alfred adler and william james

Best Known For: Alfred Adler
By Kendra Cherry
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Individual Psychology
The concept of the inferiority complex
President of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, 1910
Birth:
Alfred Adler was born February 7, 1870.
Death:
He died May 28, 1937.
Early Life:
Alfred Adler was born in Vienna, Austria. He suffered rickets as a young child which prevented him from walking until the age of four. Due to his health problems as a child, Adler decided he would become a physician and, after graduating from the University of Vienna in 1895 with a medical degree, began his career as an ophthalmologist and later switched to general practice.
Career and Later Life:
Alder soon turned his interests toward the field of psychiatry. In1902, Sigmund Freud invited him to join a psychoanalytic discussion group. This group met each Wednesday in Freud 's home and would eventually grow to become the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. After serving as President of the group for a time, Adler left in part because of his disagreements with some of Freud 's theories.
While Adler had played a key role in the development of psychoanalysis, he was also one of the first major figures to break away to form his own school of thought. He was quick to point out that while he had been a colleague of Freud 's, he was in no way a disciple of the famous Austrian psychiatri
In 1912, Alfred Adler founded the Society of Individual Psychology. Adler 's theory suggested that every person has a sense of inferiority. From childhood, people work toward overcoming this inferiority by asserting their superiority over others. Adler referred to this as 'striving for superiority ' and believed that this drive was the motivating force behind human behaviors, emotions, and thoughts.
Contributions to Psychology:
Alfred Adler 's theories have played an essential role in a number of areas including therapy and child development. Alder 's ideas also influenced other important psychologists including:
Abraham Maslow
Carl Rogers
Karen Horney
Rollo May
Erich Fromm
Albert Ellis
Today, his ideas and concepts are often referred to as Adlerian psychology.
While Adler had converted to Christianity, his Jewish heritage led to the Nazi 's closing down his clinics during the 1930s. As a result, Adler emigrated to the United States to take a professor position at the Long Island College of Medicine. In 1937, Adler went on a lecture tour and suffered a fatal heart attack in Aberdeen, Scotland.
His family lost track of his cremated remains shortly after his death and the ashes were presumed lost before being discovered in 2007 at a crematorium in Edinburgh, Scotland. In 2011, 74 years after his death, Adler 's ashes were returned to Vienna, Austria. In an interview with The Guardian, his granddaughter explained, "Vienna was essentially Adler 's home, his birth home and there was the triangle, you know, Adler, Jung and Freud, and all had that sense of coming out of that place, so there 's something rather fitting about him going back there."
Selected Publications
Adler, A. (1925). The Practice and Theory of Individual Psychology. London: Routledge.
Adler, A. (1956). The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler. H. L. Ansbacher and R. R. Ansbacher (Eds.). New York: Harper Torchbooks.
References
Boeree, C.G. (1997). Alfred Adler. http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/adler.html
Rattner, J. (1983). Alfred Adler. New York: F. Ungar.
Carrell, S. (2011). Ashes of psychoanalysis co-founder Alfred Adler found after 74 years. The Guardian. Best Known For: William James Biography (1842-1910)
By Kendra Cherry Pragmatism
Functionalism
James-Lange Theory of Emotion
Often called the father of American psychology
Timeline of Events:
Born January 11, 1842 in New York City.
1869 - Received M.D. from Harvard.
1875 - Began teaching psychology at Harvard.
1882 - Death of William 's father, Henry James Sr.
1890 - Published The Principles of Psychology.
1892 - Turned lab over to Hugo Munsterberg.
1897 - Published Will to Believe and Other Essays
1907 - Published Pragmatism and officially resigned from Harvard.
Died August 26, 1910 at the age of 68.
William James - Early Life:
William James was born into an affluent family. His father was deeply interested in philosophy and theology and strove to provide his children with a rich education.
The James children traveled to Europe frequently, attended the best possible schools, and were immersed in culture and art, which apparently paid off - William James went on to become one of the most important figures in psychology, while brother Henry James became one of the most acclaimed American novelists.
Early in school, James expressed an interest in becoming a painter. While Henry James Sr. was known as an unusually permissive and liberal father, he wanted William to study science or philosophy. Only after William persisted in his interest did Henry permit his son to formally study painting.
After studying painting with the artist William Morris Hunt for more than a year, James abandoned his dream of being a painter and enrolled at Harvard to study chemistry. While two of James ' brothers enlisted to serve in the American Civil War, William and Henry did not due to health problems.
Career:
As the family money began to dwindle, William realized he would need to support himself and switched to Harvard Medical School. Unhappy with medicine as well, he left on an expedition with naturalist Louis Agassiz, although the experience was not a happy one. "I was, body and soul, in a more indescribably hopeless, homeless and friendless state than I ever want to be in again," he later wrote.
Suffering from health problems and severe depression, James spent the next two years in France and Germany. It was during this time that he studied with Hermann von Helmholtz and became increasingly interested in psychology.
After graduating from Harvard Medical School in 1869, James continued to sink into depression. After a period of inactivity, the president of Harvard offered James a position as an instructor. While he famously commented that "the first lecture on psychology I ever heard being the first I ever gave," James accepted the job and went on to teach at Harvard for the next 35 years. James also founded one of the first psychology laboratories in the United States.
His classic textbook The Principles of Psychology (1890) was widely acclaimed, but some were critical of James ' personal, literary tone. "It is literature," psychologist Wilhelm Wundt famously commented, "it is beautiful, but it is not psychology." Two years later, James published a condensed version of the work titled Psychology: The Briefer Course. The two books were widely used by students of psychology and were known to most as "the James" and "the Jimmy" respectively.
William James - Theory:
Pragmatism
James wrote considerably on the concept of pragmatism. According to pragmatism, the truth of an idea can never be proven. James proposed we instead focus on what he called the "cash value," or usefulness, of an idea.

Functionalism
James opposed the structuralist focus on introspection and breaking down mental events to the smallest elements. Instead, James focused on the wholeness of an event, taking into the impact of the environment on behavior.

James-Lange Theory of Emotion
The James-Lange theory of emotion proposes that an event triggers a physiological reaction, which we then interpret. According to this theory, emotions are caused by our interpretations of these physiological reactions. Both James and the Danish physiologist Carl Lange independently proposed the theory.
Influence on Psychology
In addition to his own enormous influence, many of James ' students went on to have prosperous and influential career in psychology. Some of James ' students included Mary Whiton Calkins, Edward Thorndike, G. Stanley Hall and John Dewey.
Selected Works by William James
James, William (1890) The Principles of Psychology. Classics in the History of Psychology, an internet resource developed by Christopher D. Green of York University, Toronto, Ontario.
James, William (1897) The Will to Believe
James, William (1907) Pragmatism: A new name for some old ways of thinking. New York: Longman Green and Co.
Biographies of William James
Myers, Gerald. (2001) William James: His Life and Thought. Yale University Press.
Simon, Linda (1999) Genuine Reality: A Life of William James. University Of Chicago Press. Carl Jung Biography (1875-1961)
By Kendra Cherry
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Carl Jung, 1912
Image from the Wikimedia Commons
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carl jung analytical psychology collective unconscious history of psychology
Best Known For:
Studies of the human psyche.
Dream analysis
The collective unconscious
Archetypes
Birth and Death:
Carl Jung was born July 26, 1875
He died June 6, 1961
Early Life:
Carl Gustav Jung was born in Kesswil, Switzerland to father Paul Achilles Jung, a pastor, and mother Emilie Preiswerk. He was their fourth, but only surviving child. His mother was frequently depressed and absent from the household, but her mood eventually lifted once the Jung 's moved closer to her family. Jung later described himself was an introverted and solitary child, saying that he was most happy when he was left alone to his thoughts.
At the age of 12, Jung was pushed to the ground so hard by another classmate that he lost consciousness. Jung started fainting anytime he was supposed to go to school or do homework. His parents and doctors became convinced that the boy might have epilepsy. After Jung overheard his father confessing his concerns that his son would never be able to work and support himself, Jung developed a renewed focus on academics.
While he still fainted several times after he began studying again, he was eventually able to overcome the problem and return to school. Jung never experienced this problem with fainting again, but he later explained that the experience served as his first encounter with neurosis.
Career:
Jung decided to study medicine, but also developed an interest in spiritual phenomena while in school. It was this fascination with medicine and spirituality that led him into the field of psychiatry, which he viewed as a combination of his two interests. In 1902, he completed his doctoral dissertation, titled "On the Psychology and Pathology of So-Called Occult Phenomena" and graduated from University of Basel with a medical degree.
In 1903, he married Emma Rauschenbach. While the two remained married until her death in 1955, Jung reportedly continued to have romantic relationships with other women. One of these other women included his first patient at the Burgholzli Psychiatric Hospital, a young Russian woman named Sabina Spielrein. Based on letters exchanged between the two, the affair lasted for several years. Eventually, Jung broke off their romance after determining that it was having a negative impact on his career.
Early in his career, Jung worked with psychiatric patients at the University of Zürich asylum. In 1906, he wrote Studies in Word Association and sent a copy to Sigmund Freud. The event served as the beginning of a friendship between the two men. When the two finally met in person in 1907, they reportedly spent more than 12 hours talking non-stop.
His time spent working with Sigmund Freud had a major impact on Jung’s later theories and helped him develop a fascination for the unconscious mind. Jung wanted to further understanding of the human mind through dreams, myth, art and philosophy. Initially, Freud viewed Jung as his protégé, but the friendship began to dissolve as Jung started to develop his own ideas that diverged from Freud 's views.
Eventually, Jung began to separate from Freudian theory, rejecting Freud 's emphasis on sex as the sole source of behavior motivation. It was during this period of intense self-analysis that Jung became increasingly interested in dreams and symbols, later using what he learned during this time as the basis for his theories of psychology.
Jung became more organized about his theoretical approach, broke from psychodynamic theories and formed his own theory called Analytical Psychology. Parting with Freud was certainly not easy. Freud closed ranks among his other followers. Jung 's colleagues in the psychoanalytic community turned against him, as did many of his former friends.
In the six year period that followed, Jung devoted himself to exploring his own subconscious. He recorded his experience in a previously unpublished book known at The Red Book and continued to write and illustrate the book over the next fifteen years. In 2009, the book wasfinally published, allowing readers an unparalleled look into the mind of one of psychology 's most fascinating figures. "To the superficial observer," Jung wrote in the epilogue he penned in 1959, "it will appear like madness."
Jung believed the human psyche exists in three parts: the ego (the conscious mind), the personal unconscious and the collective unconscious. Jung believed the collective unconscious was a reservoir of all the experience and knowledge of the human species.
Jung also believed that the process of individuation was essential in order for a person to become whole and fully developed as a human being. Individuation is a process in which the various parts of a person, including the conscious and unconscious, become completely integrated so that the individual becomes his or her "true self." "In general, it is the process by which individual beings are formed and differentiated [from other human beings]," Jung explained in Psychological Types. "In particular, it is the development of the psychological individual as a being distinct from the general, collective psychology."
After suffering from a brief illness, Jung died in his home on June 6, 1961 in Zurich.
Carl Jung 's Contributions to Psychology
While Jungian theory has numerous critics, Carl Jung 's work left a notable impact on psychology. His concepts of introversion and extraversion have contributed to personality psychology and also influenced psychotherapy. His advice to a patient suffering from alcoholism led to the formation of Alcoholics Anonymous, which has helped millions of people suffering from alcohol dependence.
Selected Works by Carl Jung
Jung, C. G. (1904–1907) Studies in Word Association.
Jung, C. G., & Long, C. E. (1917) Collected Papers on Analytical Psychology
Jung, C. G., & Shamdasani, S. (1932) The Psychology of Kundalini Yoga
Jung, C. G. (1947) Essays on Contemporary Events
Jung, C. G. (1988) Psychology and Western Religion
Biographies of Carl Jung
Jung, C. G., & Jaffe A. (1962). Memories, Dreams, Reflections
References
Bair, D. (2003). Jung: A Biography. New York: Back Bay Books.
Boeree, G. C. (2006). Carl Jung. http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/jung.html
Jung, C. G. (1971). Psychological Types. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
Jung, C. G. (1989). Memories, Dreams, Reflections. Rev. ed., C. Winston & R. Winston, Trans. A. Jaffe, Ed. New York: Random House, Inc.yclopedia of old Biography

World Biography » Jo-Ki » Carl Jung Biography
Carl Jung Biographywww.notablebiographies.com › Jo-Ki
Born: July 26, 1875
Kesswil, Switzerland
Died: June 26, 1961
Küsnacht, Switzerland
Swiss psychologist and psychiatrist
The Swiss psychologist and psychiatrist Carl Jung was one of the major forces responsible for bringing psychological (having to do with the mind and its processes) thought and its theories into the twentieth century.
Jung 's youth and personal life
Carl Gustav Jung was born on July 26, 1875, in Kesswil, Switzerland, the son of a Protestant minister. At the age of four, the family moved to Basel. When he was six years old, Carl went to the village school in Klein-Huningen. His father also started teaching him Latin at this time. During his childhood, Jung preferred to be left alone to play by himself. He was happiest when he was in isolation with his thoughts.
As Jung grew older, his keen interest in a large variety of sciences, and the history of religion made the choice of a career quite difficult. However, he finally decided on medicine, which he studied at the University of Basel (1895–1900). He received his medical degree from the University of Zurich in 1902. Later he studied psychology (the scientific study of the mind and its processes) in Paris, France.
In 1903 Jung married Emma Rauschenbach. She was his loyal companion and scientific coworker until her death in 1955. The couple had five children, and lived in Küsnacht on the Lake of Zurich.
Career begins
Jung began his professional career in 1900 as an assistant to Eugen Bleuler (1857–1939) at the psychiatric clinic of the University of Zurich. During these years of his internship, Jung, with a few associates, worked out the so-called association experiment. This is a method of testing used to reveal affectively significant groups of ideas in the unconscious area of the psyche (the mind). These groups or "complexes" as Jung called them, would have a control over the affected person, and would encourage anxieties and inappropriate emotions.
When Jung read Sigmund Freud 's (1856–1939) Interpretation of Dreams, he found his own ideas and observations to be basically confirmed and furthered. He sent his publication Studies in Word Association (1904) to Freud, and this was the beginning of their work together, as well as their friendship, which lasted from 1907 to 1913. Jung was eager to explore the secrets of the unconscious psyche expressed by dreaming, fantasies, myths, fairy tales, superstition, and occultism (belief in supernatural powers or forces). But Freud had already worked out his theories about the basic cause of every psycho-neurosis (an emotional problem that becomes known through physical symptoms or through feelings of anxiety, depression, or fear) and also his belief that all the expressions of the unconscious (the part of the mind that is not a usual part of a person 's awareness) are hidden wish fulfillments. Jung felt more and more that these theories were scientific presumptions (beliefs that are based on expected outcomes), which did not do full justice to the expressions of unconscious psychic life. For him the unconscious not only is a disturbing factor causing psychic illnesses but also is basically the source of man 's creativeness and the roots of a person 's consciousness. With such ideas Jung came increasingly into conflict with Freud, who regarded Jung 's ideas as unscientific. Jung accused Freud of narrow-mindedness; Freud and his followers disapproved of Jung for his emphasis of the spiritual aspects of the psyche.
Jung 's work after Freud
Jung was bothered by his break with Freud. He began a deepened self-analysis (an examination of oneself) in order to gain all the honesty and firmness for his own journey into discovering the mysteries of the unconscious psyche. During the years from 1913 to 1921 Jung published only three important papers: "Two Essays on Analytical Psychology" (1916, 1917) and "Psychological Types" (1921). The "Two Essays" provided the basic ideas from which his later work was developed. He described his research on psychological typology (the classification of personalities by studying their similarities and differences)—that there are two basic classifications, or "two types of personalities," in the way they relate to the world: introversion and extroversion. Introversion, in which one has the characteristic of being self-involved, withdrawn, occupied with one 's "inner world." Extroversion, in which one relates to the world through social involvement and has interests outside of oneself and is "outgoing." He expressed the idea that it is the "personal equation" which, often unconsciously but in agreement with one 's own typology, influences how an individual observes and interacts with their world.
Next to Jung 's typology, his main contribution was his discovery that man 's fantasy life has a certain structure. There must be subtle active centers in the unconscious which control natural behavior and free imagination. These combine to form Jung 's concept of archetypes. An individual will dream on impulse, and these dreams will have a theme or story similar to a fairy tale, or a myth, from a time long past, that are unknown to the person dreaming. To Jung this meant that archetypal symptoms (memories of experiences of people from the past that are present in every person 's unconscious mind) belong to human beings of all ages and from all times; they are the expression of a collective body of man 's basic psychic nature. Many neurotic sufferings have happened due to a feeling of self-estrangement (the alienation of oneself from oneself) because of man 's creation of a logical framework and control of his dependence on these "memories" of experiences that exist in the unconscious.
In order to study archetypal patterns and processes, Jung visited so-called primitive tribes. He lived among the Pueblo Indians of New Mexico and Arizona in 1924 and 1925 and among the inhabitants of Mt. Elgon in Kenya during 1925 and 1926. He later visited Egypt and India. To Jung, the religious symbols and phenomenology (a system of beliefs developed by studying peoples understanding and awareness of themselves) of Buddhism and Hinduism and the teachings of Zen Buddhism and Confucianism all expressed differentiated experiences on the way to man 's inner world, a world which was badly neglected by Western civilization. Jung also searched for traditions in Western culture, which made up for its one-sided outgoing development toward reason and technology. He found these traditions in Gnosticism (belief that personal freedom comes through spiritual knowledge and understanding), Christian mysticism (the belief that instinct and spiritual feeling are the ways to find God), and, above all, occultism (knowledge or use of supernatural powers). Some of his major works are deep and clear psychological interpretations of alchemical (the ability and power to make common things special) writings, showing their living significance for understanding dreams and the hidden theme of neurotic and mental disorders.
Inner development and growth of personality
Of prime importance to Jung was the detailing of the stages of inner development and of the growth of the personality, which he termed the "process of individuation." He described a strong impulse from the unconscious to guide the individual toward its most complete uniqueness. This achievement is a lifelong task of trial and error and identifying and uniting contents of the unconscious. It consists in an ever-increasing self-knowledge and in "becoming what you are."
Jung lived for his explorations, his writings, and his psychological practice, which he had to give up in 1944 due to a severe heart attack. His career included the professorship of medical psychology at the University of Basel and the titular (title without the actual position) professorship of philosophy from 1933 until 1942 on the faculty of philosophical and political sciences of the Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich. In 1948 he founded the C. G. Jung Institute in Zurich. Honorary doctorates were given to him by many important universities all over the world. Carl Gustav Jung died in Küsnacht on June 6, 1961.
For More Information
Casement, Ann. Carl Gustav Jung. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2001.
Dunne, Clare. Carl Jung: Wounded Healer of the Soul. New York: Parabola Books, 2000.
Hayman, Ronald. A Life of Jung. New York: W. W. Norton, 2001.
Jung, C. G. Memories, Dreams, Reflections. Rev. ed. Edited by Aniela Jaffé. New York: Vintage Books, 1989.

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Carl Jung, Swiss psychiatrist, was the father of Carl Jung, Swiss psychiatrist, was the father of analytical psychology. Carl Jung, Swiss psychiatrist, was the father of analytical psychology. Jung psychology. Jung
Carl Jung, Swiss psychiatrist, was the father of analytical psychology. Jung

References: Bair, D. (2003). Jung: A Biography. New York: Back Bay Books. Boeree, G. C. (2006). Carl Jung. http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/jung.html Jung, C Jung, C. G. (1989). Memories, Dreams, Reflections. Rev. ed., C. Winston & R. Winston, Trans. A. Jaffe, Ed. New York: Random House, Inc.yclopedia of old Biography Born: July 26, 1875  Kesswil, Switzerland  Died: June 26, 1961  Küsnacht, Switzerland  Jung 's youth and personal life Carl Gustav Jung was born on July 26, 1875, in Kesswil, Switzerland, the son of a Protestant minister Career begins Jung began his professional career in 1900 as an assistant to Eugen Bleuler (1857–1939) at the psychiatric clinic of the University of Zurich For More Information Casement, Ann. Carl Gustav Jung. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2001. Dunne, Clare. Carl Jung: Wounded Healer of the Soul. New York: Parabola Books, 2000. Hayman, Ronald. A Life of Jung. New York: W. W. Norton, 2001. Jung, C. G. Memories, Dreams, Reflections. Rev. ed. Edited by Aniela Jaffé. New York: Vintage Books, 1989.