Theories of Crime Causation

Theories of Crime Causation
Colleen Garland
CJ102: Criminology
Kaplan University
3/9/15

Abstract
This paper will look at different theories in Criminology that are used to describe why crime occurs. The theories that will be looked at are Rational Choice Theory, General Theory of Crime, and Labeling Theory. The elements of each theory will be defined, any similarities or differences will be looked at, and finally any necessary improvements to each theory will be discussed.
Theories of Crime Causation
During this term, many different theories concerning crime causation were discussed. Each theory provided a believable and valid reason for explaining why crime occurs. There is only one problem-one theory cannot explain why every type of crime occurs or why some people become criminals and why others do not. This is why it is necessary to look at several theories of crime causation in order to determine why crime may occur.
Rational Choice Theory
Rational Choice Theory simply states that if the benefits of committing a crime outweigh the consequences, then a person may choose to commit a crime. Theorists believe that crimes are both offense-specific and offender-specific. Offense-specific refers to how an offender may deal with certain circumstances of a crime. For example, an offender would look at the ease of leaving the scene of a crime and if there is any surveillance to capture them committing the crime. The view that crime is offender-specific refers to how an offender evaluates his situation prior to committing a crime. An example of this would be an offender would make sure he has the skills necessary in order to commit a crime or whether there are other legal alternatives to committing a crime (Cornish & Clarke, 2014, p. 1-4). According to Rational Choice Theory, there are factors that an individual must consider before completing a criminal act. The first factor is if there is an opportunity or a need to commit the crime. An individual who needs money may look at robbing a convenience store as an easy opportunity to get some quick money. Another factor is an individual’s situation. If a person is under a tremendous amount of stress, they may be more likely to commit a crime. In the example above, the individual may have been under a great amount of stress to pay rent or a bill, thus robbing the convenience store would have provided the relief of stress needed. An individual may also question whether he has the ability to commit the crime. Looking at the person trying to rob the convenience store, he may determine that he has a weapon that would allow him to easily get away with the money he needs (Cornish & Clarke, 2014, p. 3-6).
In addition, Rational Choice Theory looks at where a crime may occur and if there are targets available. Criminals will typically choose a readily available area to commit a crime. Vacant buildings and dark alleys are prime spots for drug deals to take place. Locations that are easily exited in order to elude authorities are also prime spots for criminal activity to take place. Criminals will also look at available targets in an area, in order to determine if their needs are able to be met and the ease of availability. A drug addict may choose to rob a pharmacy for certain drugs or a burglar will break into a home when someone is on vacation (Siegel, 2014, p. 87-88). In summary, Rational Choice Theory states that if there is a need, opportunity, and available target, then there is a probability that someone will be motivated to commit a crime.
General Theory of Crime
Gottfredson and Hirschi combined multiple theories to come up with the General Theory of Crime. The main point in this theory is that people who commit crimes have a low level of self-control and may be impulsive. Self-control is defined as the ability of individual to restrain his thoughts, feelings, and actions. Impulsiveness is defined as acting out or speaking without thinking (Siegel, 2014, p. 241). Gottfredson and Hirschi believe that low self-control stems from poor parenting skills-parents who do not monitor their child’s behavior or provide inconsistent or overly harsh discipline. Also, children who lack a strong attachment to their parents, have weak social bonds, and have criminal parents are also likely to develop low self-control. Gottfredson and Hirschi also state that opportunity plays a factor in crime causation. If both an individual with low self-control and an opportunity to commit a crime are available, then there is a significant chance that a crime may be committed (Hirschi & Gottfredson, 1993).
Labeling Theory. Labeling Theory states that crime can produce a stigma for the offender and any label attached to that offender can cause him to commit further crimes. Labeling Theory has four main elements. The first one is that criminal acts are subjective. Acts that are considered to be are a crime are only considered to be so because an individual or a group of individuals deemed them as such. For example, up until recently, casinos were illegal in the state of Massachusetts and in Connecticut, they are legal. The second element is that those who are powerful determine what acts are considered criminal. Those in powerful positions have the final say so in determining what becomes passes as a law and what acts are criminal and punishable in nature. Looking at the state of Massachusetts and the allowance of casinos, past politicians and law makers vetoed any bill allowing for a casino to be built. Once there were different politicians elected, the laws were changed to reflect the views of those in power. The third element states that acts and people are labeled as either a crime or as a criminal. Society labels certain acts like rape and murder as crimes, and the people that commit those crimes are not just criminals, but are labeled as a rapist or murderer. The final element of Labeling Theory states that positive and negative labels are subjective to the interpretation of the behavior. An individual is only a thief because someone labeled him as such (Siegel, 2014, p.185).
Negative labels can have a profound effect on an individual’s life, especially when those labels come from a person’s friends, family, or from those in authority. There is a correlation between being negatively labeled and the treatment from one’s community, work, friends, and family. This negative treatment can cause an individual to gravitate towards others who have been also negatively labeled, which can cause them to commit further crimes. In addition, there is a direct correlation between negative labeling and recidivism rates (Wellford, 1975).
According to Labeling Theory, there are two forms of deviance, primary and secondary. Primary deviance is the petty crimes and minor violations that go unnoticed and generally do not have any impact on one’s life. An example of this would be someone not using their seat belt while driving. If this person does not get caught, then there is very little impact to his life. Secondary deviance concerns the criminal acts that come to the attention of others, like law enforcement. These acts are negatively labeled, and the individuals who committed the acts are also negatively labeled. Secondary deviance would be applied to someone who steals food for his family and gets called a thief (Siegel, 2014, p. 188-189).
Labeling theorists claim that crime is caused by those who negatively label and stigmatize others. The people who tend to feel the biggest impact of labeling theory are the poor, minorities, powerless, and juveniles. Since these groups are the most likely to have a run in with the system, they are also the most likely to be labeled (Wellford, 1975). Juveniles may feel the impact of being labeled the most, especially if they do not receive any positive support from parents. Negative labels add up over time, causing poor school performance and failure. These factors can contribute to a juvenile’s increase in criminal and deviant activity (Siegel, 2014, p. 190-191).
Similar or Different? Both Rational Choice Theory and the General Theory of Crime look at available opportunities and willing offenders in explaining crime causation. Rational Choice Theory believes that people choose to commit crime because the benefits outweigh the punishments, and General Theory of Crime states that in order to commit a crime, a person must have low self-control. Both of these theories work together in holding an offender responsible for his actions. Labeling Theory looks at crime causation from a different angle. According to Labeling Theory, law enforcement agencies, the court system, and society are play a major role in crime causation. This theory holds that by placing a negative label on an individual, there is a very high chance of him committing further crimes.
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References
Cornish, D. B., & Clarke, R. V. (Eds.). (2014). The Reasoning Criminal: Rational Choice Perspectives on Offending. Transaction Publishers.
Hirschi, T., & Gottfredson, M. R. (1993). Commentary: Testing the general theory of crime. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 30(1), 47-54
Siegel, L. J. (2014). Criminology: The Core, 5e, 5th Edition. [VitalSource Bookshelf version]. Retrieved from http://online.vitalsource.com/books/9781285965543/page/188
Wellford, C. (1975). Labelling Theory and Criminology: An Assessment. Social Problems, (3). 332-345.