Youth Integration in Agriculture

The WTO Agreement on Agriculture and Food Security

Christopher Stevens, Romilly Greenhill, Jane Kennan and Stephen Devereux

Table of Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY What is Food Security? Food Insecure States Multilateral Policies and Food Security The Impact of the Uruguay Round The Next Agricultural Round PART I: THE FOUNDATIONS 1. Introduction The Aims of the Study What is Food Security? At the individual level At the national level At the multilateral level The approach of the study Organisation of the Report 2. The Entitlements Approach to Food Security Production-Based Entitlements Trade-Based Entitlements Labour-Based Entitlements Transfer-Based Entitlements 3. The Impact of Trade Policy on Food Security The International Environment The growing importance of trade The effects of OECD protectionism Global supply and demand Protectionism and preferences Dumping Estimates of the impact Vulnerable States Food security and states Identifying vulnerable states Characteristics of vulnerable states Summary of Part I PART II: POLICIES 4. Entitlement Promotion and Protection Policies Food Production Input credit Input subsidies Research and extension services Capital expenditure Land reform Marketing v v v vi vi viii 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 5 5 6 7 8 9 9 9 10 10 11 12 12 13 13 14 15 18 19 19 19 20 21 21 22 22 23

i

Market development and regulation Parastatal reform Price stabilisation (buffer stocks) Price stabilisation (buffer funds) Labour High-value export crops SME development Micro-finance Minimum wage legislation Transfers and Safety Nets Labour-intensive public works Targeted feeding programmes Food stamps Food price subsidies 5. Trade Policies The Relationship between Trade Policy and Food Security Types of effect Absolute and relative Past and future Domestic and foreign Effects of domestic liberalisation Trade policy Macroeconomic policy Agricultural subsidies Effects of international liberalisation Effects on imports Effects on exports Effects on

References: Abbott, J. 1987. Agricultural Marketing Enterprises for the Developing World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Alderman, H. and von Braun, J. 1984. ‘The Effects of the Egyptian Subsidy System on Income Distribution and Consumption’, Research Report 45 (July). Washington DC: International Food Policy Research Institute. Amin, N. 1990. Peasant Differentiation and Food Security in Zimbabwe. New York: The Project. Anderson, K. and Tyers, R. 1991. ‘Effects of gradual food policy reforms following the Uruguay Round’, European Review of Agricultural Economics, 19(1): January. Baulch, B. 1999. ‘Food Marketing’ in S. Devereux (ed.) Food Security in Africa: A Reader (forthcoming). Besley, T. and Kanbur, R. 1993. ‘The Principles of Targeting’, in M. Lipton and J. van der Gaag (eds) Including the Poor: Proceedings of a Symposium Organised by the World Bank and the International Food Policy Research Institute. Washington DC: The World Bank. Brown, M. and Goldin, I. 1992. The Future of Agriculture: Developing Country Implications. Paris: OECD Development Centre. Christensen, G. and Stack, J. 1992. ‘The dimensions of household food insecurity in Zimbabwe, 1980–91’. Queen Elizabeth House, Food Studies Group. Christiaensen, L. 1995. Food Security: From Concept to Action. University of Leuven. Leuven: Catholic Commonwealth Secretariat/World Bank 1999. ‘Small States: A Composite Vulnerability Index. First Draft’. Paper prepared by the Joint Commonwealth Secretariat/World Bank Task Force for the ‘Conference on the Small States’, St Lucia, West Indies, February 17– 19 1999. Cornia, G. and Stewart, F. 1995. ‘Two Errors of Targeting’, in D. van der Walle and K. Nead (eds) Public Spending and the Poor: Theory and Evidence. Washington DC: The World Bank. Cromwell, E. 1992. ‘Malawi’, in A. Duncan and J. Howell (eds) Structural Adjustment and the African Farmer. London: Overseas Development Institute. Devereux, S. 1993. Theories of Famine. New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf. Devereux, S. 1999. ‘Transfers and Safety Nets’ in S. Devereux (ed.) Food Security in Africa: A Reader (forthcoming). Drèze, J. and Sen, A. 1989. Hunger and Public Action. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 61 Ellis, F. 1993. ‘Food Security and Stabilisation of Rice Prices in Indonesia’, in P. Berck and D. Pigman (eds) Food Security and Food Inventories in Developing Countries. Wallingford: CAB International. Ellis, F.; Magrath, W. and Trotter, B. 1991. ‘Indonesian Rice Marketing Study (1989–91: Final Report)’, Report No REP/CON/52, BULOG/NRI Development Project, Jakarta. FAO 1996. State of Food and Agriculture 1996 (FAOSTAT TS software by the United States Department of Agriculture). Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. FAO 1998. State of Food and Agriculture 1998 (FAOSTAT TS software by the United States Department of Agriculture). Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. FAO 1999a. ‘The Agreement on Agriculture: some preliminary assessment from the experience so far’. Paper presented at the conference ‘The Uruguay Round Agreement on Agriculture: Taking Stock’, sponsored by CIIR/UK Food Group, Westminster Hall, London, 28 January 1999, by Panos Konandreas, Ramesh Sharma and Jim Greenfield. FAO 1999b. ‘Some issues that may arise in the continuation of the reform process in agriculture’. Paper presented at a Round Table on Follow Up to the Uruguay Round Agreement on Agriculture, New Delhi, India, 18–19 January 1999, by Panos Konandreas, Ramesh Sharma and Jim Greenfield. FAO 1999c. ‘Supporting import-competing agricultural sectors with tariffs, safeguards and domestic measures within the framework of the Uruguay Round Agreements’. Paper presented at a Round Table on Follow Up to the Uruguay Round Agreement on Agriculture, New Delhi, India, 18–19 January 1999, by Ramesh Sharma and Panos Konandreas. FAO 1999d. FAOSTAT Data (website: http://apps.fao.org/cgi-bin/nph-db.pl). Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Gaiha, R. 1993. ‘Design of Poverty Alleviation Strategies’, FAO Economic and Social Development Paper, No 115. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. GATT 1994. The Results of the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations. Geneva: GATT Secretariat. Goldin, I. and Knudsen, O. (eds) 1990. Agricultural Trade Liberalization: Implications for Developing Countries. Paris: OECD/The World Bank. Goldin, I. and van der Mensbrugghe, D. 1992. ‘Trade liberalisation: what’s at stake? ‘, Policy Brief. Paris: OECD Development Centre. Goldin, I., Knudsen, O. and van der Mensbrugghe, D. 1993. Trade Liberalisation: Global Economic Implications. Paris: OECD/The World Bank. Green, R. 1994. ‘Production by Poor People’, IDS Bulletin, 24(3): July. Harriss, B. 1992. Child Nutrition and Poverty in South India. Publishing Company. 62 New Delhi: Concept Hazell, P. and Roell, A. 1983. ‘Rural Growth Linkages: Household Expenditure Patterns in Malaysia and Nigeria’, Research Report No 41. Washington DC: International Food Policy Research Institute. Humphrey, J. and Schmitz, H. 1996. ‘The Triple C Approach to Local Industrial Policy’, World Development, 24(12). IBRD 1986. Poverty and Hunger: Issues and Options for Food Security in Developing Countries. Washington DC: The World Bank. IBRD 1990. World Development Report. Washington DC: The World Bank. IBRD 1994. Industrial Structures and the Development of Small and Medium Enterprise Linkages: Examples from East Asia. Washington DC: The World Bank. IFPRI 1992. Improving Food Security of the Poor. Washington DC: International Food Policy Research Institute. IMF 1997. Government Finance Statistics Yearbook 1997. Washington DC: International Monetary Fund. ITC 1997. The SME and the Global Market Place. Geneva: International Trade Centre. Jayne, T. and Chisvo, M. 1991. ‘Unravelling Zimbabwe 's food insecurity paradox’, Food Policy, 16(4). MALDM 1988–93. Reports of Catchment Approach Planning and Rapid Catchment Analysis. Soil and Water Conservation Branch, Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock Development and Marketing, Nairobi, Kenya. Maxwell, S. 1990. ‘Food Security in Developing Countries: Issues and Options for the 1990s’, IDS Bulletin, 21(3): July. Maxwell, S. 1999. ‘The Evolution of Thinking about Food Security’, in S. Devereux (ed.) Food Security in Africa: A Reader (forthcoming). Mellor, J. 1986. ‘Agriculture on the Road to Industrialization’, in J. Lewis and V. Kallab (eds) ‘Development Strategies Reconsidered’, Third World Policy Perspectives No 5. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books for the Overseas Development Council. Mukherjee, A. 1994. Structural Adjustment Programmes and Food Security. Aldershot: Avebury. Page, S., Davenport, M. and Hewitt, A. 1991. ‘The GATT Uruguay Round: effects on developing countries’, ODI Special Report. London: Overseas Development Institute. Pinckney, T. 1993. ‘Storage, trade and price policies for maize in Southern Africa’, Food Policy: August. Pinstrup-Anderson, P. 1989. Government Policy, Food Security and Nutrition in SubSaharan Africa. Ithaca, NY: The Programme. Pretty, J.N. and Chambers, R. 1994. ‘Towards a learning paradigm: new professionalism and institutions for a sustainable agriculture’, in I. Scoones and J. Thompson (eds) Beyond Farmer First. London: IT Publications. 63 Pretty, J.N.; Thompson, J. and Kiara, J. 1994. ‘Agricultural Regeneration in Kenya: the Catchment Approach to Soil and Water Conservation’, Ambio: a Journal of the Human Environment. Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Pryke, J. and Woodward, D. 1994. ‘The GATT Agreement on Agriculture: will it help developing countries’, CIIR Briefing Paper. London: Catholic Institute for International Relations. Ratnam, C. 1991. ‘Institutions for Promoting Technological Modernisation of Indian Small Enterprises’, in A. Bhalla (ed.) Small and Medium Enterprises: Technology Policies and Options. New York: Greenwood Press. Ravallion, M. and Datt, G. 1995. ‘Is Targeting through a Work Requirement Efficient?: Some Evidence for Rural India’, in D. van der Walle and K. Nead (eds) Public Spending and the Poor: Theory and Evidence. Washington DC: The World Bank. Rukuni, M. and Jayne, T. 1995. Alleviating Hunger in Zimbabwe: Towards a National Food Security Strategy. Harare: University of Zimbabwe Publications. Scoones, I. 1998a. ‘Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: A Framework for Analysis’, Working Paper No. 72. Brighton: Institute of Development Studies. Scoones, I. 1998b. Agricultural Research and Extension: seminar given at the Institute of Development Studies, October 1998. Sen, A. 1981. Poverty and Famines. New York: Oxford University Press. Sen, A. 1986. ‘The Causes of Famine: A Reply’, Food Policy, 11. Sijm, J. 1997. Food Security and Policy Interventions in Sub-Saharan Africa: Lessons from the Past Two Decades. Amsterdam: Thesis Publishers. Stevens, C.; Kennan, J. and Yates, J. 1998. ‘Levelling the field: will CAP reform provide a fair deal for developing countries?, CIIR Discussion Paper. London: Catholic Institute for International Relations. Swinbank, A.; Jordan, K. and Beard, N. 1999. ‘Implications for Developing Countries of Likely Reforms of the Common Agricultural Policy of the European Union’, report prepared for the Economic Affairs Division of the Commonwealth Secretariat. London: Commonwealth Secretariat. UNCTAD/WIDER 1990. Agricultural Trade Liberalisation in the Uruguay Round: Implications for Developing Countries. Geneva: United Nations. van der Walle, D. 1995. ‘Incidence and Targeting: An Overview of Implications for Research and Policy’, in D. van der Walle and K. Nead (eds) Public Spending and the Poor: Theory and Evidence. Washington DC: The World Bank. Woodward, D. 1995. ‘Structural Adjustment, Cash Crops and Food Security’, Appropriate Technology, 22(3): December. WTO 1996. The Results of the Uruguay Round (CD-Rom). Organization. Geneva: World Trade 64