long term memory

*encoding: process of acquiring information & getting it into LTM

maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal

Maintenance rehearsal: rehearsing without making meaning or connections with other information. helps maintain information in the stm/wm but not an effective way of transferring information into long term memory. shallow processing

Elaborative rehearsal: more effective at transferring into LTM. think about meaning or make connections from something we know to item. deep processing

level of processing theory

Levels of processing theory: memory depends on how information is encoded or programmed into the mind/depth of processing item receives; deeper processing results in better encoding and retrieval than shallow processing.

shallow is when it involves little attention to meaning. occurs when attention is focuses on physical features, eg whether word is printed in lowercase or caps.

Deep processing: involves close attention, focus on meaning and relating to something else. considering how it may be useful in particular situation or creating image of item in relation to another item. results in better memory

research showing that encoding influences retrieval vary encoding, and measure how retrieval (memory performance) is affected
--> increases richness of representation in memory by providing connections between material to be remembered and other material in memory

placing words in complex sentence increases retrieval. create connections forming visual images that connect words visually enhances memory: Paired-associate learning: when list of word pairs presented, later on first word of each pair is presented and participant task is to remember word it is paired with.. creating connections linking words to self: Self-reference effect: memory is better if you are asked to related a word to yourself. creating connections
Self-reference effect, Rogers, Kuiper and Kirker (1977) experiment: participants presented with a question for 3 seconds followed by brief pause and then a word. task was to answer question yes/no after seeing the word. 
eg: question: describes you? , present word: shy?, answer question: yes result: tested recall, for words with yes response, participants more likely remember words they rated as describing themselves. ascending order-- size, rhyme, meaning, describes you conclusion: words become link to something participants know well- the self. more detailed representation in persons mind results in better memory.
Generation effect generating information yourself rather than passively receiving enhances learning and retention. active creation
Organization of information: memory system uses organization to access information. remembering words in particular category may serve as retrieval cue (words/stimulus that helps person remember information stored in memory- for other words in that category.) by recalling in groups, presenting in organized way, creating meaningful framework

Word list recall and organization, Bousfield (1953) procedure: given 60 item list from several different categories & randomized list to be learned/memorized for free recall. 
conclusion: even though list was random, participants presented them in self imposed categories to aid recall--> (category clustering phenomenon, organizing tendency)

Categories and recall, Bower, Clark, Lesgold and Winzenz (1969) experiment: if words presented randomly become organized in the mind, what happens when words are presented in an organized way from the beginning during encoding? procedure: presented material to be learned in an organizational tree which organized number of words according to categories. names of diff minerals by grouping together precious stones, rare metals and so on. 
group 1: studies 4 separate trees for minerals, animals, clothing and transportation. asked to recall as many as possible from all 4 trees. 
--result: tended to organize responses in same way tree was organized. avg of 73% words from all 4 trees 
group2: saw 4 trees but words were randomized so each tree contained random assortment. 
--result: 21% recalled. conclusion: organizing material to be remembered results in better recall.

Testing effect: enhanced performance due to testing material resulting in better memory than re-reading material. active creation

*Retrieval: getting information out of memory

retrieval cues

Cued recall: type of recall procedure, participant presented with retrieval cues typically phrases to aid in recall of previously experienced stimuli.

Word presentation, word association and memory accuracy, Mantyla (1986)
Experiment: demonstration of power of retrieval cues
Procedure 1: presented participants with list of 600 nouns eg banana. during learning, told to write down three words they associated with each noun. eg yellow, bunches. then take surprise memory test, and presented with 3 words they created and asked to produce original word. 
---result: able to remember 90% of the 600.
Procedure 2: did not create the 3 word cues on own but generated by someone else. later when presented with 3 word cues
---result: 55%
Procedure 3: test possibility that without original noun people can produce the original word with just the cues.
--results: 17% nouns guessed from given cues. conclusion: retrieval cues (3 words) provide extremely effective information for retrieving memories, and more significant and effective when created by self.

matching conditions of encoding and retrieval

retrieval can be increased by matching conditions at retrieval to conditions existed at coding eg location of something. remember the source...
3 situations in which retrieval is increase by matching conditions at retrieval to conditions at encoding.

Encoding specificity: matching the context/physical situation in which encoding and retrieval occur. 
Context-dependent memory argument that matching the context for encoding and recall can improve memory performance. (Studying and taking the test in the same room)

Encoding specificity effect, Tulving and Thomson (1973) demonstrated that, under some conditions, weak associates of words can be better retrieval cues than strong associates. when and how retrieval cues are effective for episodic memory. procedure: presented with list of 24 weakly associated cue-target pairs eg glue-chair. and asked to generate 4 free associates from words strongly associated to target chair, eg table. 
-- generate & recognize--- asked to indicate which 4 words they generated had occurred in original list. 
---cued-recall----presented with the original cues eg glue and asked to recall the original target items. results: generate & recognize phase, 53% recognition. 61% retrieved in cued-recall phase conclusion: retrievl of information more likely when there is overlap between the context at encoding and context at retrieval-when it is high. the cued recall phase reinstates the context at encoding well by providing the actual cue words. while the generate and reconising phases do not reinstate the cue (encoding context), and the generated associations differ ditinctly to context at encoding 
----therefore: memory improved when information available at encoding is also available at retrieval. eg. the encoding specificity principle predict that recall for information would be better if subjects were tested in the same room studied in versus having studied in one room and tested in different room

Encoding specificty and ambiguous words, Light and Carter-Sobell (1970) procedure: presented sentences that included two capitalised and underlined words, ‘The STRAWBERRY JAM tasted great'. 
- The recall test (which participants expected) consisted of old sentences (ones presented in the list/part a), new sentences, and modified sentences (consist old and a new items)- The TRAFFIC JAM was terrible. 
-asked to identify underlined and capitalised words as old or new, (whether in different sentence or with different word next to it.) results: when JAM was presented in the exact same context recognized 65 per cent of the time and when in new context recognised 25 per cent of the time. conclusion: demonstrates the effects of context, as the sentence (i.e. the task) provides the cue for recognition.

List learning and environment, Godden and Baddeley (1975) experiment: demonstrating encoding specificity procedure: one group of participants put on diving equipment and studied a list of words underwater, another group studied words on land. groups divided so half participants in the land _ water groups were tested for recall on land. and half tested underwater. results: best recall occurred when encoding and retrieval occurred in same location. conclusion: study in the environment similar to environment in which you will be tested. in study situation, may want to duplicate condition that occurs during the exam. 

Imagery during word presentation, Geiselman and Glenny (1977) experiment part 1: introduced to one male and one female voice by tape recording and instructed to attend to characteristics of voices. Then 18 pairs of words were presented visually on slides. 
--a. task during each 10-sec interslide interval was to repeat silently the pair of words over and over again in the male voice, in the female voice, or in own voice. 
--b. surprise recognition test for the words was then given. 
results: words more likely to be recognized if they were spoken in the same Voice at test as was used in part a. Recognition of the words repeated in own voice was not affected by the sex of the speaker at test. experiment part 2: different speakers were used at test b than those used by the subjects to repeat the words a. The interaction between the sex of voice used at encoding and at test was again significant, but recognition was generally lower than in Exp 1. conclusion from both: not necessary to assume we have literal copies of spoken words in memory but speaker’s voice does form an integral part of verbal memory code and its influence is specific to a given speaker as well as to a given class of speakers (male or female).

State-dependent learning: leaning associated with particular internal state eg mood, feeling state of awareness. memory will be better when persons internal state during retrieval matches his or her internal state during encoding.

3. Transfer-appropriate learning: matching processing that is going on in persons head. memory performance enhanced if type of task at encoding matches type of task at retrieval. 

Transfer-appropriate processing, Morris, Bransford and Franks (1977) procedure: 2 parts encoding and retrieval encoding: both conditions heard sentence with one word replaced by word “blank”, 2 second later heard target word. eg the blank had a silver engine. target word: train
1) meaning condition-task focus on meaning of a word. answer yes/no based on meaning of sentence created by replacing blank with target word. rhyming condition-task focuses on sound of word yes/no based on rhyme retrieval part: both groups given rhyming recognition test. procedure: given 32 words that rhyme with one target word presented in encoding, and 32 that did not rhyme. rhyme words always diff from target word and rhyming word presented during encoding. asked to indicated if word presented during retrieval rhymed with target word.. if they remembered it. results: those in rhyming group remembered more words than participants who were in meaning group during encoding. because they experience same type of task rhyming during both encoding and retrieval. conclusion: support transfer appropriate processing. deepening processing at encoding does not always result in better retrieval, as Levels of processing poses. and matching the encoding and retrieval tasks results in better retrieval.

part of study more effectively techniques
Spacing effect: memory is better when studying is broken into number of short session with breaks in between then one long concentrated session advantage for short study sessions.

*memory and the brain

experiences causes changes at the synapse

Long-term potentiation: outcome of changes in synapse. enhanced firing of neurons after repeated stimulation. long term potentiation illustrated by firing records, first tim neuron A is stimulated, neuron B (receiving neuron) fires slowly. after repeated stimulation, B fires much more rapidly to same stimulus. ltm is important because it shows that repeated stimulation causes not only structural changes by enhanced responding. experience can cause changes at synapse, memories for particular experience cause changes in thousands of synapses, and particular experience is represented by pattern of firing across this group of neurons. idea of memories being represented by pattern of firing is similar to idea of distributed coding.

forming memories in the brain: the process of consolidation

Remote memories: memory for events that occurred long ago. less sever for concussions related to retrograde amnesia (not being able to remember things that occurred before) memory for recent events are more fragile

Consolidation: process that transforms newly formed memories from fragiel state to more permanent state (more resistent to disruption). can stabilize memory for events as time passes. process involves reorganization in nervous system occurring at 2 levels:

1. Synaptic consolidation: occurs at synapses and happens rapidly over period of minutes.
System consolidation: gradual recognition of circuits within brain regions and takes place on a longer time scale, lasting weeks, months or even years.

Standard model of consolidation: memory retrieval depends on hippocampus during consolidation, but that once consolation is complete, retrieval is no longer depends on hippocampus. 7.21 figure add incoming information activates a number of areas in cortex. activation is distributed across cortex memories involve a many sensory and cognitie areas sights smells feelings.. cortex communicates activity of different cortical areas (points in cortex not yet connected with each other) major mechanism of consolidation is Reactivation: process where hippocampus replays neural activity associated with a memory. activity occurs in netwrok connecting hippocampus and cortex. results in formation of connections between cortical areas. occurs during sleep or relaxed wakefulness and enhanced b conscious rehearsing of a memory. eventually cortical connections become strong enough so different sites become directly linked and hippocampus is no longer necessary.
... hippocampus is strongly active when memories are first formed. but less active as memories are consolidated until eventually only cortical activity is necessary to retrieve remote memories.

disagreement regarding hippocampus only important at the beginning of consolidation
Multiple trace hypothesis: hippocampus involved in retrieval of remote memories, especially episodic memories.

Are memories ever permanent?

Classical conditioning training in rats, Nader, Shafe and Le Doux (2000a)
Experiment: question the idea that once consolidation has occurred, memory cannot be disrupted. proposal of process called reconsolidation that can occur after a memory is initially consolidated. process which occurs after memory has been retrieved
Procedure: in each condition, rat receives a tone shock pairing and injected with anisomycin (antibiotic that inhibits protein synthesis and prevents changes at synapse responsible for forming new memories. key to experiment is WHEN anisomycin is injected. condition 1 & 2 normal memory consolidation condition 1: day 1 rat receives tone and shock-condition occurs. day2: receives anisomycin after consolidation occurred. day3: rat still fears tone condition 2: day1: receives tone and shock..drug injected right away before consolidation occurs. day 3: rat does not freeze to tone. rat behaves as never received tone shock paring because possibility of forming stable memory wiped out by drug condition 3/crucial: day1-rate receives pairing of tone shock. day 2: tone only is presented again and rat freezes due to condition on day 1.. response to tone here is reactivation eliciting a memory after initial event. immediately after reactivation, drug is injected. day 3: rat no freeze.
Results: reactivating memory on day 2, memory became vulnerable to disruption and injecting drug eliminated memory for tone-shock pairing.
Conclusion: condition 3 shows that when memory is reactivated/retrieved, becomes vulnerable fragile/susceptible to change just as when immediately after first formed. after memory is reactivated is must go through
Reconsolidation: similar to consolidation that occur after initial learning but apparently occur more rapidly. just as original memory is fragile until consolidated first time, reactivated memory becomes fragile until reconsolidated therefore.. reconsolidation provides opportunity for reinforcing or updating memories. rather than fixed, can evolve to deal with new situations

Recall and consolidation, Hupbach, Gomez, and Nadel (2007)
Procedure: does it occur in humans?
Experiment: participants learned a list of words list 1 on day 1 day 2. no-reminder-group learned new list of words list 2, and reminder-group also learned list 2 but before learning list asked to remember day 1 training session without actual recall just reminding them of their learning. day3: asked to remember list 1
Results: no-reminder-group recalled 45% from list 1 and only 5% from list 2. reminder-group recalled 36% list 1 and 24% list 2 mistakingly.
Conclusion: reminder on day 2 reactivated memory for list 1 making it vulnerable to change & because had to learn list 2 right away, some words became opened the door for changes into memory for list 1. 

Pragmatic inference referring to inference that occurs when reading or hearing a statement leads a person to expect something that is not explicitly stated or necessarily implied by the statement. Ch. 8 term