Pestoff's Three Relationships With Public Actors

Pestoff (2013b) identifies three relationships citizens have with public actors: interdependence, where they rely on each other; supplementary, where non-public agents substitute public actors; and complementary, where non-public agents add value to public service. Every day, citizens carry out activities that could not be carried out by the state, particularly in the areas of policing, health, and education. The benefits of co-production exist in most instances where the state is not directly involved, such as individuals “monitoring their blood sugar, and taking their insulin shots”, or “arranging fund-raising events for their son or daughter’s local elementary school” (Pestoff, 2013b). In general terms, co-production benefits both citizens