.

5. MASS COMMUNICATION
This is communication by means of the mass media, for example radio, television, newspapers, magazines, billboards, et cetera. The sender (for example the journalist writing the newspaper article) is not present and cannot be seen by the receiver. Therefore feedback is very difficult and sometimes almost impossible. In mass communication it is difficult to establish exactly how many people were the receivers, as for example one newspaper in our library might be read by fifty students on one day, or I may buy a newspaper and do not find the time to read it.

THE FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION

What do you think or believe are the reasons why we, humans, communicate?

Write down at least 10 situations in which you communicate with others.
For example:
1) I need to get help to find the correct classroom (communicate to get information).

1. __________________________________________
2. __________________________________________
3. __________________________________________
4. __________________________________________
5. __________________________________________
6. __________________________________________
7. __________________________________________
8. __________________________________________
9. __________________________________________
10. __________________________________________

COMMUNICATION NEEDS/FUNCTIONS
As human beings, we communicate to meet our Psychological, Information, Social and Influence needs. * INFORMATION FUNCTION
This is the most obvious function. By communicating, creatures (including humans) can gather more information about their surroundings before making a decision. This allows for less mistakes and uncertainty. Communicating information accurately is of vital importance in many human endeavours, including the business world.

* PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTION
Communication helps you learn more about yourself and other people. Our sense of identity (“Who Am I?”) comes from how we interact with others and the feedback they give us. We develop our self-awareness through how others react to us (what they say and do in reaction to us). The messages we receive during our childhood and teen years are the most important for developing our self-awareness and image.

* SOCIAL FUNCTION
Humans are social animals by their very nature. We need other human contact to function properly and survive. Very few individuals can live apart from other humans without getting sick and going insane. Communication is a vital part of our socialising and helps us to relate to other people. Often it is not the quantity but the quality of the relationships that are important.
There are 4 types of Social Need:
1. The need for inclusion (belonging)
2. The need for control/influence
3. The need for affection, appreciation, recognition, admiration.
4. The need for escape, pleasure, recreation, relaxation.

* INFLUENCE FUNCTION
Communication is used to get things done and in order for this to happen we need to influence other people’s behaviour. The ability to communicate successfully is vital in business as it increases your chances of getting others to do exactly what you want and thus a chance at a promotion. Entrepreneurs need to sell their ideas to others and advertisers want to convince their audiences that their product is the best. If instructions cannot be properly communicated (sent and received) then many human society would be in chaos (remember the Biblical Story of the “Tower of Babel”).

COMMUNICATION DEFINITION & PRINCIPLES
Communication is a functional, dynamic and transactional process whereby two or more individuals deliberately try to share meaning and to promote understanding by sending and interpreting verbal and non-verbal messages.
Let us now “unpack” this definition in order to understand the Principles of Communication.

FUNCTIONAL
We have already explored, in the previous section, the needs and functions of Communication (remember the Psychological, Information, Social and Influence functions).

DYNAMIC
Like a river flowing, communication is always changing. We can never say the same sentence or words in exactly the same way again. The time and place in which we communicate and the people to whom we communicate, are always changing. We are not exactly the same people we were yesterday: our thoughts, beliefs, and behaviours have changed and this has an effect on our communication. Furthermore, while we are communicating to one another, we are changing! We react to what other people say and do and they, in turn, react in response to us…

Since Communication is dynamic, there are two important consequences: Communication is also unrepeatable and irreversible. It is impossible to repeat in exactly the same way a communicative episode: you can see a movie twice at the same theatre (sitting in the same seat) but the experience will be different. Why? Because a lot of other things have changed (the cinema might be warmer or colder, the sound softer, the people sitting next to you will be different, etc.) and this will impact upon your viewing of the movie.

Cars can be put in a reverse gear, borrowed items (books) can be given back, but like Time, Communication cannot be saved, stopped nor taken back/reversed. Once you have said something hurtful or done something spiteful, you cannot undo and erase what has happened. You and the other person(s) will have to live with the memory and implications of that Communication episode. Apologies are like bandages, they help the healing process, but there will always be a scar.

TRANSACTIONAL PROCESS
Communication is like a tennis game: you need at the very least two players and a ball. The first player serves the ball and the other player hits back the ball. There is a giving and taking, or transaction, of the ball as each player gets a chance to hit it. All communication involves a message i.e. the need to convey a thought or meaning (the tennis ball in our analogy). Conveying a thought, however, does not begin and end the process. The person who wishes to convey a thought is called a sender (the first tennis player) and the person to whom the thought or message is directed is called the receiver (the second tennis player). In order to complete this process, we need some kind of response from the receiver to make sure that the message is correctly understood (i.e. that meaning is shared). This response is called feedback. So, it is obvious that the process is cyclical in nature.

MEANING
We all kind of know what meaning is, but meaning is a difficult concept to define or explain. Simply put though, meaning is the thoughts, emotions, and sensations you think and feel (i.e. are aware of). It is this awareness that makes you understand something. The exchange of information can take place without necessarily involving meaning. For example, you can sleepwalk and sleep-talk, and you are communicating with other people, but you are not aware of anything that is happening. Computers exchange information all the time: anti-virus programs are updated, system checks are done — but do computers share meaning? Do ants, bees, flies and cockroaches share meaning? What about mice, dogs, or dolphins? Do books have meaning in them? Think about these questions carefully before answering!

COMMUNICATIVE STIMULI & CREATING MEANING
If meaning is our thoughts, feelings, awareness, etc. then how do we share these phenomena that reside in our heads? If I am thinking of a “tree”, then how do you get to have the same thought “tree” in your head? Meaning is conveyed through a range of communicative stimuli (messages). An understanding of the message has to be established — I have to be sure that you are thinking “tree” and not “tea”. The understanding is confirmed by feedback from the receiver (you) and a transactional process (see the above section) is followed until we both agree on the meaning (understanding and awareness is reached). There are many types of communicative stimuli but they can be ordered into two main categories:

1. Verbal Communicative Stimuli
These stimuli, whether spoken or written, involve the use of words and grammar (i.e. verbs). Be aware that Verbal Communicative Stimuli does not necessarily require the use of the voice/vocal language! Sign language and writing are not vocal, but they are certainly examples of Verbal Communication because they have words and grammar.

We use words either intentionally or unintentionally. When we use words intentionally we think before we speak or write and use words in a careful and conscious (aware) way. When we use words unintentionally, we often say things we don't mean to say. This often referred to as a "Freudian slip".

A. Intentional verbal messages
We intend to use language to communicate. Words, however, are often misunderstood or meaningless if you do not understand the language. For example, if I say in Zulu, “Aikhona” and if you do not understand the language, then the word is meaningless to you and there is obviously no sharing of meaning. Words also can mean different things in different languages; for example, “Drink” means something else in Afrikaans as compared to English (can you think of any other words like this?).

B. Unintentional verbal messages

Although most verbal messages are intentional, occasionally we say phrases that just seem to have slipped out of our mouths before our brains could stop them. We do not mean to consciously say these words or phrases. We call such unintentional verbal messages parapraxis (a Freudian slip of the tongue) and a spoonerisms. A parapraxis is when you mistakenly replace a word in an innocent sentence for another to create a sexual innuendo or funny statement. For example, while admiring a good (and handsome/sexy) bass guitar player, you try to say, “I like his/her bass”, but before your brain knows it, you have actually said, “I like his/her ass.”

A spoonerism is when you accidently mix up the actual letters of the phrase to create a humorous new phrase; for example, "The Lord is a shoving leopard" (as opposed to, “The Lord is a loving shepherd”).

Try and identify and decode these following unintentional verbal messages:
“He is a fart smella."
“She showed me her tool kits.” (Careful with this one!)

2. Non-Verbal Communicative Stimuli

These stimuli do not include the use of words and grammar/syntax. They can be for example, facial expressions, hand gestures and body movements, which convey a message without using words. These messages can also be intentional or unintentional. When they are intentional, a communicator is making conscious use of these stimuli and is controlling non-verbal messages for a particular reason. When they are unintentional, messages are conveyed without our control. These messages often give way underlying thoughts or feelings.

A. Intentional non-verbal messages
These are messages we want to transmit and have control over; for example, shaking your head to indicate "yes" or "no". Often non-verbal messages are used on their own without any accompanying verbal communication: for example, frowning to show disapproval or smiling and nodding, if someone asks whether you are feeling well. Sometimes we deliberately use non-verbal messages to communicate our true feeling, like the tone and volume of our voice.

B. Unintentional non-verbal messages
These are messages over which we have no control or that we do not intend to send (or even want to send). These non-verbal messages are often unconscious bodily reflexes which give us away; for example, blushing when embarrassed or crying when sad.
All MESSAGES, whether verbal or non-verbal, are made up of SIGNS/SYMBOLS and/or CODES. A symbol can be a word or a gesture. A code is a rule which allows the symbol to be combined with other symbols. (For more detail, see the below section).

MISCOMMUNICATION
It often happens that people do not share the same meaning and misinterpret the communicative stimuli (messages) they receive thus resulting in confusion. This is called miscommunication or communication breakdown and occurs when the communication participants (sender and receiver) do not take responsibility in ensuring that the meaning is shared. Sometimes this results in funny or embarrassing situations like when waving frantically in a crowded airport terminal might elicit unsure responses from confused strangers instead of a loved one. Or consider the following scenario:
Getting a Hairdryer Through Customs...

A distinguished young woman on a flight from Ireland asked the priest beside her, “Father, may I ask a favour?”
“Of course child. What may I do for you?”
“Well, I bought an expensive woman's electronic hair dryer for my mother's birthday that is unopened and well over the Customs limits, and I'm afraid they'll confiscate it. Is there any way you could carry it through customs for me? Under your robes perhaps?”
“I would love to help you, dear, but I must warn you: I will not lie.”
“With your honest face, Father, no one will question you.”
When they got to Customs, the young woman let the priest go ahead of her.
The official asked, “Father, do you have anything to declare?”
“From the top of my head down to my waist, I have nothing to declare.”
The official thought this answer strange, so asked, “And what do you have to declare from your waist to the floor?”
“I have a marvellous instrument designed to be used on a woman, but which is, to date, unused.”
Roaring with laughter, the official said, “Go ahead, Father. Next!”
Unfortunately, most miscommunication results in arguments, fights, divorce and even death and war.

ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS & MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT COMMUNICATION
We all have to take responsibility when communicating to ensure that meaning is properly shared (i.e. I describe accurately and efficiently my thoughts and feelings) so as to ensure that there is no confusion (miscommunication). Responsibility means being aware and accountable for our behaviour (which obviously is a communicative stimuli/message). This entails that we be honest, truthful, fair and respectful at all times when communicating.

We, however, must also be aware about the following communication misconceptions:

* Talking is a more than an adequate form of communication. Most communication is non-verbal and there is no guarantee that the receiver of our communication will fully understand (accurately interpret) our message. * More communication is better. This is a mistake a lot of people make when they have said or done something wrong. Sometimes it is better to say, “Sorry” and leave the situation at that. * You are born a good communicator. The great speakers of history weren’t born that way, they practised and became aware of their communicative skills and abilities. People like Ghandi, Churchill, Hitler (he was an evil man, but a rousing orator), King and Obama all practised their communication skills in order to maximise their effect: the sharing of meaning and a dream.

Remember: All that we do and say has communicative value — verbal or non-verbal behaviour, action or inaction. It is also important to note that communication is not a turn-taking process. We do not need to wait until one communicator has finished sending a message before we can send our own message. Therefore, communication is a simultaneous and continuous process.

YOU CANNOT NOT COMMUNICATE.

COMMUNICATION MODEL AND TERMINOLOGY
One of the ways in which people have tried to simplify the complexity of communication between people is by developing models. A model is a picture or diagram that represents and highlights certain ideas about the process. Please, however, bear in mind that models simplify what is a very complex and continuous process. At best, a model is like a map or photograph: it helps us to become aware of and achieving a better understanding of the components of the communication process and how they all fit together.

There are ten elements in the model we are going to use: * Episode * Sender/Transmitter (called the TX) * Message & Communicative Stimuli * Codes & Symbols * Channel * Medium * Receiver (called the RX) * Feedback * Context * Noise/Interference/Barriers

There are two types of communication models: * A Linear Model * A Convergent Model

LINEAR MODEL OF COMMUNICATION
Notice that this model is straightforward: there is a beginning and ending point. This model implies no feedback on the part of the receiver and emphasises the episodic aspect of communication.

CONVERGENT MODEL OF COMMUNICATION
Notice that this model is circular in design: there is no beginning or ending. This is a more accurate reflection of the nature of communication.

EPISODE
An Episode is an element or part of communication process with a beginning and an end; for example, a lecture, a soccer match, a movie, etc. It has a limited goal and time and normally focuses upon one main point or topic. The two models that are illustrated above are concerned with a Communication Episode for ease and clarity of explanation. But try to keep in mind that Episodes are largely artificial because communication is always happening without beginning or end.

SENDER/TRANSMITTER (TX)
The sender is the initiator of the communication episode/transaction. As the sender, we formulate messages and communicate with others, using verbal and non-verbal signs, symbols and codes. Obviously the message then has to be encoded in a form that the receiver can understand.

The sender has to be a credible, competent and reliable source of information. If you are ill, who will you make an appointment with: a mechanic, a vet or a medical doctor? This aspect of the sender is called credibility. It is important to realise that credibility is not a fixed characteristic of a person (the sender) but what the receiver perceives the speaker to be; credibility depends on our willingness to believe what a person says or does. Our perception of the sender may vary according to the situation, our needs and our prior interaction and history with the sender. For example, some people see Jacob Zuma as a champion of the poor whilst other people see him as a corrupt politician.

We, however, are generally attracted to people who seem credible and we find people credible, if they display the following characteristics: Enthusiasm, Trustworthiness, Competence and Power.

Naturally, the credibility of the sender changes as we (the receivers) become more familiar with the sender. As our relationship matures, credibility can be divided into three major categories:

Initial Credibility
This is your attitude towards the sender before communication actually starts. First impressions formulate opinions, often unfairly or biased and based upon a paucity of evidence such as physical appearances.

Transactional Credibility
Your perceptions of someone may change from your initial credibility during the communication episode. The person may in fact not be the person you initially thought him/ her to be.

End Credibility
Once the communication episode has ended, we arrive at a more accurate conclusion about the kind of person he/she might be.

MESSAGE & COMMUNICATIVE STIMULI
A message is bits of meaningful information that are encoded as signals and that serve as stimuli for the receiver. In short, a message is meaning transferred through the use of verbal and non-verbal behaviours (see the above section on Communicative Stimuli & Creating Meaning). Remember that messages are complicated and are usually a combination of verbal and non-verbal behaviours. In fact, almost 90% of our communication is non-verbal and unconscious (not aware).

CODES & SYMBOLS
It is said that the pen is mightier than the sword, but the simple fact is words have no power in themselves, and books and movies are nothing if there is no person to use them (you should have realised this when thinking about meaning earlier on). Meaning is to be found only in people (and perhaps other species, like Dolphins or Chimpanzees — but then scientists are not sure exactly what meaning is like for them). This is an obvious point, when you consider that only thoughts, emotions and feelings originate in people.

These thoughts have to be encoded (translated) into a verbal or non-verbal behaviour/stimuli and to do this, codes and symbols are needed.

A. Code
A code is a rule, a procedure, a set of instructions or a recipe, that allows for the changing of one thing (flour, eggs, cocoa, sugar) into another thing (a chocolate cake). Everything is made up of codes, even the natural world (codes aren’t just a construction of the human mind). Humans are made, just like a cake or a computer program, from a code: the genetic code or DNA! In communications, a code is a rule for converting a piece of information (for example, a letter, word, phrase, or gesture) into another form or representation (one sign into another sign), not necessarily of the same type. A code is also a rule for combining these representations or symbols in a proper meaningful way: we call this “grammar” or “syntax”. A code tells us in what sequence we must use signs for them to be meaningful. A code could also be thought of as a pattern.

B. Symbols
A symbol is something such as an object, picture, written word, sound, or particular mark that represents something else by association, resemblance, or convention. In other words, a symbol is something that stands in for/replaces another thing according to the rules of a code.

All language consists of symbols. The word "cat" is not an actual cat, but represents your thought or concept of a cat.

CAT
LE CHAT
GATO
KATZE
貓
KOT
INGOBE
(ש"ע) חתול

Psychology has found that people, and even animals, can respond to symbols as if they were the objects they represent. Pavlov's dogs salivated when they heard a sound which they associated with food, even if there was no food.

All verbal communication uses symbols and codes (words and grammar). All languages (including Mathematics and Computer Programming) are rule based and are, therefore, codes (for example, English is a code). Remember that language is NOT our only means of communication. We can use: * Pictures * Photographs * Symbols * Traffic Signs

Everything in the world, around us, has some sort of meaning and is a symbol for us in some way. NOTHING IS WITHOUT MEANING. That is why some anthropologists, psychologists and philosophers call humans “The Symbolic Species”.
We, however, must know the RULES to understand the signs (for example, a red robot means stop. But try saying that to a taxi-driver!).

ENCODING
This is a cognitive (thought) process involving the transforming of ideas and feelings into symbols and organising them into a message. It is the process of constructing or producing messages using a code.

DECODING
This is the process of transforming the messages received from someone else into your own ideas and feelings. In other words, it is the interpreting and understanding of messages using a code.

In order to think of this process, consider an M-NET or DSTV decoder. They take one set of radio/satellite signals and transform them into signals that the TV can understand. We do the same with the messages we receive from others: we take the sounds (codes) and transform them into understandable messages.

We are so used to encoding and decoding that we are hardly aware of it, especially when we share the same language. For example, if you are angry and say, “Go jump in a lake” you don't expect the person to literally do just that!

We become very aware when trying to speak a foreign language that encoding and decoding, in such a situation, is not automatic and easy. When we are speaking or listening to a foreign language, then we consciously try to encode and decode messages and often we hear words that we do not understand — such words are an example of semantic noise.

Read the following and you can understand why!

CHANNEL
The channel and medium are difficult concepts to grasp and many textbooks do not explain them properly and use the terms interchangeably. The channel is the route by which the message travels and in humans this refers to our senses particularly our five senses of touch, hearing, smell, taste, and sight (but can also include feelings like hunger, balance, pain and temperature). You have to remember that sight, for example, is not just fixed to the human eye. Insect eyes and robot eyes are very different from human eyes, but they can all see. There are also senses which other animals have but that humans don’t possess. For example, bats have a sense called “echolocation” and sharks have a sense called “electroception”. Could you imagine what it would be like to be a bat? Imagine how a bat “echolocates” the world! How does a computer “perceive” the world?

It is the channel which is stimulated by information (the message). We only really become aware of the communication channel when it is cut off or not working properly. For example, many people when they have a migraine or food-poisoning suddenly develop blind spots in their field of vision. Without our channels, we would be completely locked out from the world around us.

MEDIUM
The medium is the physical manifestation of the channel and the physical means by which the message is transmitted. We see because of light waves and hear due to wave like changes in air pressure. We transmit messages through books (ink and paper), telephones (electronic and magnetic impulses), and radios (electromagnetic waves) to name a few. All of these are examples of mass communication and are sometimes referred to as mass media.

RECEIVER (RX)
The receiver decodes and processes the message (verbal and non-verbal) in order to extract the meaning (i.e. to understand what was said or done). The decoding and sharing of meaning is more successful if, obviously, the sender and receiver have more codes and symbols in common: * Physical (race, gender, age, etc.) * Psychological (frame of reference or attitudes, values, beliefs) * Social (status, wealth, heritage, etc.) * Intellectual (education, worldliness, hobbies, etc.) * Cultural (religion, language, food, dress, etc.)

What are the implications for a multicultural country like South Africa?

We all communicate and interpret messages differently and the way we interpret messages is influenced by attitudes, perceptions and frames of reference. If this is the case, then how do we agree on, and share meaning? The short answer is, through a continuous and circular process of sending messages and receiving feedback. Through time, however, we have come to agree to a general dictionary meaning or denotative meaning.

Denotative Meaning
This is the general meaning of a symbol that could be found in a dictionary. Denotative meaning is, in a sense, socially and historically objective — the meaning has been agreed upon by a certain society at a certain time.

Connotative Meaning
This is the meaning that is different and unique for everybody. It refers to all the various thoughts and feelings that immediately and vividly come to mind when a symbol is perceived. Connotative meaning, therefore, is subjective.

Consider the following picture on the right. What do you think is the denotative meaning? Can you think of nine different personal (connotative) meanings?

1. __________________________________________
2. __________________________________________
3. __________________________________________
4. __________________________________________
5. __________________________________________
6. __________________________________________
7. __________________________________________
8. __________________________________________
9. __________________________________________
10. __________________________________________

TO BE AN EFFECTIVE RECEIVER, YOU MUST HAVE GOOD PERCEPTUAL (LISTENING AND OBSERVING) SKILLS IN ORDER TO DECODE VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL SIGNS, AS WELL AS THE WILLINGNESS TO HAVE AN INQUISITIVE AND OPEN MIND!

FEEDBACK(stop group K)...tues 2x and thurs1
Feedback is the receiver’s response to the sender’s message and it indicates whether meaning was shared. Feedback is the information we receive in exchange for messages we have sent. When the receiver gives feedback, he/she is, in effect, becoming the sender of a message (the feedback).

Besides being verbal and/or non-verbal, feedback can also be positive or negative and internal or external.

A. Positive Feedback
Positive feedback reinforces and encourages the original communicative behaviour(s). For example, suppose you are telling your friend a story, and the friend looks interested and constantly replies, “Tell me more” — then the friend’s feedback behaviour (both verbal and non-verbal) can be classified as positive since they are enhancing what you are doing, as well as encouraging, you to continue.

B. Negative Feedback
Negative feedback discourages and deters the original communicative behaviour(s). For example, using the above scenario, your friend was looking bored and at one point snaps, “Oh, shut up!” — then the friend’s feedback is clearly negative since they are disinterested in sharing meaning.

Please be aware that negative and positive feedback has nothing to do with the moral value of the original or feedback value (i.e. whether the behaviours are “good” or “evil”, etc.), but only whether the communication episode (and sharing of meaning) will continue or be stopped.

A. Internal Feedback
Internal Feedback is a form of Intrapersonal Communication and occurs when you assess yourself and the situation while communicating with someone or yourself. Have you ever been in a situation where you have thought to yourself, “I should not have said that…” — this is an often experienced form of internal feedback. Becoming happy, angry or sad due to what a person has just said or done, is also a form of internal feedback.

B. External Feedback
This is the feedback you receive from the other party involved in the conversation. Perhaps you smile at a good-looking person, and they smile back at you: the smile you get is non-verbal positive external feedback! Can you explain why?

Our behaviour and feedback influence other people’s behaviour. So, we need to accept responsibility for communication problems that we experience in relationships; for example, miscommunication between, say, a father and a son, or a lecturer and a student (hint, hint!).

CONTEXT
Communication does not happen in a vacuum or a void, but within a context: this context influences, shapes and constrains the communication. For example, depending on the environment, sometimes communication is restricted or encouraged. Think about situations where these could happen such as a place of worship versus a football stadium or the bedroom, etc.

There are 5 dimensions of the context:

1. The Physical Context/Place
This refers to the external physical environment in which communication takes place: lecture rooms, stadia, parks, coffee shops, houses, etc… This dimension includes environmental conditions (temperature, weather, etc.).

2. Social Context
This is defined by the nature of the relationship. It involves the status relationships between the participants, the roles they play, the norms and cultural values of society, their friendliness or unfriendliness, formality of informality and their humour or seriousness of a situation. Most of us interact in different ways when talking to parents, teachers, friends, etc. The status of each communicator and the relationship between the communicators will affect the style of communication (contrast communicating with a friend with communicating with your boss). The number of people you are talking to also has a bearing on the kind of conversation you will have: speaking to a friend will be different from speaking to crowd/group (interpersonal communication compared to mass communication).

3. Historical Context/Time
This is the background of previous communication episodes that have occurred between the participants as well as the present time of day. Think of present day South Africa — historical issues, such as apartheid, influence communication or the lack of it (compare historical time frames like the freedom of the press during apartheid and now). The history that you share with other people also influences communication. Take the language between a husband and wife. If the husband asks his wife if she enjoyed it last night then an eavesdropper might think of something (“naughty”) else, whereas the husband simply meant the movie!

The time of day is also important and will also affect the style and content of the message. A meeting at 09:00 in the morning is more likely to be productive than a meeting scheduled for 16:00 in the afternoon. Why? What time is best for lectures?

4. Psychological Context
This is determined by moods or feelings of the person. Stress can make someone respond with anger where, ordinarily, they might have acted calmly.

5. Cultural Context
This is a set of beliefs, values and norms that are shared by a large group. When communicating with others, we often assume that they have the same cultural background as ourselves. We, however, have to realise that this is not the case in our country as South Africa is comprised of many different cultures: Western, Eastern, and African (i.e. South Africa is a multicultural society).

And to make matters even more complicated, we have sub-cultures, too! A sub-culture is a group of people who live in the dominant culture but have their own set of beliefs, values and norms that guide their behaviour (for example, Hip-Hop or Goth cultures).

Culture is an inseparable part of the communication process. For some cultures, speaking loudly in public is an acceptable practice while in others it is considered rude. The same applies to burping, shaking hands, wearing certain items, etc.

We all have a Frame of Reference or internal background against which we perceive and evaluate the symbolic world around us. This background includes personal experience and experiences as part of a social cultural group. We bring these experiences with us into every act of communication. In other words, experiences that make us what we are today directly influence how we communicate. Therefore, we have a natural urge to communicate from a subjective point of view. In order to become a good communicator we need to be aware of how our experiences colour our communication and attempt to understand how other people’s experiences colour theirs. We need to develop this awareness in order to become skilled communicators and avoid misunderstandings. The art of communication is therefore a skill that can be learned.

NOISE/INTERFERENCE/BARRIERS
Noise or Interference is anything that distorts or interferes with a message. Noise is not necessarily only sound but can be any external (outside) or internal (psychological) stimulus that prevents the sender from encoding efficiently and the receiver from correctly decoding the message. Examples of noise can be an overheated room, a horrible pungent smell, a flickering fluorescent light, daydreaming, etc. Noise or Interference is obviously a barrier to effective communication because it prevents the sharing of meaning (i.e. proper decoding and understanding of the message).

Noise can be placed into three main categories: External Noise, Semantic Noise and Internal Noise. Let’s consider each in turn.

A. External Noise
This term refers to any stimuli external to the communicators which interfere with the production or reception of the message. This includes any irrelevant stimuli that detract from the essential message. Examples of this are traffic sounds (hooters, car engines, tyre rumble, etc.), loud music, static on the telephone line and a snowy or blurry picture on the television. External noise is not always unpleasant (as the above examples portray): you might be trying to study for an exam and you hear a favourite song in the background. This song then draws your attention away from studying and interferes with your concentration. A lot of drivers have automobile accidents because they become distracted by a sexy person on the side of the road!

External noise is temporary as you can remove yourself from the situation or alter your environment.

B. Semantic Noise
This occurs when the receiver does not attribute the same meaning to words as the the sender. This obviously happens when you do not understand a foreign language or culture. Another obvious example has to do with the connotative (subjective) meanings each person gives to a symbol (i.e. word). For a teenager, “late” may refer to any period after midnight, while for the parents, “late” means 23:00 hours.

Sometimes the same object may have different names in the same language. For example, we use the word “robot” in South Africa, but the British use “traffic light”. Meanings of words can also change from country to country: in the USA, a “pavement” is called a “sidewalk”; the “boot” of a car is the “trunk”; a “biscuit” is called a “cookie”. And finally, words change meaning from one generation to the next: “Gay” used to mean “vibrant” but today it means “homosexual”.

Slang and jargon also cause semantic noise. When communicators use slang, misunderstanding and ambiguities can easily arise: “I’m having a gas on grass!” What do you think this could mean? Jargon can often sound like a completely foreign language. Consider the following (this is written in English!):

The core ontological premise of phenomenology is that reality is merely a projection of human consciousness. Although subjectivism entails a certain amount of solipsism, an extreme metaphysical position, which is perfectly coherent and consistent, can arise: that of idealism. Such a position is a staple of the Sci-Fi and Horror genres, as illustrated by the futuristic yet classic film-noir of “Bladerunner” and “Dark City”.

C. Internal Noise
This refers to interference found within the receivers themselves. Examples are headaches, nausea, tiredness, hunger and daydreaming. These interferences are short-term in nature and pass quite quickly with time. Internal noise can also include thoughts, feelings, perceptions, attitudes (low self-esteem, excessive shyness or extroversion) and stereotypes that interfere with the message. Unfortunately, these types of noise are more difficult to change and overcome. Like a bad habit, they require consistent discipline and effort to beat.

Probably the most serious of Internal Noise and the biggest barrier to effective communication is Stereotyping.

End of comm.. theory

STEREOTYPING
The term "stereotype" derives from Greek στερεός (stereos) "solid, firm" & τύπος (tupos) "blow, impression, engraved mark" hence "solid impression". The term, in its modern psychology sense, was first used by Walter Lippmann in his 1922 work Public Opinion although in the printing sense it was first coined 1798. In the printing sense a stereotype is a character stamp:

In communication theory a stereotype is a preconceived idea or perceptual predisposition that attributes certain characteristics (in general) to all the specific members of the class or set. The term is often used with a negative connotation when referring to an oversimplified, exaggerated, or demeaning assumption that a particular individual possesses the characteristics associated with the class (as a whole) due to his or her membership in it. Stereotypes can be used to deny individuals respect or legitimacy based on their membership in that group.

THE BLACK MAN IS ALWAYS A SUSPECT

There is sometimes a kernel of truth in stereotypes when they are applied to groups. It is probably true to say, for instance, that English-speaking and Afrikaans-speaking white South Africans have certain characteristics which are peculiar to them "as a group", but when applied to a specific individual, most stereotypes are highly inaccurate-and many are false.

Stereotypes often form the basis of prejudice and are usually employed to explain real or imaginary differences due to: 1. Race 2. Gender 3. Religion 4. Ethnicity 5. Socio-economic Class 6. Physical Disability 7. Occupation 8. Age 9. Physical Appearance

A stereotype can be a conventional and oversimplified perception, conception (understanding), opinion, or image based on the belief that there are attitudes, appearances, or behaviors shared by all members of a group. Stereotypes are forms of social and cultural consensus rather than individual judgments. Stereotypes are sometimes formed by a previous illusory correlation, a false association between two variables that are loosely correlated if correlated at all. Stereotypes may be occasionally positive.

Labeling occurs when someone or something is labeled as having a certain fixed characteristic or as being of a certain nature, usually on the grounds of insufficient evidence and without taking contextual factors into account.

On the whole stereotypes tend to be deep-rooted and are very difficult to eliminate. Research has shown that strong stereotypes (generalizations, prejudices) cannot be eliminated by simply alerting the people who hold them to their dangers: there must be an actual change of fundamental attitudes; virtually a change of personality. It is essential that all people guard against negative stereotypes which endanger effective communication between individuals from different groups. It is important to bear in mind that stereotypes (and other sets) can also harm communication between people from the same group.

Stereotyping is often closely related to cultural differences. Therefore the generalisations may be related to a person's culture, race, gender, sexual orientation, religion etc. As a result, we tend to prejudge people who come from certain group, based on the generalised ideas which we hold about that group.

Thus, for example, if we have a stereotype that all women in business are secretaries when we communicate with a woman who, is in fact, a manager in the company, communication is likely to be offensive and ineffective. Similarly, a person from one cultural group should be careful not to have the attitude that everyone from another cultural group is lazy and dishonest. If someone does hold this particular stereotype when they communicate with someone from that cultural group, they will do so in a way which implies that the person is lazy and dishonest: an attitude which will certainly not ensure good communication.

1. Reasons For Stereotyping
One reason people stereotype is that it is too difficult to take in all of the complexities of other people. Even though stereotyping is inaccurate, it is efficient. Categorization is an essential human capability because it enables us to simplify, predict, and organize our world. Once one has sorted and organized everyone into tidy categories, there is every incentive to avoid processing new or unexpected information about each individual. Assigning general group characteristics to members of that group saves time and satisfies the need to predict the social world.

People also tend to stereotype because of another the need to feel good about oneself. Stereotypes protect one from anxiety and enhance self-esteem. By designating one’s own group as the standard or normal group and assigning others to groups considered inferior or abnormal, it provides one with a sense of worth. In-groups are viewed as normal and superior, and are generally the group that one associates with or aspires to join. An out-group is simply all the other groups. They are seen as lesser or inferior than the in-groups.

Childhood influences are some of the most complex and influential factors in developing stereotypes. Though they can be absorbed at any age, stereotypes are usually acquired in early childhood under the influence of parents, teachers, peers, and the media. Once a stereotype is learned, it often becomes self-perpetuating.

Many scientific theories have derived from the sociological studies of stereotyping and prejudicial thinking. During the early studies it was believed or suggested that stereotypes were only used by rigid, repressed, and authoritarian people. Sociologists concluded that this was a result of conflict, poor parenting, and inadequate mental and emotional development. They now know differently. Scientist and theorists have concluded that stereotypes do not only exist, but are actually a never ending chain of thoughts.

Certain circumstances can affect the way an individual stereotypes. For instance: Studies have shown that women stereotype more negatively than men, and that women read into appearance more than men. Some theorists argue in favor of the conceptual connection and that one’s own subjective thought about someone is sufficient information to make assumptions about that individual. Other theorists argue that at minimum there must be a casual connection between mental states and behavior to make assumptions or stereotypes. Thus results and opinions may vary according to circumstance and theory. Stereotyping is principally theory and is not based much on factual evidence. An example of a common, incorrect assumption is that of assuming certain internal characteristics based on external appearance. The explanation for one’s actions is his or her internal state (goals, feeling, personality, traits, motives, values, and impulses), not his or her appearance.

Stereotypes focus upon and thereby exaggerate differences between groups. Competition between groups minimizes similarities and magnifies differences. This makes it seem as if groups are very different when in fact they may be more alike than different. For example, among African Americans, identity as an American citizen is more salient than racial background; that is, African Americans are more American than African. Yet within American culture, Black and White Americans are increasingly seen as completely different groups.

BECOMING BETTER COMMUNICATORS
HOW CAN WE IMPROVE OUR COMMUNICATION SKILLS? * We can try to make it easier for others to give meaning to our messages. * We can gain a greater awareness of ourselves and what happens when we communicate. * We can understand better how we influence the communication process. * We can become more aware that communication is a conscious process and does not only happen by chance.

OVERCOMING STEREOTYPING * Try to avoid generalisations. Realise that every person is an individual and unique (just like everyone else). * Have empathy with the sender or receiver. Try to feel and see the situation as they do. * Take the context into consideration. Perhaps you don’t quite understand the cultural context, or the other person is having a bad day (psychological context). * Try to be objective and take all the relevant details into account. Ask yourself, “Is the initial credibility (first impression) I’ve given the sender/receiver correct?”

SOME EXCERCISES
Below are some exercises taken from actual tests and assignments. Challenge yourself and see how well you do...

1.1.7 EXCERCISES PARAGRAPH WRITING

1.1.7.1 Think of a communication episode in which you where involved where communication failed. Explain why communication failed and suggest ways in which it could be improved. (15)

1.1.7.2 The rector of the university delivers a speech on the use of drugs on campus. To ensure that everyone hears him, he uses a microphone. While delivering his speech, some students are talking among themselves and making a noise. At times the rector uses words and phrases that are difficult to understand. After the speech, some of the students applaud while others simply rush out of the auditorium. Identify and describe the different elements of the communication process in this situation. (15)

2. More Exercises

Carefully study the following extract. In a paragraph of about 12-15 lines, analyze the following episode in terms of the communication process. In your answer you may refer to the following components:-the sender, the receiver, encoding, decoding, feedback, as well as intentional and unintentional verbal and non-verbal communication. (15)

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TO PUSH OR NOT TO
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1 ------------------------------------------------- Woken by knocking on the door at 3 a.m., a man refused to answer it until nagged by his wife to do so. “I’m sorry to bother you, but could you give me a push?” said a stranger.
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2 ------------------------------------------------- “No way at this time,” snarled the man, shutting the door and returning to bed. “How rude of you," his wife admonished him. “Remember the night we broke down in pouring rain and a stranger helped us? What if he had told us to go away?”
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3 ------------------------------------------------- Shamed, the man dressed, went outside and called, “Hey, do you still want a push?” From the darkness, a voice responded, “Yes, please.”
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4 ------------------------------------------------- “Where are you?” yelled the house owner. “Over here on the swing,” came the reply.
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------------------------------------------------- - Shane Taylor
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- from Reader’s Digest, 2006

QUESTION 3

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Feedback is the response to a message. It can be external or internal and can either reinforce (positive) or discourage behaviour (negative) (Tubbs and Moss, 1994)

Refer to the above cartoon. In a paragraph of about 15 lines, discuss the various forms of feedback within this communication episode. (15)

Exercise 4: The Case Study

Read the following case study and answer the questions that follow.

"One morning, on his way to work, Steven Jacobs' car, a red Porsche, coughs, splutters and finally comes to a grinding halt at the side of the road. Steven, unable to start it again, abandons the car and thumbs a lift to work. Twenty minutes pass and Steven is getting visibly distressed at the public's unhelpfulness.

Just then a half-full combi taxi draws up alongside him. Nervously, looking around self-consciously, he climbs into the taxi. Throughout the journey Steven stares fixedly out of the window, while his fingers play with his ring.

As he and a fellow passenger alight from the taxi, Steven gives a visible sigh of relief. His fellow traveller chuckles. "Are you surprised you got out here in one piece?" By now Steven is very late for an important meeting scheduled with a client. On his way to his office, he rushed past his secretary's desk and gabbled, "Susan, my Porsche is on the side of the road between Main and Fourteenth; get it towed to my usual mechanic! And don't mess this job up, it's simple enough." As he walks into his office Susan hears muttering, "Stupid blonde bimbo; who needs them anyhow?"

Wanting to impress her boss with her efficiency, Susan immediately phones Hans of Deutsche Autoworks. Because of continual rain, the telephone line is very faint and Hans has difficulty hearing the message. He does, however, tell Susan to "leave it to me".

At two o'clock Steven storms into the office and yells, "Susan, I've just been in touch with Hans. He tells me they still haven't got the Porsche in the workshop. His towtruck driver couldn't find the car. Why didn't you tell him my car was stuck in Parkhurst? I knew I couldn't trust you with the simplest job!"

Question 1:
How does Steven express his sense of social status? (1)
Question 2:
What is the significance of Steven's car being red? (1)
Question 3:
What kind of communication does Steven use in order to obtain a lift? (1)
Question 4:
Traditionally, minibus taxis have been part of Black South African culture. Should white South Africans decide to make more use of this taxi system, how would they have to change their behaviour in order to hail a taxi? (2)
Question 5:
Steven displayed a certain attitude towards using the taxi.

5.1 In Communication terminology, what do we call these fixed (rigid) Attitudes?
(1)
5.2 How was Steven's attitude displayed during his journey to town?
(3)
Question 6:
In Steven's behaviour towards his secretary, Susan, he shows evidence of both a. a FILTER; and b. INTERFERENCE

6.1 Provide an example of each from the text. (4)
6.2 What is the essential difference between FILTERS and INTERFERENCE? (2)
Question 7:
Communication fulfils certain basic human needs. Which of Susan's needs are being damaged by Steven's behaviour? Explain as fully as possible. (4)
Question 8:
Consider the communication situation between Susan and Hans of Deutsche Autoworks.
Identify:

8.1 The Tx 8.2 The Rx 8.3 The medium 8.4 The code 8.5 The channel 8.6 Interference 8.7 Feedback
(7)
26 EXERCISE 5

PLACE THE CORRECT LETTER NEXT TO THE NUMBER

1. Communication is:

a) a transference of ideas b) to impart or transmit feelings, ideas, thoughts c) the exchange of meanings between people through a common system of symbols d) all of the above.

2. The roles we take on in our one-to-one communication:

a) change daily b) are decided by culture c) reflect your true emotions d) are indications of dishonesty.

3. The physical means by which two communicators have access to each other is known as:

a) The medium b) The message c) Interference d) The channel.

4. In Mathematics, the numbers are:

a) The message b) A medium c) A code d) A channel.

5. Which of the following is an example of external interference?

a) A feeling of exhaustion b) Traffic sounds c) Worry d) A headache

6. A stereotype is:

a) A fixed idea about an identifiable group of people. b) A prejudiced person. c) Any groups of people who are prejudiced about people different from themselves. d) An individual who belongs to a specific group.

7. A self-fulfilling prophecy (SFP) is:

a) A person who is in the process of self-development. b) A belief that causes itself to become true because of expectation. c) A belief about a group of people which is widely held and thus known to be true. d) All of the above.

8. When you do badly at the end of the term, your father says to you, "I knew you were going to fail, what can you expect from someone like you?" This comment can be interpreted as a sign of all the following except …

a) the Pygmalion effect b) the Golem effect c) stereotyping d) the self-fulfilling prophecy.

9. The confusion that arises when one word is used in different ways between two communicators is known as:

a) Noise b) Internal interference c) Semantic interference d) Disturbance.

10. André feels that Blessing just can't cut it as a manager - after all he's an affirmative action promotee.

André is showing

a) Selective perception b) Stereotyping c) Good judgement d) Realistic perception of the problem.

11. Riaz Cachalia has just finished evaluating Lebo Mogále. In his evaluation Riaz has given Lebo a high overall rating as a manager although his stores profit performance has not been very good this year. However, he is honest has a good working relationship with the Union and fewest employee complaints of any manager.

Riaz is practising

a) Stereotyping b) Good judgement c) Selective attention d) Acute perception

12. SITUATION:

You are attending a speech made by a local community leader who wants to increase the taxes on water and sanitation in order to build another health clinic. You are a newspaper reporter listening to the speech and have to write a report about the speech.

12.1 A mother gets up in the meeting to complain loudly that she cannot afford higher taxes and can hardly feed her children. As a result, you lose the thread of the speaker's argument. This is due to ….

a) Semantic noise b) External interference c) Internal interference d) Psychological interference.

12.2 By responding in this matter, the mother is mainly fulfilling the following need:

a) Social b) Practical c) Identity d) Physical.

12.3 The speaker explained that only people who earn above a certain income would be taxed. The mother's failure to hear this, may be due to selective ……

a) involvement b) reflection c) attention d) exchange.

12.4 A financial authority was sitting next to you and, as a result of his experience and knowledge of economics, he made it clear that he was not prepared to listen to the speaker's arguments. His reaction represents a/an ….. barrier or filter

a) external b) internal c) social d) psychological filter.

EXERCISE 6
THEORY OF COMMUNICATION

Read the following passage. Certain words have been omitted. Fill in the missing words from the list of words given below the passage. Twelve terms have been given but you will need only ten words. Choose the correct ten. Do not write out the passage. Fill in the word in the space provided.

Human communication is the process of creating (2.1) _________ between two or more people. Communication is effective when the (2.2) ___________ as it was initiated and intended by the (2.3) _____________ corresponds closely with the idea as it is perceived and responded to by the (2.4) _____________. The access route for the communication process is called the (2.5) ______________. The message has to be (2.6) ___________ by means of a (2.7) ________________ e.g. symbols, mathematics, road signs, facial expressions, or a language written or spoken. To be fully effective, communication must be (2.8) ______________: the response of the Rx must be perceived by the Tx, and the Tx should always be open to response. When this situation occurs, (2.9) ___________ is possible. Communication can be adversely affected by (2.10) ___________, prejudices which we absorb culturally.

Channel Meaning/mutual understanding
Tx Stereotyping
Two-way Interference
Feedback Physiological filters
Transmitted Rx
Medium Stimulus

EXERCISE 7

Indicate whether the following statements are True or False.

| True/False | 1. Communication is an attempt by two people to communicate. | | 2. Before a message is sent, there must be a stimulus. | | 3. A medium is the physical means by which we communicate. | | 4. A channel is the means used to communicate. | | 5. When we communicate, we try to convey meaning. | | 6. The sender codes his message before sending it. | | 7. If there is no feedback the communication process can still be considered successful. | | 8. The "environment" or "background" refers to the physical and personal experiences of the communicator. | | 9. Face to face communication is a way to overcome problems in communicating. | | 10. It is impossible not to communicate. | | 11. There is an "ideal" way to communicate. | | 12. The ability to communicate is "inborn”. It cannot be learned. | | 13. Communication is not always a good thing. | | 14. Meanings rest in people, not words. | | 15. The competent communicator uses the situation and the relationship/s appropriately. | |