Movements For Liberal Reform And Revolution

Movements for Liberal Reform and Revolution- In decade following Congress of Vienna, conservative regimes=successful in maintaining order as only revolutions in Greece and Latin America succeeded, but late 1820’s brought new series of challenges. Russia, France, and Great Britain would deal w/ these new demands/problems in own unique ways.* Russia – Suppression:-- Secret societies developed in military. The Southern Society=more radical (republicans; no serfdom) while the Northern Society=more moderate. They did agree on need for a change, leading to a planned coup d’etat in 1825.-- Alexander I died unexpectedly in late 1825, and with no direct heir, brother Constantine who was next in line did not want the throne. He was in command of Russian interests in Poland and had a wife of non-royal blood, and as a result, Alexander secretly arranged for younger brother Nicholas to be the czar. However, upon his death, neither man wanted power, and Europe was nervous/astonished as Russia had no ruler for several weeks until Nicholas agreed.-- The Moscow Regiment of the army refused to take oath of allegiance to Nicholas because he was more autocratic/less popular. Nicholas used the cavalry/artillery to attack them in St. Petersburg, killing 60 in the “Decembrist Revolt.”-- These soldiers became martyrs for later liberals, but incident actually pushed Nicholas to become more autocratic/conservative despite other statements, “There is no doubt that serfdom, in its present form, is a flagrant evil which everyone realizes, yet to attempt to remedy it now would be, of course, disastrous.”-- He began program of “Official Nationality” with the slogan “Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationalism,” and it reinforced a conservative agenda for Nicholas I.-- Nicholas also repressed movements for autonomy/ independence in Poland, and he issued Organic Statute which declared Poland to be integral part of the Russian empire. * France – Revolution:-- Louis XVIII died in 1824 and was replaced by younger brother, the Count of Artois, who became the extremely reactionary King Charles X (reasserted divine right).-- He lowered interest rates on gov’t bonds, creating fund from which survivors of the emigres could be paid annual sum of money to compensate for their losses, and he restored law of primogeniture (inheritance to oldest son). He also supported Catholicism with a law punishing sacrilege with sentences of imprisonment/death. Liberals opposed these measures and won big in 1827 elections, forcing Charles X to appease them w/ more liberal ministers.-- liberals still pushed for full constitutional system, and king announced that his program of accommodation had failed, leading him to appoint a new ultra-royalist ministry. liberals opened negotiations with liberal orleanist branch of royal family, and they won stunning victories in 1830 election.-- Charles X issued Four Ordinances which amounted to coup d’etat, and people of Paris erected barricades and fought royal troops, leading to 1800 deaths and Charles’ abdication/exile to England on August 2. -- Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans, became new monarch, marking final closure of Bourbon Dynasty in France. He was proclaimed a “citizen king.”-- This 1830 revolution was a moderate power stroke by bourgeoisie as they used urban workers of Paris to topple government, but when middle class moderates then seized power, they stopped the revolution and prevented a more radical transformation w/ no universal manhood suffrage. This new government did make some reforms (no censorship, slightly wider suffrage, the constitution as a right of the people, etc.), but it was also corrupt/conservative. Most importantly, it ignored demands of Parisian workers who continued with several smaller revolts, and created a bitterness between them & bourgeoisie.-- In 1830 Belgian citizens seized on French revolt to rebel themselves. Austrian Netherlands had been merged w/ Holland in 1815, but upper classes of Belgium didn’t like foreign rule w/ a different language, religion, and economic system so they rebelled and wrote liberal constitution. major powers concerned that this revolution violated Congress of Vienna, but they were all busy with other matters closer to home. British then convened a conference in London and persuaded major powers to recognize Belgium as individual state, and Leopold I of Saxe-Coburg became their first king. The Convention of 1839 guaranteed Belgian neutrality, and it was German violation of this agreement in 1914 that technically brought Great Britain into World War I.* Great Britain – Reform:-- Social turmoil began in England in early 1800s w/ development of Luddite movement (named for Ned Ludd) as workers intentionally destroyed machines in textile mills. Episodes of such violence occurred repeatedly for much of early 19th century in variety of English industries for many reasons– to protest low wages/poor working conditions, to show opposition to mechanization which could threaten their jobs, etc.-- Britain experienced important changes in 1830 with death of George IV and accession of William IV, requiring new elections, and British would reach more moderate/peaceful resolution many reasons: a) a larger commercial/industrial class that demanded political attention, and b) a long British tradition of liberality with the Whigs.-- The British ministry had been more conservative since 1820 with Lord Liverpool, but these individuals did believe that gov’t had to accommodate itself to changing social and economic life, even repealing laws prohibiting labor organizations.-- During French Revolution, William Pitt had persuaded Parliament to pass Act of Union, linking England and Ireland to try to prevent revolution there. Ireland now sent 100 members to House of Commons, but only Protestants were allowed to represent Catholic Ireland.-- Daniel O’Connell led Irish nationalist movement called Catholic Association, and he won election to Parliament where he was not allowed to take his seat. Fearing widespread Irish rebellion and civil war, British ministry (led by Duke of Wellington) steered Catholic Emancipation Act through Parliament, thereby ending Anglican monopoly on British political life. This law was a liberal measure passed for a conservative purpose, and it did limit suffrage in Ireland. Yet, many Anglican tories were upset, leading Wellington’s government to fall. With Tories divided, Earl Grey and Whigs took power in 1830.-- Whigs introduced major reform bill that would abolish “rotten” boroughs which had few voters and would replace them with representatives from previously unrepresentative manufacturing districts and cities. This bill would also increase suffrage by about 50% in England and Wales, but it was narrowly defeated.-- Lord Grey called for new elections which returned a majority in favor of the bill, and House of Commons passed it only to have House of Lords reject it.-- Riots erupted throughout England, and William IV created enough “new peers” in House of Lords to ensure its passage, making it law in 1832.-- It expanded electorate by over 200,000 persons. New urban boroughs were created, but to prevent middle class dominance, new rural districts were also added.-- was successful in peacefully reconciling previously unrepresented property owners and economic interests to existing political institutions of the country. It allowed for orderly changes as opposed to those elsewhere in Europe.-- The “chartist” movement developed in England in late 1830s as a group of craftsmen drafted “People’s Charter” demanding that all men must have right to vote and pushing for secret ballots, salaries for Parliamentary service, annual elections, equal electoral districts, and elimination of property ownership requirements to run for office.-- Led by Feargus O’Connor and James O’Brien (both Irish), many unskilled/poor men began organizing strikes that often became violent. movement expanded to include development of Chartist schools, infiltration of sunday school w/Chartist ideology, and near deification of its leaders.-- English government responded with force and numerous arrests, though persistence of bad harvests/economic hardships led discontent to fester.-- Chartism died as a movement in 1848 when a group of 25,000 Chartist workers –inspired by revolutions on continent – presented petition for change, leading gov’t to respond by deputizing 200,000 middle/upper class Londoners. Early Socialism-* While socialism is dominant ideology in the world today, it had no large following/strong sense of direction 150 years ago, and while people in mid-1800’s did applaud new productive capacity of industrialism, they opposed free-market system as best way to distribute goods and services. thought society should be arranged as a community rather than a conglomeration of selfish individuals.* The earliest group of these thinkers were known as “utopian socialists” because of their ideal analysis of society, though they offered questions/criticism with few answers/alternatives. a) Count Claude Henri de Saint-Simon–liberal French aristocrat who was inspired by American/French revolutions, and believed that society required rational management. An “ideal” government would involve large board of directors organizing and coordinating activities of individuals and groups. This management (not redistribution of wealth) would alleviate poverty and other socio economic problems of modern era. b) Robert Owen–wealthy British cotton manufacturer who believed strongly in Enlightenment ideas, arguing that human character would improve in right surroundings and proposing that a good profit was not exclusive of a humane working environment. Thus, his factories provided good housing, recreation, education, churches, and incentives for workers, and they became a model for other employers around Europe. He wrote to encourage a reorganization of industry based on these principles, and he later sold his factory in Scotland and established the community of New Harmony, Indiana in U.S. then returned to Britain after its failure and began to work on Grand National Union (his idea for an umbrella organization for all labor unions). c) Charles Fourier –French intellectual counterpart of Owen, though never as renowned, and he preached against lack of passion in industrial order. He proposed “phalanxes,” communities of liberated living to replace dullness/boredom of industrial existence. He emphasized agriculture, fewer sexual restrictions, marriage later in life, and a variety in tasks at work, all of which would lead to happier, more productive workers. d) Other earlier socialists like Louis Blanc were more political, working for a reform of the current society rather than seeking an entirely new system.* Beginning in 1840’s, some thinkers began to reject both industry and gov’tl dominance, and thus, they became first major “anarchists” in history. a) Auguste Blanqui–violent Frenchman who is often regarded as one of the first “professional revolutionaries” in history, and he spent most of his life in jail. He sought abolition of capitalism and the country, but his ideas were vague. b) Pierre Joseph Proudhon– author of “What is Property?”. He attacked banking system for its refusal to extend credit to the poor, and he proposed society based on mutualism (small businesses) peaceful cooperation and exchange of goods. This would make gov’t unnecessary; thus he was a peaceful anarchist.* The idea of Communism is primarily a utopian economic and governmental philosophy that was first proposed in Communist Manifesto in 1848 by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, both German Socialists (liberal reformers who favored shared wealth in society to prevent such a wide gap between rich and poor). It was not culmination of all other theories, though it was based somewhat on previous ideas; rather, it was simply one of many competing socialist ideologies in mid-1800’s.* Among Marx and Engels’ basic ideas:-- Economics is key to understanding both past and present as need for food, shelter, clothing, and other goods guides people's actions.--key to understanding is to determine who controls means of production (landowners in agrarian society, factory owners in industrial society).-- All of history has been a "class struggle" between upper/middle class (bourgeoisie) and proletariat (urban working classes). bourgeoisie were capitalists who invested money in business. proletariat were trapped because they had nothing to sell or invest but their labor. This view of a cycle of economic conflict is derived from Hegel’s view of history. -- Small, piecemeal reforms cannot eliminate social/economic evils. A radical transformation is required because amount and severity of suffering continued to increase with further development of industrial revolution.-- He predicted that a revolution of working classes was inevitable. The proletariat would eventually overthrow the bourgeoisie and establish a socialist society. -- A strong dictator would be needed on an interim basis following this revolution to keep order, but eventually government would fade away, leaving true "community" in which nothing was owned and everything was shared.* Except for Paris Commune in 1871, no large groups of workers revolted until Russia in early 20th century. Most workers wanted to share in benefits of existing system rather than overthrow it. Also, lives of poor had improved greatly, and Marx underestimated other forces in society (religion, ethnicity & nationalism). Revolutions of 1848--- France in 1840's: There was lower class resentment of bourgeois control and exploitation. bourgeoisie wanted their own “moderate” revolution. Bourgeois liberals from throughout Europe, however, did push for help from working classes to oppose regimes, and these urban workers were prone to violence.-- February, 1848: Louis Philippe government tried to prevent opposition groups from meeting. Street riots led to Louis' abdication and flight to London. A republic (the 2nd French Republic) was formed (It was too conservative for the Parisian lower classes).-- The new government was organized as a national assembly, and vote by universal manhood suffrage led to majority of moderates and conservatives, most of whom were from rural areas. This new gov’t was not sympathetic to Louis Blanc and other radical leaders who formed “national workshops” to provide work and relief for unemployed workers.-- June, 1848: workers rebelled against new republican gov’t. In very violent street fighting between workers and national army, over 10,000 people were killed. This was purely a class war (between economic and social classes over wealth and power) called "Bloody June Days." --republican government scheduled immediate election for President with all men voting. Most Frenchmen had no political experience, and one candidate's name was familiar so they elected him President of Second Republic (Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, the original's nephew). He had already failed in two coup attempts, and was mainly interested in his own power/fame.-- France was the recognized political/cultural leader of Europe ("When France sneezes, Europe catches cold”), and 1848 led to problems elsewhere in Europe.-- Metternich fled Austria in response to student uprising in Vienna, originally sparked by Hungarian (Magyar) nationalist Louis Kossuth. Hapsburgs feared a serf revolt the most, and both Austrian and Hungarian governments both abolished serfdom quickly to minimize that threat. imperial court fled to Innsbruck after students rejected his proposal for a moderately liberal constitution, and Magyars within Hungary also began to move for more autonomy, seeking to expand their territory by annexing surrounding nationalities. These groups (Serbs, Croatians, and Romanians) felt they could maintain autonomy better under Hapsburg rule so Austrians came to aid national groups who were rebelling against rebellious Magyars.-- Similar liberal rebellions in Bohemia, Milan, and other Hapsburg territories failed.-- Emperor Ferdinand abdicated in favor of his young nephew Franz Josef who would rule until 1916. Hapsburgs reclaimed Austria and Budapest, and when Magyars tried a final revolt, Austria asked Russia to follow terms of Congress of Vienna. Russia graciously responded by sending 200,000 troops.-- After failed efforts in northern Italy, Italian liberals turned attention to papal states. Popular demonstrations demanding radical changes forced Pope Pius IX to flee to Naples, and Mazzini and Garibaldi flocked to Rome to use new republic as base for unifying entire peninsula.-- King Charles Albert of Piedmont (now in northwestern Italy), abdicated to his son Victor Emmanuel II who withdrew support for this new Roman Republic.-- French under Louis Napoleon then sent troops to crush this republic, and Pope Pius IX, originally a liberal, became leading arch conservative for next 25 years.-- King Frederick William IV originally capitulated to revolts in Prussia, calling for a constituent assembly to write a constitution, and promised that Prussia would work for German unification. He appointed a moderate liberal ministry led by David Hansenmann, but new assembly was too democratic and radical.--king and his supporters began to ignore assembly, eventually dissolving it and issuing their own constitution which included a disproportionate three-class voting system which would last until 1918. It also made the ministry, military, and officer corps responsible and loyal directly to king alone.-- Many German states sent representatives to Frankfurt Diet in 1848, a meeting designed to write a new liberal constitution for a unified Germany, but their ideas alienated both conservatives (for political reasons) and urban working classes (for economic reasons). This group even called in troops to suppress a radical insurrection in Frankfurt, opposing anyone who threatened safe right of property. They also debated between “grossdeutsch” (large German) or
“kleindeutsch” (small German) solution for unification, eventually agreeing on latter which would exclude Austria because of various groups in their empire.-- They offered crown of a unified Germany to Frederick William IV of Prussia who rejected offer, feeling that a monarch’s right to rule came from God rather than man-made constitutions. Frankfurt Assembly then dissolved.-- In 1850, Frederick William IV gave more thought to German unification, and he tried to create a German federation (a union of princes headed by King of Prussia and excluding Austria) by force. Austrians reacted strongly, and in Punctuation of Olmutz, the Prussian monarch renounced this scheme in humiliation.-- By June, 1849, forces of counterrevolution had reacted and recovered. empires struck back and smashed revolutionaries all over Europe.-- various revolutions of 1848 failed because republicans and nationalists were neither strong enough nor united. power of the regimes was too strong. The Crimean War (1854-1856)-* This war of mid-1850’s was rooted in long-standing rivalry between Russia and Ottoman Empire. Ottomans had granted Catholic France control over Christian shrines in Holy Land, and Russia wanted to extend its control over Ottoman provinces of Wallachia (now in Romania) and Moldavia, using protection of Orthodox Christians as pretext for aggression as they occupied these provinces. Ottoman Empire then declared war on Russia in fall of 1853.* Great Britain and France opposed Russian expansion in eastern Mediterranean as they had large commercial and naval interests there, and Napoleon III was working to gain more domestic support for his regime so both of these powers declared war on Russia in 1854.* Austria and Prussia initially remained neutral. Austria had their own ambitions in Balkans, and Prussia was recovering from humiliation at Olmutz.* Basically, this war was about inept strategy, poor equipment, and little movement; it killed many while settling nothing.*armies became bogged down on Crimean Peninsula of Black Sea, and after a long siege, Russian fortress of Sevastopol finally fell in 1855.* The 1856 Treaty of Paris was highly unfavorable to Russia as they surrendered most of their territory near mouth of Danube River, had to recognize neutrality of Black Sea, and renounced all claims to protect Christians in Ottoman Empire.* Austria had even joined war in latter stages and forced Russia out of Moldavia and Wallachia prior to this settlement.* This war was most important for its effects:-- Russia’s invincible image was shattered.-- The Concert of Europe was shattered as there was less fear of revolution. One historian noted that by 1856, “there were more powers willing to fight to overthrow the existing order than there were to take up arms to defend it.”-- France would continue to push for a Europe with boundaries drawn to reflect nationality.-- Austria would work to assert more influence in German Confederation to atone for prestige lost by remaining neutral early in conflict.-- Prussia would become increasingly unhappy with subordinate role to Austria in German affairs.-- Russia would work to overcome disgrace of 1856 Treaty of Paris.--mediocre display of British military prowess led them to hesitate about future continental involvement. --This war ultimately led to a quarter century of instability in European affairs, especially with unification of Italy and Germany. Italian Unification-* Many groups within Italy began calling for unification in early 19th century, but they rarely agreed on either process or result.* The republican nationalists:-- Secret republican sects known as “carbonari” developed after Congress of Vienna but were ineffective.-- After failure of a nationalist uprising in 1831, Giuseppe Mazzini became leader of republican Italian nationalist movement, declaring, “Nationality is the role assigned by God to a people in the work of humanity. It is its mission, its task on earth, to the end that God’s thought may be realized in the world.”-- He worked with fellow republican and military leader Giuseppe Garibaldi who led soldiers known as “red shirts” in insurrections in 1830’s and 1840’s. They used guerrilla warfare, supported ill-fated roman republic of 1849, spent much time in exile, and became well-known in Europe and in United States.-- Their views frightened more moderate Italians who wanted unification but not if it meant republicanism. These people hated Austria involvement in northern Italy, but they hated these republicans more.* Count Camillo di Cavour---moderately liberal prime minister of kingdom of Piedmont (Sardinia) who used machiavellian diplomacy to achieve unification. --He became Prime Minister for new king Victor Emmanuel II, and after growing up as a staunch conservative, he became more moderately liberal. He was a strong nationalist but also a strong monarchist who rejected republicanism. He argued that it was economic and material progress rather than romantic ideals that required a large, unified Italy. He felt that if Italy could prove itself to be efficient and economically progressive, the great powers would allow unification.-- He got a powerful ally with accession of Napoleon III to French throne, and he sided with Britain and France in Crimean War to raise Piedmont’s status in diplomatic community. While issue of Italian unification was not resolved at Paris peace conference, he planted seeds for future and gained an ally.-- Following attempted assassination on Napoleon II by an Italian named Orsini, French Emperor developed renewed interest in Italy in 1858, and he began to view himself as completing his uncle’s work. Cavour met with him at Plombieres where they agreed to provoke a war with Austria, allowing France to intervene. France would receive Nice and Savoy for its aid.-- Piedmont mobilized its armed forces, and they used an Austrian ultimatum to stop that process as a pretext for declaring war. French joined, and Austrians lost big while revolutions also broke out in several northern Italian cities. -- Napoleon III now feared a massive Piedmont victory so he made a separate treaty with Austria at Villafranca, allowing Venetia to remain under Austrian control. Piedmont did manage to unify most of northern Italy as the other kingdoms voted to unify with Piedmont. Cavour then used Garibaldi’s zeal and leadership to help liberate southern Italy, and he and “Red Shirts” took Naples. Cavour, though, sent troops south to confront Garibaldi, taking most of Papal States except Rome which was protected by French troops. Garibaldi’s nationalism won out over his republicanism, and he unhappily accepted Piedmont’s domination of a new Italy.-- Victor Emmanuel II became king of unified Italy in March, 1861, three months before Cavour died, but this new nation=still in turmoil. republicans resented treatment of Garibaldi, the clergy resented conquest of Papal States, and southerners resented northern interference.-- north and south were vastly different. north was industrial and home to large urban working class while south was rural, poor, backwards, and dominated by landholding groups.-- new government included an appointed Senate and a Chamber of Deputies elected by only a narrow franchise, and government became very corrupt, largely due to Cavour’s old policy of “transformismo” (transforming political opponents into government supporters through bribery and favors or inclusion).-- Italians finally gained Venetia as a result of 1866 Austro-Prussian War, and French troops guarded Rome until they were forced out following 1870 Franco-Prussian War, allowing government to move its capital from Venice.-- Only two small Italian territories (Trent and Trieste) remained outside of Italy, and they would continue to fuel hostility and conflict through World War I as people worked to bring “Italian Irrendenta” (“Unredeemed Italy”) into the nation. German Unification-* German Unification was single most important political development in Europe between 1848 and World War I, and Otto von Bismarck was single most influential European leader of this era. Ironically, this goal which was sought for so long by German liberals was ultimately achieved for arch-conservative reasons.
* German states still traded through Zollverein and were linked by railway, but Frederick
William IV had given up any thoughts of unification after humiliation at Olmutz which had also led Austria to be more guarded.* In 1858, Frederick William IV was adjudged insane, and his brother became King Wilhelm I, a Prussian patriot who worked to strengthen army. However, Prussian Parliament refused to approve taxes necessary for military expansion, leading to a 2-year deadlock.* In 1862, he appointed Otto von Bismarck to become Prussian Chancellor. -- Bismarck was a conservative, nationalistic, well-educated junker.-- extremely reactionary in late 1840’s, even scaring the king with his views, and then served as Prussian minister to Frankfurt Diet, ambassador to St. Petersburg, and then ambassador to Paris.-- He opposed parliamentary government but not constitutionalism with strong monarchy, and he understood the need for heavy industry. He was extremely bright, pragmatic, and even machiavellian, stating, “Germany is not looking to Prussia’s liberalism but to her power…The great questions of the day will not be decided by speeches and majority decisions – that was the mistake of 1848-1849 – but by iron and blood.” He thus became known as “Blood and Iron.” * He moved against liberal parliament, claiming that the constitution allowed the government to continue to operate its functions on basis of previously granted taxes, and thus, taxes could be collected and spent without Parliament’s support. While most bureaucrats and military men agreed, 1863 election returned a majority of liberals to Parliament.* This setback led him to seek unification through military and foreign affairs.* He favored “kleindeutsch” solution to unification, and he needed right opportunity and highly complex diplomacy to weaken and to exclude Austria.* The two duchies of Schleswig and Holstein had a mixture of German and Danish populations, and Denmark moved to annex them in 1863. Bismarck convinced Austria to work with him in a nationalistic war in 1864. * This war gave Bismarck new prestige, and in 1865, the two powers arranged Convention of
Gastein, giving Holstein to Austria and Schleswig to Prussia. Bismarck now wanted war with Austria, but he had to make sure that other powers would not oppose him:-- He had gained Russian sympathies by supporting their suppression of a Polish revolt. -- He talked with Napoleon III to get guarantee of French neutrality.-- He convinced Italy to support Prussia against Austria in exchange for getting Venetia.* Bismarck then ordered his troops to provoke Austrians who appealed to German Confederation on June 1, 1866 to intervene in dispute. Bismarck claimed that request violated terms of Convention of Gastein, leading to Austro-Prussian War. It was also known as Seven Weeks War because that is exactly how long it took well-organized, highly trained Prussian army that long to defeat Austria. * Treaty of Prague ended conflict and was quite lenient to Austria which lost no territory except Venetia because Bismarck realized Austria could be valuable future ally. Venetia was technically ceded to France who in turn gave it to Italy because Austria had actually defeated Italy on battlefield.* This Treaty of Prague unified Prussia and 33 other German states into North German Confederation, a defacto Prussian Empire. other four south German states remained under Austria’s leadership and influence. This federation allowed each state to retain its local government, but military was under federal control. king of Prussia was president of federation, and there was a federal council (Reichstag) of nominated members and lower house (Bundesrat) chosen by universal manhood suffrage.* Reichstag remained conservative because peasants voted that way, and it had little real power because it could not originate legislation. ministers were responsible only to monarch, and the Reichstag did not have right to approve military budgets.* This constitution contained some appearances but no substance of liberalism. Bismarck’s overwhelming success destroyed liberal opposition and divided them between those who prized liberalism and those who considered unification more important.* unified country with emphasis on army, monarchy, and industry. would complete unification through Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871:* The Hohenzollern candidacy: Prince Leopold, cousin of William I, accepted Spanish crown with Prussian blessings. Bismarck knew France would strongly object.* French sent Count Vincent Benedetti to consult with William I at Bad Ems, and they continued discussions at subsequent meetings, leading Leopold’s father to renounce his son’s candidacy on July 12 for fear that it would cause a war.* William I was relieved, but French persisted and asked William I for assurances that he would oppose any future Hohenzollerns on Spanish throne. king refused but said that he might take question under further consideration. * Bismarck was disappointed with peaceful resolution because he wanted a war to complete unification, but he used a telegram that he received from William I to his advantage. He edited telegram to make it appear that William I had insulted French ambassador. He released edited telegram which goaded France into declaring war on July 19. * The French had also wanted war, believing that a victory over North German Confederation would increase their power and prestige. * The Germans defeated French quickly, winning Battle of Sedan in which they captured Napoleon III. Paris was under siege by late September, finally falling in January, 1871, and military had to deal with massive revolts within Paris itself. * On January 18, at Hall of Mirrors in Versailles, German Empire was declared, and states of southern Germany had joined North German Confederation. William I became known as emperor (Kaiser).* unification of Germany was a watershed event in European history, creating a new powerful nation in central Europe with a wealth of natural resources and educated citizens. It tipped balance of power and was a major blow to liberalism throughout Europe. Conservative politics were now backed not only by a weak Austria or a backwards Russia.