Period 3 Regional and Transregional In

A. Existing trade routes including the Silk Roads, the Mediterranean Sea, the trans­Saharan and the Indian Ocean basins flourished and promoted the growth of powerful new trading cities. (such as—to mention just a few— Novgorod, Timbuktu, the Swahili city­states,
Hangzhou, Calicut, Baghdad, Melaka, Venice, and, in the Americas, Tenochtitlan or Cahokia)

Hannah Shapiro and Eliza Antonowich
Prior knowledge
As new trade routes developed, major trading ports and cities were necessary to provide a place to buy and sell goods along the way. This buying and selling of goods helped the cities’ to prosper, causing population growth and diffusion of new religions. For example, both
Christianity and Islam spread through the use of merchants and trade routes. These new cities and nations began to conquer smaller regions, leading to growing and prospering cities and city­ states. 5. What Classical era trade networks continued during the post­classical era, and which new cities were added during the post­ Classical era? Posted by Adelaine +Jessica Corrections
All of the major trade routes previously established in the Classical Period continued during the Post­Classical Period, but as the volume of trade increased, maritime trade was more utilized (partially due to the Arabs learning of Monsoon winds), and more regions and cities (see below) were incorporated into the trade routes, the established routes began to become linked together. Concerning land routes, no ‘new’ courses were developed, but rather the independent networks connected with surrounding networks to form a larger, international network where goods could flow from East Asia to as far as the Mediterranean and North
Africa. The Silk Road continued to be the primary facilitator of land trade, gaining additional regions’ smaller networks and extending trade across the Eurasian continent.
The biggest contribution to trade by the Post­Classical period was the development of maritime trade, primarily the Indian Ocean Basin. Though Mediterranean trade was common and there was minimal sea trade in the Indian Ocean basin, neither facilitated extensive commodity flow. During the Post­Classical period, the diversity and amount of goods traded in the Indian Ocean rapidly increased, as well as participation of surrounding regions. Early in the period, Chinese junks sailed from the East coast of China (through the Strait of
Melaka/Glenn), and throughout the period, Southeastern Asia, the Western­most oceanic islands, and city­states on the east African coast (Kilwa, Zanzibar, Sofala, Mogadishu, etc., p.

415/Glenn) began to participate in trade with India, and the goods from those areas were transported along the Silk road, Sub­Saharan trade routes, and other branching smaller routes to make their way into the Mediterranean­surrounding states and Africa (examples of goods exchanged: silk and cotton textiles, porcelain, spices, precious metals and gems, slaves, exotic animals, iron, copper, salt, staple crops, horses, ivory, fruits, steel, leather).

∙ Novgorod­ located in modern day Russia, inhabited by vikings (who used longboats to trade and forage), mainly participated via river trade
∙ Timbuktu­ North African market city, later became center for Islam and study (gold­salt trade, made possible by camel saddle).
∙ Swahili city­states­ East coast of Africa, participated in Indian Ocean maritime trade, extended contact with Islamic merchants (dhows)
∙ Hangzhou­ China’s major port used for ocean trade, continental departure point of
Zheng He’s treasure ships, as well as junks
∙ Calicut­ City on the coast of India, became emporium of maritime trade, massive good exchange, facilitated many cultural exchanges
∙ Baghdad­ Huge city in modern day Iraq, much trade activity, major point along Silk road travels, linked to Indian ocean by Tigris river
∙ Melaka­ On coast of modern day Indonesia, major producer of spices, partially managed exchange between China and the rest of the world later in the period
∙ Venice­ Major port of the Mediterranean, facilitated goods barter as well as exchange of arts and philosophies of the time

B. New trade routes between Mesoamerica and the Andes developed. 6. What new trade network(s) developed in this era? Posted by Adelaine
(see above for Indian Ocean and Mediterranean advancements)
In the Americas, the roads systems developed by the Incas facilitated trade between the south American regions, and the Mesoamerican city­states and empires participated in goods exchange within their region as well. Trade between these two began to develop, mainly of luxury goods, but they never reached the level of exchange that was reached in the eastern hemisphere at the time.
In Oceania and Australia, hunter and gathering societies developed tiny networks of trade within their regions, but really didn’t expand past that.

In Africa, camel caravans were used for good exchange across the Sahara, which allowed for extensive African trade since the camels did go through resources as much as the previously used horses and donkeys. The invention of the camel saddle allowed for an even larger increase due the new ability of the camel to carry more goods, and people as well.
During the last century of the era, trade between western Europe and the west African coast was common, especially the exchange of gold, slaves, and ivory. Very late in the era, boats from the Mediterranean began to sail around the Southern tip of Africa and participate in the Indian Ocean trade as well.

C. The growth of inter­regional trade in luxury goods (such as silk and cotton textiles, porcelain, spices, precious metals and gems, slaves or exotic animals) was encouraged by significant innovations in previously­existing transportation and commercial technologies, including more sophisticated caravan organization (such as caravanserai or camel saddles), use of the compass, astrolabe, and larger ship designs in sea travel, and new forms of credit and monetization. (such as bills of exchange, credit, checks or banking houses) 7.What new technologies enabled the growth of interregional trade networks?

Posted by Adelaine
The utilization and innovation of previously invented technologies enabled growth of interregional trade networks by providing ways for people to exchange goods more efficiently and in some cases, more safely. Understanding of the monsoon winds was essential to Indian Ocean trade, because boats could not travel efficiently (or safely) without knowledge of them. Junks (Asia) and dhows (Arabian world) were large ships that were able to carry vast amounts of goods, even animals and slaves. Before the use

of these ships, land trade prevented the exchanges of large goods, and once they came about, trade of these goods was able to begin. These boats became larger and more advanced over the course of the period, which allowed even larger amounts of cargo to be transported overseas. During the ships’ ventures, the compass and the astrolabe, both previously invented for finding location when travelling by sea, were used to ensure that the ship would not get lost.
Concerning land trade, many credit systems were put into use. It was inefficient to carry around large sums of money, because the primary currency at the time was still metal, which was very heavy. Even if you were to have paper money, you ran the risk of it getting stolen, getting burned, or even just being blown away. Systems such as bills of exchange, letters of credit (“flying credit”), and checks were light to carry, backed up by banks (if stolen, would be reimbursed or otherwise), and they allowed for travelling merchants to easily transfer their earnings across the continent without a cumbersome load or currency. This allowed for growth because now merchants could travel farther as well as have a feeling of security. Further offering security where caravanserai, or roadside inns, which gave merchants and travelers a place to stay the night. In caravans, or travelling groups of merchants, horses or camels were used to transport goods. The development of the camel saddle in Africa made the journeys much easier, thus supporting more transport of goods across the Sahara.

D. Commercial growth was also facilitated by state practices (such as the minting of coins or use of paper money), trading organizations (such as the Hanseatic League), and state­sponsored commercial infrastructures like the Grand Canal in China. What factors encouraged commercial growth in the post­classical era?
Posted by Sarah Hensey
● Byzantine
○ its productive capacity
○ Constantinople as center of trade­ housed many merchants/ artisans, capital, major site crafts & industry during classical times
○ Trade routes going east, west, north, and south
■ revived silk roads
○ “Byzantium dominated trade to such extent that trading peoples recognized
Byzantium gold coin, bezant, as the standard currency of the Mediterranean basin” (WHAP textbook, 327)
○ Banks (loans) and business partnerships (allow to pool resources + limit risks)
● India
○ Location in the Indian Ocean basin
○ Knowledge of the Monsoons­ easier for maritime travel/ shipping of goods
○ Improved irrigation systems: dams, reservoirs, canals, wells, tunnels

○
○
○
○
○
○
● China
○
○
○

Population growth (600 C.E. 53 million → 105 million in 1500)
Urbanization (in cities like Calicut, Cambay, other port cities)
Dhows and Junks for easier sailing in the Indian Ocean basin
Emporia prominent in port cities
Specialized production (esp. in Cotton textiles)
Workers’ guilds from the subcastes (jati)

Grand Canal­ principal conduit for internal trade extensive communications network on roads
Improved metallurgical technologies­ esp. iron and steel (coke instead of coal in furnaces for better metal)
○ Improved overall technologies in a variety of fields (paper, gunpowder, porcelain, naval, etc)
○ urbanization
○ population growth (45 million in 600 C.E. → 115 million in 1200)
○ Specialization
○ Letters of credit due to shortage of copper coins “flying cash”
■ merchants can deposit goods/cash one location and draw the equivalent elsewhere in China
○ Paper money facilitate commercial transactions
● Muslim societies
○ New crops → increased agricultural production → rapid growth cities → large markets/ centers industrial production
○ Took Chinese prisoners skilled in paper production and took technology
○ inheritance of trade routes and large trading cities
○ camels
○ Maritime travel technology (compass, astrolabe, lateen sail, etc)
○ Banks­conduct business large scale and more services available
■ brokers for investments
■ sakk (honored letters of credit)
○ Islamic law protect entrepreneurs
○ Business partnerships
● Western Europe
E. The expansion of existing empires—including China, the Byzantine Empire, and the
Caliphates—as well as new empires—like the Mongols—facilitated trans­Eurasian trade and communication as new peoples were drawn into their conquerors’ economies and trade networks. 8. How did the expansion of empires & trade networks affect the relationship between peoples inside vs. outside those “zones?” Posted by Adelaine
(I’m not sure if this really answers the question, or if it’s even entirely correct, but I wasn’t

completely sure what it was asking, so I just talked about the general relations between the regions as well as a bit about the people within them)

As China, the Byzantine Empire, the Caliphates, the Mongols, and the various
Indian regions began to interact with each other through trade, they began to have to deal with the others’ economic, political, and cultural differences. Whereas some groups, such as the Mongols and the Chinese were intolerant or indifferent to the cultural differences, other groups such as the Byzantines and Caliphates were more likely to want to enforce their cultural tendencies (primarily religious) upon other groups.
Regarding government administration, there were primarily empires during this era, focusing on the use of bureaucracies to implement policy. The Mongols differed in that they were much less centralized and enforced their policies via military (and the occasional short­lived empire of northern India was also decentralized and more based on moving diplomacy). Typically the empires dealt with each others’ political disagreements through war, but there was very little war during this time due to few administrative conflicts internationally, which allowed trade to be safer, thus expanding it. There was some conflict between nomadic tribes and empires (ex .Xiongnu and the
Chinese), and some resistance to the Mongol rule, but otherwise, it was a fairly calm era. With the expansion of trade, empires and regions generally offered benefits to merchants of all areas, which further encouraged trade between them.
Within the empires, trade flourished as well. The availability of foreign goods along with production of goods at home allowed for a growing economy, and as empires expanded and new people were integrated into the economy, this was heightened. In
China and India, there was a lot of cultural tolerance, with acceptance of different practices and religions. There was some prejudice, such as the jizya (tax for non­Muslims) in the Caliphates, and conflict, such as battles between the European states, the civilians during this time were not preoccupied with differences.

II. The movement of peoples caused environmental and linguistic effects. 9. What were the effects of migration in the postclassical era?
Posted by Adem A.
Well first off migration occurred because of population density and often because they had to hunt “game”(food). A huge effect of migration was long distance trade. Which then led to diffusion of crops, literature, art, cultural traditions, and agricultural practices. So its like a chain reaction, one thing led to another and the exploration of new lands gave travelers a vast knowledge of the areas around them. Posted by Allan Flores

Migration occurred because human population increased. These people wanted to trade and manufacture rather than cultivating. In their migration to other lands, they brought with them their religions, new agriculture crops, customs, ideologies and diseases. When
Islam first appeared in this time period, it became the cultural and religious foundation for a growing empire. Islam expanded by migrations of peoples. Christianity expanded to western and northern Europe. There is a rise in urban growth in large cities. Migration, in turn, changed the world into a diverse population. A. The expansion and intensification of long­distance trade routes often depended on peoples’ understanding of a particular regional environment and their subsequent technological adaptations to them. (such as the way Scandinavian Vikings used their longboats to travel in coastal and open water as well as rivers and estuaries, the Arabs and Berbers adapted camels to travel across and around the Sahara or central Asian pastoral groups used horses to travel in the steppes) 10. What basic understandings of environment and technology did post­classical traders need to conduct their business? Posted by Ethan Chervonski
Depending on the region in which traders were conducting business, there were different understandings needed about the environment and technologies present in the region in order for them to conduct trade more efficiently. They had to understand wind and current patterns when traveling by sea, the roads present in certain regions that could be utilized, and technologies invented and already in place in certain areas.
First, commerce and trade served a special place in Muslim society. Living in
Southwest Asia, for the most part, Muslims used the old roads of the Persian and Roman empires as well as newly built roads created under the rule of the caliphate. Muslims were also wide­spread traders in the Saharan desert. Camels in the region provided the best means of travel inland across the Sahara because of their many adaptations to the lack of water and great heat. As Muslims increasingly used camel, the development of new technologies such as the camel saddle assisted them on their voyages. When Muslim traders were at sea, they also borrowed technologies such as the lateen or triangular sail (allowed for ships to tack into the wind) from Indian and Chinese ships and the astrolabe (calculated latitude) from the Hellenistic Mediterranean.
Furthermore, the Chinese used their understanding of technology to facilitate their trading voyages. They devised and utilized both new and old naval technology. Most known is their creation of the magnetic compass that was soon used by all seafarers and traders in the
Indian Ocean basin. The Chinese also used certain boats known as junks in their travels.
Additionally, the Indian Ocean basin traders used their understanding of the environmental monsoon winds to conduct business efficiently. Over many years, traders developed the understanding that spring and summer brought the moist southwest winds off the Indian Ocean. In winter and fall (dry seasons), cold winds blew from the mountains in the

northeast. With this understanding, traders could conduct and plan the timing of their voyages across the ocean. Using the Arabic and Indian dhows and the Chinese junks, traders learned to conduct their travels in stages. On one stage, they would use the winds the sail a certain direction. In the next stage, they would use the winds to sail the other way.
Africans of the Swahili coast were affected by the Indian Ocean environment that allowed Muslim traders to their land.
Thank you! Feel free to add or correct. B. Some migrations had significant environmental impact, including the migration of the agricultural Bantu­speaking peoples who facilitated transmission of iron technologies in
Sub­Saharan Africa, and the maritime migrations of the Polynesian peoples who cultivated transplanted foods and domesticated animals as they moved to new islands.

11. What were the environmental effects of migration in the post­classical era? Posted by Ethan Chervonski
Depending on the region, there were certain migrations that had significant effects on the environment that marked this period in time. The Bantu migrations from West Africa across the continent established newly formed agricultural societies and displaced many of the hunting and foraging societies. These agricultural societies changing the landscape of the region. They plowed and cleared through the land to make space for agricultural fields. Many of the forests were destroyed. This early process contributed to the first periods of desertification (creation of deserts) and deforestation (clearing of trees and forests) in Africa and could have been a contributor to the Sahara desert’s growth. Also, in almost all societies during this period, urbanization occurred. Urbanization is the development of towns and cities.
In order to urbanize, people begin to migrate to cities. These migrations into cities call for expansion of land, thereby destroying trees and land in the process. Also, migration into more concentrated urban centers caused more pollution that negatively affected the environment of the area. For example, sewage was a problem as the excretory contents and trash were filtered out of the city and contaminated the environment and water sources. C. Some migrations and commercial contacts led to the diffusion of languages throughout a new region or the emergence of new languages. (such as the spread of Bantu languages, including Swahili, or the spread of Turkic and Arabic languages) 12. What were the linguistic effects of migration in the post­classical era? Posted by Adelaine
Language such as the Bantu languages had previously spread to other regions of
Africa, but the Swahili language, a mix of native African tongues and Arabic was on the rise, especially along the Eastern coast of Africa. This was probably caused by extensive interaction between the Arabs and the Africans due to trade relations, as well as general

closeness of regions, but either way, this language and culture had increased influence on this region during the post­Classical period. The spread of Arabic languages was also facilitated by the expansion of dar al Islam, which enveloped many areas, such as Persia, the
Middle East, the Arabian peninsula, and northeastern parts of India, causing the spread of the
Arabic language there as well. The spread of Turkic languages was facilitated by the nomadic peoples of central Asia, especially as they migrated to the northern Middle East. On a smaller scale, as the Chinese went south and expanded their influence to regions of southeast asia such as Vietnam, some of their language was adapted there, as well as in more northern areas of Southeast Asia.
While on the subject of linguistics, the Post­Classical era was a time of decline of the more ‘scholarly’ and ‘formal’ languages of Greek and Latin, and a rise in vernacular, or regional, languages such as early forms of French, Italian, and German, which began to come about as farmers presented agricultural finding on pamphlets written in these languages, rather than Greek and Latin. III. Cross­cultural exchanges were fostered by the intensification of existing or the creation of new networks of trade & communication. 13. How did trade networks as a whole develop in the postclassical era? Posted by Ethan Chervonski
Trade networks in this period developed rapidly from existing networks, to the development and creation of a region’s own networks, to the integration of many networks. The whole development began with the use of networks already established in the Classical Era. Silk roads of the Classical Era were revived and expanded to the point in which they extended from Antioch in Anatolia (present­day Turkey) to Chang’an in China. Also, regions like in SW
Asia used the existing Persian road system already established. From utilizing existing networks, regions created their own networks. For example, Muslims began voyages in the
Sahara desert, and Norsemen of Europe began to travel throughout Europe for resources and more. Finally, regions began to integrate networks. Both the Swahili coast and Indian people used the Indian Ocean basin for their imports and exports. Eventually, Muslim traders began to make voyages to the Swahili coast to trade with them. Also, checkpoints and warehouses were established in other regions to allow traders to migrate from their own area to another where they can stock up with supplies. Then they could use a network of a different region to get where they needed to be. Thus, the trade networks of this period developed rapidly throughout all of its societies. A. Islam developed in the Arabian peninsula from the interactions among Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians with the local peoples and expanded to many parts of Afro­Eurasia due to military expansion and the activities of merchants and missionaries. 14. Why and where did Muslim trade networks change in the post­classical era?

Posted by Sarah Hensey
Due to its vast expansion and participation in trade , Muslim societies gradually evolved their methods of commerce. As they expanded, Muslims gained control of the prosperous trading cities of the Sassanid empire. Control of Merv, Nishapur, Bukhara, and
Samarkand allowed Muslims to take advantage of the revived silk roads stretching from China to the Mediterranean basin and past roads and trade routes established by classical societies all across Eurasia. These road networks proved speedy and efficient for the exchange of goods, missionaries, pilgrims, and military forces. For example, Muslim rulers of Egypt could have ice delivered to them weekly from mountains in Syria to their palace in Cairo no matter the time of year.
Another innovation that added to efficient travel across Eurasia was use of the camel caravan. Proving their worth of carrying heavy loads, the camel became the animal of choice throughout Arabia, north Africa, southwest Asia, and central Asia. To accommodate the new and popular travel method, caravanserais were established and maintained along trans­Saharan trade routes; they offered lodging for merchants, food, water, and care for the camels. Not only did Muslim trade networks expand in Eurasia, but they also spread to the bodies of water around it. The volume of trade in the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Arabian Sea, and Indian Ocean increased due to many borrowed inventions; the compass from the
Chinese guided expeditions across the water, the lateen sail from southeast Asia/India increased maneuverability, the astrolabe from the Mediterranean enabled mariners to calculate latitude. With so much new technology available to them, Muslim merchants visited a vast amount of ports throughout the Indian Ocean basin and established many maritime trade routes despite the long distance.

B. In key places along important trade routes, merchants set up diaspora communities where

they introduced their own cultural traditions into the indigenous culture. (such as Muslim merchant communities in the Indian Ocean region, Chinese merchant communities in
Southeast Asia, Sogdian merchant communities throughout Central Asia or Jewish communities in the Mediterranean, Indian Ocean basin, or along the Silk Roads) 15. What institutions did merchants create to foster both trade and cultural diffusion in the post­classical era?

Posted by Powell
Islam worked as a major religious institution as a cultural fertilizer for trade in parts of Africa and in Southwest Asia, in providing cultural similarities for merchants from different lands. Sufi Brotherhoods played small roles in trade, but as Islam spread
West and then North through and after Muhammad’s life, Islamic merchants played an important role in trade, as well did Islam work in connecting merchants and peoples from different lands, such as Mansa Musa (Mali King) on his pilgrimage to Mecca in
1329

The Hanseatic League:
The Hanseatic League (known as Hansa) was a trade network that developed in the
Baltic and North Sea; encompassed the commercial centers of Poland, northern
Germany, and Scandinavia; linked to the Mediterranean through the Rhine and Danube rivers. They traded grain, fish, furs, timber, and pitch. The frequency of trade led to the adoption of credit and banking systems, which made trade possible on a large scale.
Commercial partnerships further increased the volume of trade in Europe, and the
Impact on class structure of northern Europe made social mobility possible. (Baron’s) Posted by: Shaima S.
During this time period, when over­land trade was thriving more than ever, there were still many obstacles for merchants to successfully pass. Natural barriers such as the extremely dry and hot deserts, for example the Taklamakan Desert, required breaks for travelling merchants. In order to make the trade route more effective, merchants established “oasis towns” along their routes. Merchants from all regions stopped in these towns, such as
Kashgar, and they exchanged goods and cultural ideas/ religion. Oasis towns helped in the diffusion of Christianity and Buddhism during this time period, where merchants and missionaries encouraged other merchants and the settlers of the town to convert to their faith. C. The writings of certain inter­regional travelers (such as Ibn Battuta, Marco Polo or
Xuangzang) illustrate both the extent and the limitations of inter­cultural knowledge and understanding. 16. How well did post­classical societies know and understand each other?

Posted By Powell: Post­classical societies did not know or understand each other well. Formal education, which was rare and reserved for the rich, included little or nothing about foreign cultures, and though concepts from foreign lands were included in their education, and technologies in daily life were often from other lands, the societies understood little about one another. Merchants understood more about one another, some having interacted with foreign merchants, but that knowledge was limited and not widely spread. Ibn Battuta documented his travels to Africa and South Asia, and recorded information about the peoples he encountered, primarily their interpretations of Islam (because of his position as a court official) (which he strongly disagreed with.) Anyways, because cross­cultural interaction was dominated by trade that spanned hundreds of miles, and therefore countless different merchants, little information was known about other lands, and none was common knowledge. D. Increased cross­cultural interactions resulted in the diffusion of literary, artistic, and cultural traditions. (such as the influence of Neo­Confucianism and Buddhism in East Asia, Hinduism and Buddhism in Southeast Asia, the influence of Islam in sub­Saharan Africa and Southeast
Asia or the influence of Toltec/Mexica and Inca traditions in Meso­ and Andean America) 17. How did post­classical trade affect the diffusion of literary, artistic, and cultural traditions? Posted by Powell:
One of the dominant cultural ideas of this period was Islam, which spread outward from its birthplace in the Arabian Peninsula (Mecca.) This spread most notable through North Africa, then down through the Trans­Saharan trade dominated by the Ghana and then Mali empires.
This spread of Islam into Africa began during Muhammad's life, and a century later, Islam had spread through all of North Africa (Wikipedia.)
“In the following centuries, the consolidation of Muslim trading networks, connected by lineage, trade, and Sufi brotherhoods, had reached a crescendo in West Africa, enabling
Muslims to wield tremendous political influence and power.” ­Wikipedia Maia Savage­
Culture diffused in much of the same way it always has, through trade routes. (continuity).
Although the volume of the trade increased which led to a change in the way cultural ideas spread as well. During this time period, religions tended to spread but also blend with regional beliefs (syncretic religions). Ex. Neo­Conficainism.
‘

E. Increased cross­cultural interactions also resulted in the diffusion of scientific and technological traditions. (such as the influence of Greek and Indian mathematics on Muslim scholars, the return of Greek science and philosophy to western Europe via Muslim al­

Andalus in Iberia, or the spread of printing and gunpowder technologies from East Asia into the Islamic empires and into Western Europe) 18. How did post­classical trade affect the diffusion of scientific and technological traditions? Posted by Ethan Chervonski
Post­classical trade integrated many regions together. With this integration came more contact between different societies that developed technologies specific to their needs independently. However, when post­classical trade expanded widely, these technologies were diffused to other societies that found the innovative items extremely useful. It begins when traders and explorers find new societies to trade with. At first, trade is limited; however, as both sides increasingly see the mutual benefit, they increasingly trade between each other. At first, trade may be limited to just a single good such as spices. However, societies eventually expand exports and imports to multiple items. Thus, traders intermingle and exchange helpful items. For example, the magnetic compass already created in China expanded to almost every society in the Indian Ocean basin due to interaction on silk roads and in the Indian
Ocean trade. Furthermore, the lateen or triangular sail (allowed for ships to tack into the wind) diffused from Indian and Chinese ships, and the astrolabe (calculated latitude) spread from the Hellenistic Mediterranean region.

IV. There was continued diffusion of crops and pathogens throughout the Eastern
Hemisphere along the trade routes. 19. What were the biological effects of post­classical trade? Posted by Jim The growing economy and society of the early Islamic world meant new crops and agricultural experimentation. As soldiers, administrators, diplomats, and merchants traveled throughout the dar al­Islam (House of Islam), they encountered plants, animals, and effective agricultural techniques. Crops such as sugarcane, rice, spinach, and artichokes became more commonly traded. A direct result of these exchanges was an increase in population size as diets became more diverse and food became more abundant. A larger population facilitated urbanization and increased the number of soldiers in the imperial army. Thus, the Islamic Empire grew enormously under the Umayyads, expanding as far as northern Africa and into Spain, where they ruled the southern Iberian peninsula from the city of Cordoba. A. New foods and agricultural techniques were adopted in populated areas. (such as bananas in Africa, new rice varieties in East Asia, or the spread of cotton, sugar and citrus throughout
Dar­al Islam and the Mediterranean basin) 20. What new foods, crops, and agricultural practices diffused in the postclassical era?

Posted by Xiomara During the postclassical era many new foods were introduced to parts of the world such as corn and citrus fruits. Although the Columbian Exchange had not yet occurred, nomads and other merchants, transported foods throughout their journeys. Different farming techniques such as the waru waru or field rotation were introduced and used. Farmers began experimenting with the different techniques to see what would grow in which area of the world. Nomads and Merchants played a major role in the diffusing of practices, because they would show others their own techniques and crops. Merchants sold and traded with other merchants and different kinds of people, in a result, a merchant may buy a certain crop not known to him, and find a technique to grow this crop.

B. The spread of epidemic diseases, including the Black Death, followed the well­established paths of trade and military conquest. 21. What diseases and pathogens also spread via post­classical trade networks?

Posted by Adelaine +Jessica Corrections + Adem Additions An array of small scale diseases with miniscule effects were spread by the post­Classical trade networks, but the most noticeable disease that was distributed was the Black Death, or Bubonic Plague. It is highly speculated that it originated in East Asia in the 3rd or 4th century CE, though it didn’t become prominent until the 8th or 9th century. Once it became common, it was rapidly spread by travelers (such as military troops and merchants, many historians believe the Mongols played a role in its spread) to reach nearly all areas of the Eurasian world, and even some areas of North Africa. As it began to infiltrate cities, people fled, thus spreading the disease even further since they carried it with them. It was most commonly transported by a germ on fleas, which were carried about by rats within cities. Certain precautions were taken in many towns and cities to try and combat the spread such as the closings of bars, brothels, theaters, and public baths, but still people often gathered together to find comfort, which just caused the disease to run rampant. The diseases affected cities the most because of their lack of sanitation and the crowding, as well as presence of rats, while the areas least affected were rural and Northern areas(see below). The world’s populations dropped by nearly 1/3 during this event. The colder northern regions were less affected by it, because the little ice age caused it to cool down enough that the rats were not as common in the cities, thus could not facilitate large scale exchange of the disease. In addition the Roman population dropped by a quarter from the 1st to the 10th century
C.E. and China’s population dropped by a quarter from the 1st to 7th century C.E.

Key Concept 3.2 Continuity & Innovation of State Forms and Their Interactions

State formation in this era demonstrated remarkable continuity, innovation and diversity in various regions. In Afro­Eurasia some states attempted, with differing degrees of success, to preserve or revive imperial structures, while smaller, less­centralized states continued to develop. The expansion of Islam introduced a new concept—the caliphate—to Afro­Eurasian statecraft. Pastoral peoples in Eurasia built powerful and distinctive empires that integrated people and institutions from both the pastoral and agrarian worlds. In the Americas, powerful states developed in both Mesoamerica and the Andean region 1. How did state forms develop in the post­classical era? Posted by Powell:
Coming out of a dark period (the “dark ages,” so called because of a lack of flourishing culture in many regions of the world,) due to the collapse of the large Classical empires including the
Roman and the Han, government evolved in the post­classical era.
In China, the Sui Dynasty finally secured peace after the “waring states period,” or the period of chaos and political instability following the fall of the Han dynasty. They achieved this through a strong central government with a strong peasant­working class. They focused on public works projects including palaces, granaries, and repair of defensive walls (Baron’s.)
While Sui only lasted 38 years (wikipedia,) they set the example for the Chinese dynasties to follow: the Tang and the Song. They both focused on massive bureaucracies with a focus on educated officials and military leaders, and again, centralized governments.
In the fast­growing Western European states, feudalism took place. This centralized hierarchy placed just enough power and responsibility on a chain of leaders for local authority to be efficient, but still draw power to a central monarch. In a period of chaos, higher powers promised protection to peasants in exchange for economic cooperation, and as peasants worked pieces of land (called fiefs,) their lords protected them from foreign attacks, creating a more stabilized state. These feudal systems dominated Medieval society. This feudalism was succeeded by the development of strong centralized states, primarily Italy, Spain, France, and
England. These states relied on taxes and large standing armies, and though some regions such as France were only loosely tied together, massive dukedoms tied together enormous regions of western Europe.
Islam also gave way for a new kind of state, called a Caliphate. The Muslim caliphates were, by definition, aristocratic–constitutional republics, and strongly theocratic states governed directly by the Sharia, or Muslim law. Islam played a major part in the development in the Umayyad Dynasty, the Abbasids, and later, the Ottomans. Governed by Muslim
Caliphates, the Muslim world, and dar al­Islam continued to grow and spread because of independent military forces. It is important to note that these dynasties were marked by their strong religious ideas, and not only did they favor Muslims (jizya­ tax for non­muslims,) but

the ulama and qadis, religious experts and religious judges respectively, assured that the government was lead by Muslim values, and the Sharia. I. Empires collapsed and were reconstituted; in some regions new state forms emerged.
A. Most reconstituted governments following the collapse of empires, including the Byzantine
Empire and the Chinese dynasties—Sui, Tang, and Song—combined traditional sources of power and legitimacy (such as patriarchy, religion or land­owning elites) with innovations better suited to the current circumstances. (such as new methods of taxation, tributary systems or adaptation of religious institutions) 2. How did post­classical states avoid the mistakes of classical empires in the regions where classical empires collapsed?
Posted by Brown:
The other societies learned from the other ones and decided not to follow those patterns. For example, the

Posted by Powell:
The end of the Classical empires, which left most of the civilized world in uncivilized instability, called for reform in government. Most post­classical governments reconstituted governments following the collapse of empires, including the Byzantine
Empire and the Chinese dynasties­ Sui, Tang, and Song. The new growing post­classical powers focused on tradtional sources of power and legitimacy (such as patriarchy, religion, or landowning elites,) but added innovations better suited to the current circumstances (such as new methods of taxation, tributary systems or adaptation of religious institutions.)
They also had the problem of growing out of the ashes of chaos left by the classical world, and so strong centralized states were needed to maintain stability long enough to gain hold in the increasingly large and complex world. These centralized states, specifically the ones in China in the Tang and Song dynasties were run with bureaucracies, or an organization of appointed officials where power can be closely kept by an individual. B. In some places, new forms of governance emerged, including those developed in various
Islamic states (such as the Abbasids, Muslim Iberia or the Delhi sultanates), the Mongol
Khanates, and city­states. (such as in the Italian peninsula, East Africa or Southeast Asia)
C. Some states synthesized local and borrowed traditions. (such as Persian traditions influencing Islamic states or Chinese traditions influencing Japan) 3. What new forms of governance emerged in the post classical era?

Posted by Jim and Ethan Chervonski additions Feudalism became a new form of governance during the Middle Ages in Europe.
Feudalism had a strict hierarchy. At the top was a king, who had power over an entire territory (kingdom). Beneath him were nobles, who in exchange for military service and loyalty to the king were granted power over sections of the kingdom . The nobles divided their lands into smaller sections under the control of lesser lords called vassals.
These vassals could divide their lands into smaller pieces and give custody of them to subordinate vassals, who could also split their lands into even smaller places in the custody of even more subordinate vassals, and so on. The peasants were below the vassals. Everyone had to fulfill obligations to others at different levels in the hierarchy: to serve in the military, produce food, or serve those who were at a higher level. For example, a lesser­lord was obliged to his lord, and he was obliged to his vassals as well. Also, sultanates of the Muslim dynasties and kingdoms such as in the Umayyad,
Abbasid, and Turks emerged. A sultanate is a territory ruled by a sultan who is an
Islamic sovereign. One famous sultanate is the Delhi Sultanate from 1192 to 1398 that ruled in India. Sultanates were established during this period with an increasing Muslim pride in their religion. As Muslims became increasingly prideful, many great leaders established sultanates to rule its subjects under the primary influence of Islam. 4. How & where did governmental diffusion occur in the post­classical era? Posted by Powell:
“Some states synthesized local and borrowed traditions (such as Persian traditions influencing Islamic states or Chinese traditions influencing Japan).” ­quizlet post
The most obvious example of governmental diffusion during this period is in Europe, and the
Byzantine empire’s effects on the forming western European states. Feudalism, which developed during this time as a means of establishing economic cooperation in exchange for political protection, grew due to its ability to stabilize a government. As these feudal states grew and eventually became full monarchical states, they became greatly influenced by the byzantine empire, specifically through Christianity. The Byzantine emperor’s divine right made him, as well as the pope, who resided within the empire for several decades (and for a while, was only elected pope with the consent of the emperor,) major influential figures in Europe and in the rest of the Byzantine empire. Once the Byzantine empire lost control of the Italian peninsula, however, the European states began to fight for control of the Pope’s recognition and divine right. Charlemagne would eventually seize the title of “emperor of the holy roman empire” in 800 CE. However, the important aspect of it is the governmental diffusion that
Christianity spread into Europe. Directly, the Byzantines spread monarchy into Europe, as well did they directly give them the foot holdings to claim divine right by the Catholic Church.
Indirectly, they also facilitated the development of bureaucracies, as well as that of a senate,

both of which, at this time, could be controlled by the monarch, and were a vital part of the flexibility that the Byzantine empire and European states had in resisting collapse. This bureaucracy is also seen in China during this period, however it is more likely that this is coincidental, seeing as the Chinese and Europeans/Byzantines had few connections, apart from the long­reaching silk roads. D. In the Americas, as in Afro­Eurasia, state systems expanded in scope and reach: networks of city­states flourished in the Maya region, and, at the end of this period, imperial systems were created by the Mexica (“Aztecs”) and Inca. 5. How did states in the Americas develop in the post­classical era? Posted by Joyce, Tommy, Adelaine, Samantha, Jessica and Mr. Glenn: Mayan city­states: Pre­Classical ­ c. 2000 BCE to c. 250 CE
Classical Period ­ c. 250 CE to 900 CE ­ height of Mayan civilization
Post Classical ­ c. 900 CE to European arrival
Location: Gautamala, Honduras, Northern El Salvador, Belize, Southern Mexico to Yucatan
Peninsula

Politically, the Mayan polities differed from Incan and Mexica societies in that there were decentralized politically in the form of city­states as opposed to centralized imperial states.
Height of urbanization (i.e., Calakmul, Tikal, Palenque, Copan) occurred during Classical
Period. Like city­states previously studies, these independent polities were politically autonomous and geographically separated resulting in lower levels of economic interaction.
In other words, the Mayan world was characterized by a multitude of independent kingdoms.
Occasionally, small empires would develop and eventually be dissolved. Political conflict did, however, occur at times often as a result of competition for resources. Autonomous city­states served as political, economic and religious centers and were ruled by hereditary and divinely endorsed monarchs. These city­states which controlled a hierarchical arrangement of villages and hamlets in the surrounding hinterlands. The bonds between these city­states were cultural, as opposed to political. The cultural area was further characterized by a hieroglyphic writing system, a comprehensive calendar, monumental pyramids and palaces, stelae, a developed system of mathematics and astronomy, and grandiose ceremonies. Mexica/Aztec Empire: Commonly referred to as the Aztec Empire, the Triple Alliance was composed of
Tenochtitlan (located on an island in Lake Texcoco), Tlaxcala and Teotitlan. The Triple
Alliance ruled the Valley of Mexico from 1428 to 1521 (the arrival of Cortes). The empire has

often been described as a hegemonic and indirect rule. Subject states paid semi­annual tribute (i.e., food crops, textiles, jewelry, obsidian, cacao and rubber) and provided military support against the enemies of the alliance. While not directly occupying the tribute states, the ever present threat of the alliance military maintained political control. “Mexica society was rigidly hierarchical and patriarchal. The most elite social group were accomplished warriors who enjoyed great wealth and fulfilled positions of leadership as their council selected the Mexica ruler, discussed public issues, and filled government positions” (AP
Achiever, p. 180). The hierarchical structure included a priestly class presided over important religious ceremonies including ritual sacrifice deemed necessary for the continuity of the world and to ensure agricultural fertility and productivity. Tribute states and war captives were the source of sacrificial victims. Inca/Inka Empire: Previously occupied by a series of small regional states, the Andean region of South
American became dominated by the Inca society by the late 15th century. By this time, the empire stretched from modern day Ecuador to Argentina and from the Pacific to the Amazon rainforest with a population of 11 million. Cuzco was the administrative, religious and ceremonial center of the empire. The empire was ruled by a monarch (the Inca or Inka) thought to be the son of the Sun. He was considered divine providing legitimacy for his rule.
In theory, the monarch owned all property and administered the vast empire via a bureaucracy. An elaborate road system of nearly 10,000 miles facilitated transportation, communication and the deployment of military force throughout the empire (similar to the
Roman road system). While the Inca did not have a written language, a quipu system allowed for efficient communications and record keeping. Order was further maintained by captive peoples supplying hostages that were held in the capital to discourage rebellions. In addition, loyal conquered peoples were used to administer the empire, while newly conquered subjects were often transported to distant realms in the empire. The Inca also used a mita system to provide a labor supply for public works. Conquered peoples essentially paid tribute in the form of labor.

II. Inter­regional contacts and conflicts between states and empires encouraged significant technological and cultural transfers, for example between Tang China and the Abbasids, across the Mongol empires and during the Crusades. 6. What technological and cultural exchanges did states encourage in the post­classical era?
Posted by Sarah Hensey
● Religion
○ Want to spread Christianity (crusades)
○ Christian missionaries translated Christian scriptures/ church rituals into Slavic
+ Cyrillic writing
○ Islamic armies carry religion/ authority to Byzantine and Sassanid territories and further
○ Sufis (Islamic missionaries) attract converts
● Technology/ Knowledge

○ Silkworms from China in Byzantine and Sassanid empires
○ Banks/ business partnerships in the Byzantine empire from classical
Mediterranean business practices
○ Islamic empire encouraged experimentation with agricultural methods through travel and communication
○ Islamic empire adopted the Chinese printing technology after learning it from a captured Chinese prisoner
○ Islamic empire adopting maritime technologies
■ compass from Chinese
■ Lateen sail from southeast Asian/ Indian mariners
■ astrolabe from Hellenistic Mediterranean
○ Persian principal language of literature, poetry, history, and political reflection in
Islamic society
○ Indian mathematics (Hindi numerals), science, and medicine influenced Islamic societies because it simplified bookkeeping, treatment of ailments, and astronomical studies
○ Greek philosophy serve as foundations of scientific thought ● Goods/ Crops
○ Sugarcane, rice, new varieties sorghum/wheat, spinach, artichokes, eggplant, organs, lemons, limes, bananas, coconuts, watermelons, mangoes, cotton, indigo, henna = transplants from India to Persia, southwest Asia, Arabia, Egypt, north Africa, Spain, and Mediterranean islands
○ Lead to richer/ more varied diet
○ Quantities of food increase/ enable cultivators extend growing season
● Government Techniques
○ Islam borrowing administrative techniques from Persia
■ kingship­ Muslim caliphs/ regional governors”drew from Persian views of kings as wise and benevolent but nonetheless absolute rulers”
(WHAP textbook, 368)
○ China had a lot of government (and cultural)influence in both Korea and
Vietnam
■ bureaucracies
■ Confucianism
○ Southeast Asian ruling elites borrow Indian forms of pol organization (e.g. kingships as principal form of pol authority)

Key Concept 3.3 Increased Economic Productive Capacity and Its Consequences
Changes in trade networks resulted from and stimulated increasing productive capacity, with important implications for social and gender structures and environmental processes.
Productivity rose in both agriculture and industry. Rising productivity supported population growth and urbanization but also strained environmental resources and at times caused

dramatic demographic swings. Shifts in production and the increased volume of trade also stimulated new labor practices, including adaptation of existing patterns of free and coerced labor. Social and gender structures evolved in response to these changes. 1. What were the overall worldwide economic trends in the post­classical era? Posted by Adelaine
During the post­Classical era, the world economy grew as productivity rapidly increased, both driven by and driving population increase. Interregional trade encouraged competing of goods, driving innovations on goods as well as materials used to produce them. As population increased, volume of trade rose with it. Industries such as weapon production grew as battles between groups become more common, and tool production to keep up with the rise in metal working and agricultural production. Though there was not extensive diversification of the economy, its volume and productivity were both on the rise. I. Innovations stimulated agricultural and industrial production in many regions. A. Agricultural production increased significantly due to technological innovations. (such as
Champa rice varieties, the chinampa field systems, waru waru raised field cultivation in the
Andean areas, improved terracing techniques or the horse collar) 2. What new innovations affected agriculture in the post­classical era? Posted by Adelaine +Jessica Additions
Different techniques for agriculture were implemented during the Post­ Classical era to provide for the increasing population. In East Asia, Champa rice became a staple crop due to its fast growing time. It matures fast enough that it can go through two harvests in one growing season, so it is productive as a food source and a trade good. In mesoamerica, the chinampa field system, or “floating gardens” (soil beds with plants in them floated upon the surface of a lake) was used so that the city of Tenochtitlan, which was surrounded by water, would have a stable food source. In the Andes, the waru waru system (seeds were planted under layers of sod that was taken out to provide irrigation ditches and also provide nutrients and protection for the seeds) was used to produce crops such as potatoes, and terracing techniques were used to grow food crops on the mountainous terrain. In Europe, technological developments such as the horse collar led to more efficient plowing, sowing, and harvesting tactics, because horses and other beasts of burden tend to be stronger and more durable than humans, so they can do harder work without tiring. Also, planting techniques such as field rotation allowed for the nitrogen recovery of soil while still producing crops by planting nitrogen­replenishing crops in fields previously made barren by years of nitrogen­stripping plant cultivation.

<­­Waru Waru farming method B. In response to increasing demand in Afro­Eurasia for foreign luxury goods, crops were transported from their indigenous homelands to equivalent climates in other regions. 3. How and why did crops migrate during the postclassical era?
Posted by: Tamayo Tucker
Crops migrated during the post classical era because during this era there were a rapid economic growth in the eastern hemisphere. The volume of long distance trade increased dramatically, and manufacture began to produce goods for the export rather than the local computation.the goods was exported commercially.{ The Post Classical Era} 500 to
1000 C.E. (AP textbook page 314­15)

C. Chinese, Persian, and Indian artisans and merchants expanded their production of textiles and porcelains for export; industrial production of iron and steel expanded in China. 4. How did textile and porcelain production develop in the post­classical era?
Posted by Sarah Hensey
As the societies of China, Persia, and India expanded their trade through land and maritime trade routes, they increased the production and distribution of both porcelain and

textiles. Large trading cities and emporiums, like in India, made it possible to specialize in certain goods and produce them in mass quantities. Before the Indian Ocean basin became a popular site of trade between China, India, and east Africa India could only manufacture its cotton textiles in small amounts exclusively for wealthy consumers. When the trade increased
India’s cotton textiles came into high demand by the foreign merchants that frequently visited the vast cosmopolitan centers, therefore allowing them to build large and prosperous industries specializing in cotton textile production.
Another region specializing in textiles was China; they were known for their high quality silk which was traded all across Eurasia along the “Silk” roads. Silk textiles had made such an impact on post­classical societies that when the Byzantine empire got a hold of silkworms they centered most of their economy on its production and regulations. The
Byzantine empire became a principal supplier of silk textiles, regulating the weaving, dyeing, and sales of it as to ensure the prevention of a monopoly. The Sassanid Empire (Persia) also borrowed Silk from China. Their main exports were (according to Wikipedia) “silk; woolen and golden textiles; carpets and rugs; skin; and, leather and pearls from the Persian Gulf”.
China was also a primary producer of porcelain pottery, Due to their new technological innovations during the Tang and Song dynasties they could produce high­quality porcelain that was lighter, thinner, and adaptable to more uses than before. Also the porcelain could be fired with glazed to make it more appealing to consumers. Once again astonished with the technological achievements of China, other societies also borrowed their method of porcelain making. One such society was the Abbasid, who produced it in high quantities. China continued to export high quantities of porcelain despite their competition and we have seen evidence of their pottery in southeast Asia, India, Persia, and east Africa. II. The fate of cities varied greatly, with periods of significant decline, and periods of increased urbanization buoyed by rising productivity and expanding trade networks. A. Factors that contributed to declines of urban areas in this period included invasions, disease, the decline of agricultural productivity, and the Little Ice Age. 5. Why did some post­classical urban areas decline? Posted by Adelaine +Jessica Corrections The decline of several post­Classical urban areas was on account of several reasons.
Invasions by nomadic groups such as the Huns, the Vikings, and later the Mongols led the the abandonment of some towns. Also, during the second half of the Post­Classical era, a
Little Ice Age took place, leading to the evacuation of many northern towns in favor of warmer towns where agriculture could still be practiced and for general comfort. Ultimately, disease was the major perpetrator of the decline of urban towns since it killed off a vast amount of people living in them due to contact with rats and close quarters to those contaminated with the disease. Also the decline of agricultural productivity that took place limited the food supplies for cities, causing a decline in urban populations. This decline in

production was often due to too many people participating in non­cultivation activities in favor of artisan or metalworking pursuits (specialization of labor).

B. Factors that contributed to urban revival included the end of invasions, the availability of safe and reliable transport, the rise of commerce and the warmer temperatures between 800 and 1300. Increased agricultural productivity and subsequent rising population and greater availability of labor also contributed to urban growth. 6. Why did some post­classical urban areas prosper and grow?
Posted by Adem A. +Adelaine Additions
Mostly because those urban areas had a stable government and a good economy.
Most of the time this led to growth which would always end in a downfall. Another factor could be that the ruler instilled fear into his people. Similar to what Machiavelli said, “it is better to be feared then be loved.” If you're feared then no one would dare anger you.
Cities also prospered due to a stable government by bureaucracies. They were not directly controlled by rulers of the empires, but rather had independent political and economic function. This allowed for stability, as well as freedom of good flow, since the economy was not directly regulated. Regarding the economy, market cities, such as Baghdad, Timbuktu,
Novgorod, Venice, Melaka, Hangzhou, and Calicut, as well as Swahili city states were able to grow due to the constant flow of merchants. People who wanted to get money migrated to cities to trade, bringing their culture along with them. Since transportation had become more reliable, it was more common for entire families to migrate and reside in the city rather than the patriarch and a few sons visiting it several times a year. Also, the advanced agricultural techniques led to a decrease in the amount of laborers needed to produce as much food, allowing people to pursue merchant and industrial (metal working, artisan work) activities in cities. (Above it says warmer weather from 800­1300, but wasn’t there a little Ice Age during that time? Does it mean migration to warmer areas?) C. While cities in general continued to play the roles they had played in the past as governmental, religious and commercial centers, many older cities declined at the same time that numerous new cities took on these established roles. NOTE: Students should be able to explain the cultural, religious, commercial and governmental function of at least two major cities. 7. What roles did cities play in their societies during the post­classical era? Posted by Adelaine (Incomplete....I didn’t elaborate on government, and someone may also need to add a list of major cities and characteristics/function)
Cities played the role as a center for government, economic exchange, and cultural trade. As new cities arose, people migrated there from the surrounding hinterland, bringing their goods and services as well as culture. Empires found interest in these growing cities, so governmental hierarchies were built alongside social hierarchies. The different cultures that

people brought to the city with them also helped mold the hierarchies, as well as help regulate how commercial trade was handled. In some cases, merchants were seen as a high class, such as within the Islamic world. Others, such as China, merchants were wealthy, but possessed a very low social status. Religions were exchanged in cities as well. With the constant flow of merchants, new religions and belief systems were introduced to the cities daily, which led to the establishment of missions and monasteries. Facilitating merchants also became a new industry, so on the side of their daily work, many families would board merchants into their home at night, until inns started being established and grew into a large industry of its own. The cultures of the cities also leaked into the surrounding areas, such as the case with the Swahili city states, so new languages and religions (in the Swahili region,
Islam) diffused, and sometimes mixed with traditional beliefs to create syncretic versions. Additional Information by Madison Hoover and Emily Sutton The government and political structures did not contribute major change to the post classical era (600 ­ 1450 CE). The spread of religion and increase in trade were far more important. While Eurasia was undergoing somewhat constant political change with countries trying to discover their place in the world, cities had more focus on the economy and culture, as elaborated on in the above passage. Major cities during the post classical era includes:
● Mecca: As Islam began its large spread all over Asia, the city of Mecca became very important. It was a requirement of all Muslims to make a pilgrimage to Mecca to see the Ka’ba, a building inside the great mosque at Mecca that housed the Black stone said to be given to the Islamic people by God, if they had the means available. III. Despite significant continuities in social structures and in methods of production, there were also some important changes in labor management and in the effects of religious conversion on gender relations and family life. 8. How did social and labor systems develop during the post­classical era?
(Posted by Taylor Garmon and Information from Experiencing World History pg 232­244) Not many significant changes occurred during this period, only the continuation and modification of the existing models of slavery. Islamic Civilizations:
­Domestic slavery persists, along with newer military slavery
­Only permitted to be in possession of non­Muslim slaves (slaves converted to Islam, or
Muslims born into slavery were not automatically set free)
­Muslims not permitted to sell themselves or their children into slavery
­CHANGE in that AGRICULTURAL SLAVERY became increasingly RARE during this period compared to the classical

­Two major groups for Islamic slavery: Slavs and Sub­Saharan Africans
­Military slavery: initiated with Turkish slave­soldiers in early 8th century; reached full force in
Abbasid caliphate
­Driven by need for control over a private military, necessary in time where assassinations and coups were common
­Turkish boys purchased at young age and trained in martial skills to serve as military slaves
­JANISSARIES: Christian boys of Anatolia region captured and forced to convert to Islam and trained in martial skills Feudalism and Manorialism in Europe (Dark Ages):
­Government breakdown due to constant Germanic flow over borders caused free peasants to seek defender and military protection in exchange for labor on latifundia
­Serfs cluster around manor and cultivate lord's land or surplus of own production; sources of income vanished
­(GLOBAL CONTEXT AND CONTRAST: As urban centers grew and prospered under
Islamic rule, cities began to diminish as population declined and reverted back to small settlements as result of Dark Ages in Europe)
­ With advent of moldboard plow (requiring 8 oxen to use) peasants were forced to combine resources; communal fields (combination of the peasants' land)
­12th century brings Medieval Ages: improved agriculture leads to increased population and trade; granted serfs opportunity to become free and lead lives in cities; leading to new social classes opposed to basic lord­serf hierarchy of Dark Ages and urban labor force grows
­Guilds begin to form
­Black plague and shortage of labor initially leads to high wages, but maximum wage limits are soon set
­Transition back to serfdom not possible after Black Plague, as aristocracy were unable to maintain manorial system Serfdom in Postclassical Japan:
­Similar system to Europe

­Relied on rice cultivation
­GLOBAL CONTEXT AND CONTRAST: greater sense of cohesion as communal practices were necessary for effective irrigation and using of resources, as appossed to less effective
Europe
­Diamyo control samurai who function as private armies for warring coalitions Labor in China:
­Avoiding fall into manorial system, Tang China experienced great success
­Tang government enforced system allowing PEASANTS TO OBTAIN EQUAL ALLOTMENT
IN FIELDS
­CONTINUATION of Han's CONTROL OVER LAND DISTRIBUTION lead to independent peasantry and prosperity
­Aided by great technological innovation
­(GLOBAL CONTEXT AND CONTRAST: While China increased productivity through tech innovation, the realm of Islam relied on adding more low­paid workers)
­Song gives rise to urban centers and considerable manufacturing
­(GLOBAL CONTEXT AND CONTRAST: Manufacturing in Song China was nearly completely controlled by the state, not allowing for guilds to form as in Europe)
­Artisan class was conscripted by state and harshly regulated Labor Systems in Latin America (Big section, so I will hit the highest points):
­Very prosperous time for Latin America, especially in Meso­America (Mexico)
­Work patterns revolved around two main crops: maize and potatoes
­GLOBAL CONTEXT AND CONTRAST: while the two major crops were very simple to grow and were much less labor intensive, the geographical features of Latin America (mountains and jungles) were not suited for great surplus as Europe; making the at­first every simple crops cause a much higher demand for labor
­As result of this, labor systems in Latin America greatly differed from any existing durin this period ­Characterized by sophisticated methods of agriculture with relatively unsophisticated technology ­CONTRAST: metallurgy, a staple of western agricultural production, was only used for ornaments in Latin America; causing them to rely on agricultural methods to produce
­Furthermore, LA had little animal force compared to western countries
­Mayan society featured the most egalitarian system of Latin America
­Many societies, being authoritarian, sent out agricultural colonies to supply the society
­While the many different societies in LA differed in their labor system, common themes are the FORCED EXTRACTION OF PEOPLES TO DO LABOR (especially Incan) which will later be seen with European conquerors

ALL OF THIS INFORMATION WAS FOUND IN THE "EXPERIENCING WORLD HISTORY"
BOOK. IT IS A GREAT RESOURCE!

A. As in the previous period, the main forms of labor organization included free peasant agriculture, nomadic pastoralism, craft production and guild organization, along with various forms of coerced and unfree labor and government imposed labor taxes and military obligations. 9. What pre­existing labor systems continued through the post­classical era? Posted by Sarah Hensey
○ free peasant agriculture
■ In the Byzantine Empire the “theme system” strengthened free peasantry: made land available to those who perform military service
■ But, over time (by 13th century) more and more larger estates became prevalent causing peasants to become dependent on them and decreasing the free peasant rural population
■ The serfs and peasant class in Europe
○ nomadic pastoralism

○

○

○

○

■ “Islam society continued to follow its nomadic and mercantile Arabian society from which Islam arose” (WHAP textbook, 346)
■ The Bedouin peoples were nomadic peoples with kinship groups in the
Arabian peninsula who herded sheep, goats, camels and migrated across the deserts craft production
■ textiles, pottery, glassware, leather, iron, steel etc
■ “Artisans and crafts workers usually lived in rooms above their shops (In the Byzantine Empire)” and “Byzantine crafts workers enjoyed a reputation especially for their glassware, linen and woolen textiles, gems, jewelry, and fine works in gold and silver” (WHAP textbook, 330
& 326) guild organization
■ As trade increased in Indian society so did merchant and artisan guilds
■ Indian subcastes (jati) often took form in workers’ guilds: they forge group identities by specialized commerce forced/ unfree labor
■ Roman and Germanic societies had slaves and peasants do agricultural tasks ­ pledged labor to their lord in exchange for security and land to cultivate (serfdoms and manors) government imposed labor taxes/ military obligations
■ Large landowners in the Byzantine empire raised military recruits from the peasant class
■ “Large estates did not contribute to imperial tax coffers at the rate of small peasants’ holdings” (WHAP textbook, 326)

B. As in the previous period, social structures were shaped largely by class and caste hierarchies. Patriarchy persisted; however, in some areas, women exercised more power and influence, most notably among the Mongols and in West Africa, Japan and Southeast Asia. 10. How did social and gender hierarchies develop in the post­classical era? Posted by Adelaine
In regions such as India, previously established systems (ex. the Caste/Varna system) were still utilized, but in the majority of regions, the established systems encountered innovations and slight changes. In West Africa, women retained their rights despite the
Islamic influence. Ibn Battuta expressed his concern with this as he finds that women are
‘exposed’ and ‘overly present’ in the western African societies during his travels. In Japan, military became the dominant influence, but women were now able to go out in public without being accompanied by a male, and occasionally influenced provincial lords in political affairs.
China had always been a strictly patriarchal society, but Vietnam had not. As China occupied and controlled Vietnam, the women rebelled by refusing to bow to the Chinese and continuing their participation in economic activities. Once the Mongols conquered a large portion of Asia,

women (excluding those in civilian China) gained a wider influence as consistent with Mongol customs. In some cases, the women was actually the one ruling with a male present only as a puppet or figurehead. Either way, during the Mongol period, women held a much greater participation in political and economic activities than they did in previous times. C. New forms of coerced labor appeared including serfdom in Europe and Japan and the elaboration of the mit’a in the Inca Empire. Free peasants resisted attempts to raise dues and taxes by staging revolts. (such as in China or the Byzantine Empire) The demand for slaves for both military and domestic purposes increased particularly in central Eurasia, parts of
Africa and the eastern Mediterranean. 11. What new labor forms developed in the postclassical era? Posted By: Brooke B During the postclassical era new technological innovations increased agricultural productivity.In western Europe, external invasions began to decline, leading to a polulation increase and demand for more goods. With this population increase more labor was provided for the agricultural systems, such as serfdom in Europe as well as Japan. Free peasants turned their lands over to lords for protection and staged revolts because they refused to adhere to the raise in taxes and dues. After many Amerindians died from the diseases
Europeans brought to America, they needed more domestic and military help, as a result slave trade from Africa began and continued through most of the era. Slave labor became very important in the Americas. Also the mita and encomienda systems in South America were adapted from native Spanish and Portuguese traditions. D. The diffusion of Buddhism, Christianity, Islam and Neo­ Confucianism often led to significant changes in gender relations and family structure. 12. Why did some gender roles and family structures change in the post­classical era? Posted by Jim Although Islamic society was still patriarchal, women in the Islamic world began to gain some considerable influence. In Arabia, women traditionally did not have property rights or inheritance rights; rather, women were viewed as property themselves. If a man divorced a woman, he would keep her dowry. Thus, women had low status, and female infanticide was common. However, between 651 and 652, the Qu’ran changed much of this. Although women remained subservient to men, they had more dignity and legal rights and were considered equal before Allah. If a man divorced his wife, he would have to return her dowry. Infanticide also became forbidden. Khadija, Muhammad's first wife, had been a successful businesswoman, for example. Chinese women lived in a patriarchal society during the Tang Dynasty. One exception was

the rise of Wu Zhao, who became the first known Empress of China after the death of her husband, Emperor Gaozong. However, the majority of women in China never gained that kind of power and were considered inferior by men. During the Song Dynasty, a new Confucianism justified the subordination of women, and foot binding became a common practice. A woman’s feet would be bound so that they would remain small. Men considered large feet as masculine and ugly.Period 3: Regional and Transregional Interactions, c. 600 to c. 1450
CE
+

Key Concept 3.1 Expansion and Intensification of Communication and Exchange
Networks

Though Afro­Eurasia and the Americas remained separate from each other, this era witnessed a deepening and widening of old and new networks of human interaction within and across regions. The results were unprecedented concentrations of wealth and the intensification of crosscultural exchanges. Innovations in transportation, state policies and mercantile practices contributed to the expansion and development of commercial networks, which in turn served as conduits for cultural, technological, and biological diffusion within and between various societies. Pastoral or nomadic groups played a key role in creating and sustaining these networks. Expanding networks fostered greater interregional borrowing while at the same time sustaining regional diversity. Significantly, Islam, a major religion, emerged at the start of this period and spread quickly through practices of trade, warfare, and diffusion characteristic of this period. 1. How did trade networks in the post­Classical Era compare to the Classical Era?

Posted by Adelaine
The trade networks of the post­Classical era were much larger in volume and size than those of the Classical era, especially maritime ventures. Stability of empires, advances in technology, and increased desire for foreign goods allowed for the increase in exchange of goods, and contact remained sustained due to demand, whereas in the
Classical period, societies and regions were more self­sufficient, so trade was inconsistent. Posted by: Shaima S.
While trade was still greatly visible during the Classical era, during the post­classical era, trade flourished more and became more of a global practice.While at first it was mostly
Europe and central Asia trading with each other, now East Asia and India also began playing a role in trade. China began producing larger ships for trade and India and South West Asia began supplying the world with more textiles. Also, trade routes during the classical era were mostly focused on economic activities, but during the post­classical era, trade routes were also used to spread religions and cultural ideas. During this time period, trade was economic, but it was also greatly about cultural diffusion.

2. What new technologies, governmental policies, and merchant activities accompanied these developments? Posted by Adelaine +Jessica Corrections
● Technologies: Larger, more efficient boats (Chinese junks, Arab/Indian dhows), systems of credit (checks {first appeared in the middle east}, flying credit, banking houses), camel saddle
● Governmental policies: Citizenship becomes a bigger deal, provide benefits to merchants such as reduction of taxes, free facilities, and protection along trade routes (which was important to facilitate trade because of the constant threat of robbery or assault)
● Merchant Activities: Establishment of places to rest (inns, monasteries), increased interest in and spread of religion (Buddhism, Islam, Christianity), further travels due to heightened sense of monetary and physical security, begin to produce/sell staple crops, able to carry heavier goods via maritime routes

Baron’s on Eastern Hemisphere trade 600­1450:
­Commercial centers in Nishapur, Bukhara, and Samarkand facilitated the revival of trade over the Silk Road (perpetuated by Muslims)
­Classical roads, originally commissioned by India and Persia and revived by Muslims, provided quick and efficient travel through the dar al­Islam
­Overland trade was conducted by camel caravan (camels are better suited to deserts than horses or donkeys)
­Caravanseries provided lodging, food, and water for traveling merchants and their animals ­Technological advances, such as the compass, the lateen sail, and the astrolabe led to increasing travel in the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Arabian Sea, and Indian Ocean
­Abbasids encouraged larger­scale trade by reinstituting letters of credit­sakk (checks, an idea later used in Europe) 3. What role did pastoral and nomadic groups play in these trade networks?

Posted by Powell
Pastoral and nomadic groups played a similar role as they had in the past: that of groups to grow livestock, however, in this period they additionally facilitated the growth and development of cross­cultural exchanges.
In the Sahara, caravans of camels could cross in 70­90 days (Baron’s.) This trans­saharan trade transfered gold, slaves, and ivory from the South to the North, in

exchange for cloth, horses, salt, and manufactured wares. This was also the route on which the dar al­Islam spread.
(Taylor Garmon)
Furthermore, nomadic peoples (especially the Mongols) were responsible for escorting merchants along the Silk Roads and the cities established by the nomadic peoples became increasingly important as traveling caravans used these cities as pit­stops in their journey to get supplies, also leading to the rapid growth of these cities along the trade routes. I. Improved transportation technologies and commercial practices led to an increased volume of trade, and expanded the geographical range of existing and newly­active trade networks. 4. How did the physical size of post­Classical trade networks compare to the previous era?

Posted by Adelaine +Jessica Corrections
In comparison to the Classical Era, Post­Classical trade networks were much larger due to increased interaction between previously fighting states/groups, as well as advances in technology and methods of trade. The width of the routes stayed about the same, ranging from East Asia (major city: Chang'an) to the Mediterranean (major city Antioch, though evidence for further extension into Western Europe as well) and separately northeastern Africa to northwestern Africa, but they begin to range farther north to south, as well as incorporate coastal regions as the maritime trade grew, namely in the
Indian Ocean Basin.