As Geography Revision Guide
Unit 1: Going Global Revision Guide
Keywords
Birth rate – the number of births per 1,000 people per year in a region
Branch plant – a factory built in a country by a TNC that has its headquarters elsewhere
Core- the most developed and highly populated region of a country
Death rate – the number of deaths per 1,000 people per year in a region
Deindustrialisation – the decline of regionally important manufacturing industries
Dependency – when a nation relies for income on outside sources and has only weak control over its own economic future
Development gap – the difference in levels of economic and social well-being between the richest and poorest people on the planet
Displaced persons – people who are forced to move, by war, famine, political persecution or natural disaster
Ecological footprint – a measurement of the area of land or water required to provide a person/society with the energy, resources and good they consume and the waste they produce
Economic migrant – a migrant whose primary motivation is to seek employment
Food miles – the distance food travels from a farm to the consumer
Foreign Direct Investment – A financial injection made by a TNC into a nation’s economy e.g. building new facilities
Global Hub – a settlement providing a focal point for activities that have a global influence
Global shift – the global-scale relocation of different types of industrial activity e.g. manufacturing
Greying population – a population structure in which the proportion of people aged over 65 is high and rising
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) – a measure of the financial value of the goods and services produced with a territory
Human Development Index – a United Nations measure of economic and social development that takes into account income per capita, life expectancy and adult literacy
Illegal migrants – people who avoid border and immigration controls and enter a new country illegally
Internal migration – the movement of people between different regions within the same nation
Intervening obstacle – barrier to a migrant such as a political boarder or physical feature e.g. mountains
Intervening opportunity – an alternative migration destination that exists between the migrant’s place of origin and intended destination
Minimum wage – an hourly wage set by a nation’s government that all companies must pay to their employees
Multiplier effect – the positive spin-offs that follow an initial investment in a region
Natural increase – the difference between the birth rate and the death rate, usually converted into a percentage
Net migration – the balance between immigration and emigration
Parent company – the original business that a global TNC has developed around e.g. Walt Disney Company
Petrodollars – money derived from selling oil
Poverty:
* Absolute poverty – income levels below what is needed to maintain an adequate diet * Relative poverty – income levels that are below average for a region
Purchasing Power Parity – a measure of average wealth of people in a country
Quaternary sector – country’s employment structure that includes research, IT and financial management
Rural-Urban migration – a movement of population from rural to urban areas
Shrinking world – distant places start to feel closer and take less time to reach due to technology
Social mobility- the movement of individuals between different levels of a social hierarchy
Spatial division of labour – common practice among large companies of moving low-skilled work abroad to place where labour costs are low
Structural adjustment programmes- strict conditions imposed countries receiving loans from the IMF and World Bank.
Switched-on places – nations, regions or cities that are strongly connected to other places through the production and consumption of goods and services
Switched-off places – nations, regions or cities that are poorly connected
Technopole – a cluster of technologically innovative businesses and research institutes e.g. Silicon Valley
Tertiary sector- also known as the service sector, consisting of business that produce no physical product but either sell a product or offer a service such as tourism/education
Transnational Corporation (TNC) – a company that has operations in more than one country
Voluntary migrants – people who move for quality of life reasons
World city – a city with major economic and political power e.g. New York
What is globalisation?
Globalisation refers to the way the many places and people are becoming ever more closely linked.
Countries have always been connected through trade, colonialism and cooperation through international organisations e.g. UN. Post 1940s globalisation is different because of:
- Lengthening connections between people and places (bottled water brought to the UK from Fiji, 16,000 km away
- Deepening connections to other people and places in more areas
Population changes are an important part of globalisation as greater levels of international migration are a strong influence of globalisation of population dynamics. Globalisation does however concentrate wealth in certain areas.
The Demographic Transition Model suggests that populations follow common patterns, divided into 5 stages of development. This is based on relative changes in Crude BR and DR. It does however link demographic changes to the evolution of the economy. What is important is that it
Demonstrated that Economic growth shadowed by: * Declining DR and BR * Declining FR (People choose to have fewer children) * Longer life expectancy (health care improved)
From this it can be seen that demographic changes are both a cause and effect of globalisation. i.e. The vast increase in numbers in stages 2-3 is what drives megacity growth, creating global hubs (and markets too); while globalisation of technology and perhaps cultural norms can be advanced as a reason why all nations are ultimately 'expected' to go through the stages as described.
Factors that have accelerated globalisation
TNCs
Have brought cultural as well as economic changes to places where products are made and consumed
Transport
1960s Boeing 747 made international travel a common thing. Recent cheap flights companies e.g. Ryanair have allowed mass travel
Commuter and IT computer-aided design and manufacturing have allowed it to become more flexible and less reliant on human labour
IT technology allows managers to keep in touch via email and video-conferencing
International organisations
International Monetary Fund for example has been able to channel loans from the richest nations to countries that apply for help. Other examples include WTO and NGOs such s Oxfam who connect places and people through flows of aid or debt relief
Markets
More people have enough wealth to consumer large amounts of goods and services. Lead to the growth of stock markets e.g. London, Shanghai
Effects of globalisation on migration
People are seen as global citizens because we can visit or move to distant places e.g. UK to Australia. There is a distinct link between globalisation, inward investment to cities and migration. Inward investment is where a city takes money from an external source and uses it to improve their region by investing in industries, businesses etc. This then leads to job opportunities in that area which will result in migration to that particular location. Globalisation has also made it easier to travel, import and export to other countries. Many choose to invest in china and expand their businesses their due to cheap labour. This has then resulted in people migrating to the bigger cities in search of work.
It is important to note, that although globalisation has made it easier for money, food and goods to travel, for people it has become harder mainly due to terrorism. America is one of the strictest countries for letting people cross their boarders, along with European countries
Global disparities in wealth and poverty
In the past the world was divided into ‘developed’ and ‘developing’, however globalisation has led to the distribution of people living in poverty to become more complex
* A large number of previously poor nations are now relatively wealthy (in terms of GDP) e.g. Malaysia, Egypt, Brazil & China * Also rich elites in many countries - make it difficult to generalise about rich and poor nations as a whole * Places such as Sao Paulo, Beijing and Bangalore – low HDI, but are home to millions of people with affluent lifestyles
Grouped into 3 categories – 1. Types of countries i.e. economic groups
2. Teams of globalisation i.e. political groups e.g. EU, NAFTA
These political groupings are different to economic groups such as NICs as they: * Have allowed trade agreements to be drawn up that allows national boundaries to be crossed and therefore trade to flow freely * Contain nations at varying levels of economic development e.g. USA and Mexico are part of NAFTA 3. TNCs – groups countries by companies i.e. McDonalds
These help to build bridges between nations and promote common patterns of consumption e.g. Burger King launched in China in 2005. The largest firms have ‘branch plants’ in most countries which enables them to keep costs down and ensure their products are consumed across the world/
Why countries group together
Trade blocs exist for trading purposes; bring economic strength and security to nations. Free trade is encouraged by the removal of internal tariffs and can also protect members by establishing a common external tariff for foreign imports. This ensures that it is more expensive to import goods and therefore customers will prefer to purchase trade bloc goods instead. The EU has also integrated a common currency, the euro with some shared political legislation e.g. European Parliament established in 1979.
Benefits
Removal of internal tariffs allows: * Markets to grow – in 2004 ten new nations joined the EU and Tesco gained access to 75m extra customers * Firms that have a comparative advantage should prosper e.g. French wine-makers have advantages due to their climate and soil * Enlarged market increases demand raising the volume of production and lowering manufacturing costs = economies of scale * Smaller national firms within a trade bloc can merge to form TNCs therefore making their operations more cost-effective * In the EU, members are eligible for EU Structural Funds to help develop their economies
TNCs and global business and trade
Opposing views about TNCs For | Against | * Raising living standards – TNCs invest in the economies of the developing nations * Transfer of technology – south Korean firms e.g. Samsung have learned to design products for foreign markets * Political stability – investment by TNCs has contributed to economic growth and political stability e.g. China * Raising environmental awareness – due to large corporate image TNCs do respond to criticism e.g. Co-op has ‘green credentials’ | * Tax avoidance – many avoid paying full taxed in countries they operate in through concessions * Limited linkages – FDI does not always help developing nations economies * Growing global wealth divide – selective investment in certain global areas is creating a widening divide e.g. Southeast Asia vs. sub-Saharan Africa * Environmental degradation – example of Bhopal, India disaster in 1984 |
How do TNCs affect global wealth? * TNCs bring FDI to nations – even if wages are low workers will still spend money after they have been paid = stimulates growth of other local services * When TNCs locate in a trade bloc they bring wealth to poorer regions as they often source parts locally * One of the most effective mechanisms for wealth redistribution
What are global networks?
The term ‘global network’ refers to links between different countries in the world, this includes – flows of capital, traded goods, services, information (and people). Some areas are well connected i.e. high income areas, others poorly i.e. low income areas
A network is a model that shows how places are linked together. E.g. London Underground. A GLOBAL HUB is used to describe a place which is especially well connected. Connections between these hubs are called flows and include:
- Money= major capital flows are routed through global stock markets
- Raw materials = e.g. food and oil traded between nations
- Manufactured goods and services = value of world trade is 70 trillion dollars
- Information = internet has brought real-time communication between distant places
- People = movement of people still an issue due to border controls and immigration law
The World at Night:
This can be used to show not only how population is spread out but also where wealth is found. The richest regions of Europe and North America are brightly lit. We can also able to see rich CORE regions in countries with less overall national growth e.g. cities in Brazil.
An example: Role of technology in a shrinking world – Easy Jet
Background:
Founded in 1995 by Sir Stelios Haji-loannou, it began running slights solely within the UK with just 2 aircraft. By 1996 the company flew to Barcelona and today have around 300 flight routes in the EU.
In 2005, announced expansion into new markets outside the EU including Istanbul and Marrakech.
Role of Technology in building a global network:
- One of the 1st airlines to use the internet = 1st online sale in April 1998
- 95% of all flights today are booked online (Europe’s biggest internet retailers)
- 1998 Easy jet brought 40% of TEA Basel AG, a Swiss air company, allowing it to establish its first European base in Geneva
- By 2006 company owned 122 planes, carrying 33million people each year
- Places connected to the easy jet network become switched on e.g. Tallinn (Estonia) became an easy jet destination in 2004 and the city has brought more money and boosted trade in the city
- Future plans are aiming to move over towards Global Distribution Systems (book and sell tickets for multiple airlines) which has in the past been used exclusively for traditional airlines
Switched-on vs. Switched-off places
Global hubs possess qualities that make other places want to connect to them e.g. Beijing, London etc
Named Example: Switched on place = China
China is a success due to a combination of physical and human factors. In 1995 China’s GNP $620 per capita and by 2005 it was $1700 per capita (near 3 fold increase)
Physical factors: 1) Lots of natural resources (vast reserves of coal, gas and oil) 2) Development of energy base e.g. HEP and nuclear power stations 3) Links to close developing markets of South Korea, Taiwan and India
Human factors 1) Vast population willing to work hard in both education and employment 2) China trains 600,000 engineers every year = strong technological foundation 3) Problems of rural workers fuelling China’s economic growth as they move to urban areas for work 4) Low wages attracts TNCs = creates issues of exploitive conditions 5) Developing computer use (25 out of 100 people) will increase its connections to the rest of the world 6) Prolonged spending on health and education over 50 years has provided a healthy, literate and skilled workforce 7) Creation of industrial Export Processing Zones has stimulated cheap mass manufacturing
Named Example: Switch off Place = Gambia
In 1995 GNP $320 per capita but in 2005 this had dropped to $290 per capita.
Physical Factors: 1) No mineral or natural resource deposits 2) Limited agriculture due to climatic conditions 3) Natural hazards e.g. droughts are increasing due to global warming 4) Physical isolation means investors do not see it as an import/export base
Human factors 1) 75% of people depend on crops and livestock for their live hoods (subsistence farming) 2) Country is dependent upon aid 3) Small-scale manufacturing of groundnuts, fish and hides (all for export) 4) Low prices for food exports 5) Lack of skills and literacy deters inward investors 6) Politically isolated
Some countries have gone from being switched off to switch on e.g. Hong Kong, Thailand and South Korea. This proved that natural resources don’t have to be there in order for growth as these have limited resource base, even lack of land due to high population density. Instead they developed on wealth built on manufacture oriented and education.
Changing populations 1) Family size
- Population of UK rose from 38million in 1901 to 61 million in 2007
- Individual household sizes have fallen from 4 in 1900 to 2 children today
- Life expectancy has increased, so grandparents live longer extending family households 2) Population Structure
- UK has a top heavy population structure with more old people than young
- In 1931 7% of population was over 65 and 24% under 16
-Today 16% are over 65 and 19% under 16
- Life expectancy in 1901 was 50 for men and 57 for women (today 77 for men and 82 for women) 3) Migration and ethnicity
- Movement away from manufacturing and mining towns in the North of England towards settlements with service-sector jobs
- Southeast drift of UK population has resulted in 26% of people living there
- Significant trend of people leaving towns to live in rural areas (COUNTER-URBANISATION)
- Age selective migrations of retired people to the coast
- Large amounts of international migration = ethnic mix in the UK 4) Employment
- Decline of traditional manufacturing and job losses in farming and mining lead to more work in services, media and finance 5) Social aspirations
- During 20th Century average wages rose and more people entered higher education = social mobility
Reasons for changing pattern of population in the UK
Phase 1 – before the 1970s
- Population was still growing due to natural increase
- Death rate had fallen since 1800 due to major improvements in food supply, health and hygiene
- Post-war baby boom lead to high birth rates
- Total population grew from 38 million to 55 million between 1901 and 1971
Phase 2 – since the 1970s
- Total population has increased more slowly and most growth due to immigration
- Birth and death rates remained constant
- Total population grew from 55 million to 61 million between 1971 and 2007
Factors affectingUK population and migration
The challenges of ageing populations
Issue of Global Greying
The phenomenon of ‘greying’ is set to ‘go global’ as most OCED countries now have an aging population e.g. South Korea. At the World level, the number of people aged over 60 is set to exceed those aged under 15 for the 1st time in 2047. This has been helped by China as they had the one child policy.
Impacts of a greying population | Costs | Benefits | Housing | * Increase in housing shortages as people living longer keeps properties off the market * House prices trebling between 1995-2005 * Increase costs of subsidised housing | * Many older people own their own homes and can therefore borrow money from banks | Pensions | * 60% of Britain’s work to support 21% of population who are pensioners * By 2030 56% will work for 27% pensioners * Longer working life need as there are not enough working population to support the pensions | * Steady income source when retired * Many older people have a company pension scheme | Health care | * Rise in terminal diseases which require expensive treatment * By 2026 the health treatment will cost £30 billion per year * Shortages of spare hospital beds | * Big companies such as Boots and BUPA see elderly business as a great opportunity to boost profits | Social Services | * Government gives free TV license to over 75s and £200 winter fuel allowance * Free public transport passes | * Grandparents often look after grandchildren so that the parents can go out to work |
Population Pyramids for a greying population:
Christchurch – high elderly dependents
Reading – high economically active
Possible solutions to an ageing population: * Raise the retirement age (Australia, Canada and Denmark already have). In Iceland it is 70! * Get people to make own pension arrangements * Change pension laws so those that need more help get it and those that don’t get less
International migrations into Europe
Historical Movements: Migration is not a new concept, by 2005; 190 million worldwide were living outside their country of birth. In the UK by 2007, over 8% of the population was foreign born. This is mainly due to the links between its former colonies and during the 2nd World War the UK relied on its colonies for soldiers which remained in the UK after the war. These were then joined by economic migrants from Jamaica etc who filled labour shortages. This was encouraged under the 1948 British Nationality Act, which gave UK citizenship to people from the commonwealth. (Since been restricted since 1962)
The EU Schengen Agreement in 1985 abolished border controls between EU countries which allowed people to move freely across countries.
Who goes where and why?
HISTORICALLY
* Economic and cultural links with former colonies * E.g. France and North African colonies * E.g. UK and Uganda, India, West Indies
SHARED LANGUAGE * Indians (e.g. so many Indian doctors were able to come to UK and practice medicine) and Chinese to UK * North Africans to France The EU is a highly desirable destination for many non-European migrants, refugees and asylum seekers. The EU has a reputation of being hard to gain access to and has the nickname ‘Fortress Europe’
Current Movements: Illegal migrants
Between 4-8 million illegal migrants are thought to be in the EU with total illegal immigration in the UK estimated at 0.5 million. It is a popular choice due to the wide variety of routes that can be taken into Europe e.g. boat through the Canary Islands, Malta.
Current movements: Asylum Seekers
These claims peeked in the early 1990s and again in 2001-02 but have since fallen across Europe. Majority are from middle and near East or other countries with political or ethnic difficulties e.g. Russia, Sudan
Named Case Study: Post-accession labour flows from Eastern Europe – Poles to the UK
Attractions of the UK * Wages – e.g. nurses can earn x4s the amount than in Latvia. In 2007, 1.3 million poles had travelled to Britain for seasonal work the government predicted, but they stayed! * Free health care – NHS spent £350 million on maternity services for foreign-born mothers * Free education * Cheap accommodation – the housing in the UK is cheaper and of better quality * Ease of migration – Only UK, Ireland and Sweden decided to allow unlimited migration from the new member countries in 2004 * Good Exchange rate – a few pounds earned in the UK were worth a lot of zloty (polish currency) so migrants would send remittances (money) home to their families
Why leave Poland? * Lack of work * Decline in agriculture and knock-on effect on the economy has lead to a steady 17% unemployment rate * Low average wages – average income in the EU in 2004 was 3xs greater than in Poland * Low availability of housing – in 2004 there were 300 dwellings for every 1000 people
Consequences: | Source Benefits | Source Negatives | Host Benefits | Host Negatives | Economic | * Polish economy grows because money is sent back to Poland e.g. 2006, €3.5 billion | * Shortage of labourers as most migrants are working age = economy doesn’t grow as much * Migrants who plan to settle only send around 8% remittances home | * Fills skills gaps * Economic turn around * Workers will work for less than British workers e.g. £60 per day for builders rather than £120 | * Money earned by the polish workers isn’t all spent in the UK but send home to Poland * Drives wages for jobs down (see builders) | Social | * Skills learnt by migrants can be taken back to Poland * Unemployed reduced | * Poland’s population has shrunk e.g. fell 0.3% between 2003-2007 * Birth rate decreased as people of reproductive age are leaving * Growing worker exploitation of polish * Significant amounts of ‘brain drain’ * Ageing population develops * Family break up as generally young men migrate leaving families behind * A culture of emigration and a sense that leaving is a good thing - this can cause societies to undervalue themselves | * Migration of working age people has helped the problems cause by the UKs ageing population * Young migrants can pay taxes which support older retired people * Increased cultural as Polish products have opened up areas e.g. West Midlands * Numbers attending Catholic church increased | * Increased strain on services e.g. education/ health care * Social/cultural tensions * Increased crimes * Overcrowding * Demand for resources such as housing leads to shortages, rising prices etc | Environmental | * Less pressure on resources such as land | | | * Increased immigration from Poland has meant more air travel e.g. 3.3 million in 2006 = increased greenhouse gases = global warming * Increased congestion, urban air pollution and urban sprawl |
Named Case Study: Retirement Flows to the Mediterranean
Causes: 1) Spanish Climate - 10°c warmer than Britain and has less rainfall, with leads to improved health 2) Life style – Laid back, slower pace of life 3) Lower crime rate and absence of ‘youth’ culture 4) Cost of living in Spain tends to be a lot cheaper e.g. Utility bills are 60% of the UK prices 5) Value of properties in UK have increased meaning when these are sold there is a lump sum of money to support them through their retirement 6) Family/friends – many have holidayed there or already have family living there
Accessibility – low cost airlines have made the cost of travelling a lot cheaper so people can afford to fly back to the UK regularly
Consequences: | Negatives | Housing | * Although housing is cheaper many areas have no access to mains water so have to use deposit tanks which isn’t safe to drink * 50000 illegal homes built in Spain and many Britain’s have brought these * Valencia law – allows developers to build on part of your land if it will improve the area for other people * Often purpose build accommodation are isolated * Coastal development has lead to destruction of natural landscape | Services | * Postal system is not very organised * Health system struggles to cope with increased demand * Health care bills very expensive (no NHS) | Social | 1) Language barrier – people struggle to communicate with locals = conflicts |
Rural-urban migration –causes and processes
Urbanisation is the increase in the proportion of a region or country’s population living in urban areas. This may occur as a result of rural-to-urban migration and/or natural population increase in urban areas.
Causes of urbanisation:
1. Internal growth - Natural increase from city dwellers having a high birth rate
2. Rural to urban migration- Most who move are young, fertile and therefore causes a high birth rate (migration fuels a high internal growth)
Megacities
The different patterns of population movement that happen in cities make up the cycle of urbanisation.
Megacities are those having a population over 10 million. Megacities can be classified via: a) Level of development – many of Asia’s cities are centres of wealth whilst Africa’s are poor b) Type of migrant – some migrants are young and skilled, whilst others poorer and old c) Growth factors – cities can be growing due to migration or internal growth d) Planning – many Asian cities are beginning to plan their growth e) Rate of population growth – Varies from 2-4% per year in Latin American cities to 4-8% in African cities
Slow growing, mature Europe and North America, population 70%+ urbanNo slums | Growing, consolidating South America and SE Asia, population 40-50% urbanUnder 20% slums | Rapidly growing, immatureSouth/ SE Asia and Africa, population under 30% urban20% + slums | * Tokyo * Moscow * LA * New York(NB some growing faster than others) | * Beijing * Rio * Shanghai * Buenos Aires * Sao Paulo * Mexico City | * Jakarta * Lagos * Mumbai * Cairo * Delhi * |
World cities on the other hand are defined more by influence than size:
- Political influence e.g. New York is home to the United Nations
- Transport and communications e.g. Heathrow in London has more international passengers than any other airport
- Economic power – presence of stock exchanges and the headquarters of major TNCs
Named Case Study: Megacity in the developing world: Mumbai
Background:
- Mumbai provides 33% of India’s tax revenue
- Home to Bollywood
- Rents is some areas are more than in London and New York
- Population of more than 20 million
- High population density = 20,000 people per km2
Reasons for rapid growth
Mumbai is experiencing HYPER-URBANISATION due to various factors and its economy has grown based on manufacturing. There however, has been an increase in IT and financial services and has become a major centre for out-sourced work. It is also a major media centre for India with one of the largest film industries in the world located there.
Impacts:
- 60% of Mumbai’s population live in poverty in slums like Dharavi
- Decline in old manufacturing jobs and increase in the informal sector
- Low average incomes e.g. £40 per month
- High amounts of air pollution and water problems
- Dharavi can however be describe as sustainable as it recycles 80% of its waste and is worth $1.5 million a year
Transport | Housing | Employment | - widen and beautify the main north-south and east-west roads-provide more public transport and increase the amount of parking space-25km bridge linking the city to the settlements across the Bay of Mumbai-To earn carbon credits the city is investing in energy efficient trains | - increase housing availability to reduce the number of people living in slums- make housing more affordable- the Dharavi land is worth $10 billion – In return for free land, developers must allocate at least 20% of new projects to affordable housing- Slum dwellers are given free apartments 21m2 in area | - aims to create 200,000 high-end service sector jobs in the financial, healthcare and entertainment sectors (raising GDP by 3% per year)-500,000 jobs in construction, retail, tourism and recreation (raising GDP by 2% per year)-200,000 jobs in Special Export Zones around the port and airport |
How is Mumbai becoming more sustainable?
Vision Mumbai is a plan to tackle problems created by the rapid population growth and turn the city into a world-class location by 2013. Work began in 2004. But in order for Vision Mumbai to be successful they plan to remove the Dharavi slum which is home to 1 million residents. By 2007, 200,000 people had been moved and 45,000 homes demolished as 300 hectares of land were cleared for development.
Named Case Study: Megacity in the developed World – Los Angeles
Background:
- Is the 2nd largest city in the USA
- Home to 24 million people
- By 1970s was the fastest growing city in USA
- Average population density of 3000 per km2
Reasons for growth 1) Arrival of railway in 1876 stimulated rapid growth = ½ million arrived within 40 years 2) Discovery of oil and opening of manufacturing plants 3) Aircraft industries located test flights and production sites here due to good weather 4) Development of film industry in Hollywood in the 1920-30s
Problems created:
Suburban sprawl arrival of transport links e.g. railway/motorways mean people can live further from work. Creates problems of congestion and development of night time dormitory settlements
Increasing reliance on cars 10 million car owners create an environmental hazard = smog. Los Angeles sits in a basin which means the pollution becomes trapped above the city.
Housing shortages due to high rates of migration
Urban tensions due to ethnic differences
Unemployment deindustrialisation of the economy has meant the loss of thousands of manufacturing jobs
Water increasing conflict with neighbouring states as water has to be piped in from 350km away
Waste 24 million people produce 50,000 tonnes of waste per day
Donut city industries have moved out of the central area leading to a hole in the centre. Has now been filled by headquarters of TNCs
How can Los Angeles be more sustainable?
Progressive Los Angeles Network (PLAN) proposes an agenda for sustainable living which focuses on the issues of transport, food, economic development and housing.
Proposals include: a) Providing community benefits such as childcare and affordable housing b) Promoting clean fuel vehicles and green energy c) Ensuring developers built more affordable housing in all residential developments d) Improve public transport e) Promote smart growth where people can live and in the same areas
Sustainable development is a form of development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’ Brundtland Report
Ecological Footprint = It is a measure of the amount of land and water that a population needs in order to produce the resources that it consumes and to absorb its waste with existing technology * Sustainable cities are high on the agenda of both city and national governments. Cities are bound to draw heavily on their surrounding regions.
Strategies for improving slums and shanties | Eviction | Security of tenure | Site & Service | Consolidation | Outline | 6.7 million people were excited from slums in 2000-2002Extreme solution which simply removes the slums | 30-50% in developing cities have no legal right to occupy the land they inhabit. Tenure grants them rights | Sets out roads, sewers and water connections before slums develop. Low income people move in and construct their homes on prepared sites | Residents gradually improve their own homes | Advantage | Allows infrastructure to be completedIf new housing is provided it can work | Utility companies will connect to areas with secure tenureGroups will form to improve conditions | Sanitation and water have major health benefitsPrevents urban sprawl | Proceeds at an affordable rateLow cost | Disadvantage | Slums may reappear in new locationsPeople lose homes and businessesEconomic activity may decline | May encourage further illegal land occupationCompensation may have to be paid to land owners | Requires careful planning and choosing of siteDifficult to persuade residents to move in as rent may be required | May take decadesOnly starts when tenure is secured |
NGOs are trying to encourage water companies to connect to those living in the slums of the developing world. In Dhaka, Bangladesh, the NGO called DushthaShasthua Kendra (DSK) is persuading the water company to install 40 communal water pumps for $26,000 and each house will pay back $1 per month.
In MexicoCity private cars are banned from driving in the city on certain days of the week according to the last digit on their number plate.
In Delhi, all buses and rickshaws were converted to cleaner compressed natural gas in 2002.
Consequences of globalisation
Positive and negative effects of globalisation
Moral consequences of globalisation
Often the movement of TNCs into the developing world can lead to exploitation of workers as they are paid very low wages and have few rights.
Morally wrong? * Workers in these countries are producing the same products that formerly came from Europe. However they do not benefit from the same high levels of pay and health and safety (hence the lower cost and the attraction of these locations!) * Many Chinese factory workers experience similar working conditions to those in the UK during the 19th century. * Trade unionists campaigning for improved rights do so at the risk of facing persecution, being kidnapped or even murdered. * Workers often live in slum districts where living conditions are poor and disease is rife.These conditions in many ways mirror those of London slums in the 19th century.
Morally right? * Poor working conditions in cities are often better than those of rural areas which may be harsher. * There is also evidence that conditions are improving e.g. in 2006, China announced it was banning child labour.
Social consequences of globalisation
Cuba is a good example of a country switching into the global economy.For years it has been under the rule of Fidel Castro.Since the Soviet Union collapsed in 1989, Cuba has isolated itself from much of the outside world.Since 2004, Virgin Atlantic has been sending flights directly into Cuba.Along with the tourists, the influence of television and the internet is eroding local traditions and values.
Environmental costs of globalisation * Deforestation is closely tied to economic growth, trade and debt.Poorer countries want to develop. To do this they need raw materials such as timber and oil (for industrialisation and trade) and land for farming.This inevitably leads to deforestation e.g. Central America’s rainforest have fallen from around 500,000km² to an estimated 90,000 km² today. * Oil pollution – increased global trade means more shipping. Ecosystems are damaged by oil pollution from shipping * Carbon emissions – globalisation has meant products can be sold a long way from where they are made. This means they are transported long distances before they are brought which creates pollution and contributes to global warming * Waste – increased global trade means people have access to more products are low prices so they can afford to be more wasteful
Reducing the environmental costs of globalisation Option | +ve | -ve | Recycling | Aim to raise awareness of recycling or refuse to buy items that carry too much packaging- At least 80% of our rubbish could be reused, recycled or composted- Landfills are running out and both incineration and landfill release greenhouse gases- Recycling is cleaner, greener and provides new raw materials | - Viability can be threatened by the energy used in shipping paper and glass for reprocessing in China- cheap cost of goods encourages people to treat items as disposable e.g. clothes-Collection, sorting and processing uses more energy than generating less waste in the first place | Local buying | Clock up fewer FOOD MILES than imported food- Producing food in Africa is less energy intensive than in the UK | Energy used in producing winter crops in UK can generate even more carbon emissions than importing it by air- Can impact on farmers abroad- Estimated in 2002 the food in Britain travelled a distance of 30 billion miles- Often consumers still use cars to go shopping- buying locally can undermine Fair Trade and means poorer countries can lose markets | Organic buying | Attempts to reduce the environmental impacts of food production by avoiding the use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides | Organic food often imported from abroad making it more energy intensive- can destroy more forests as less use of fertilisers means more land is needed to grow the same amount | Carbon credits | Firms offer individuals or organisations the chance to erase the environmental damage caused by their greenhouse gas emissions- Trees soak up carbon dioxide, so you can pay for a tree to be planted to soak up the carbon produced on a flight you take | Not a solution to climate change- Trees actually release carbon dioxide in the first 10 years of their lives- Not seen as scientific valuable so removed from EU Emission Trading Scheme | Bio fuels | Oil from crops can be used instead of conventional fossil fuels -Saves on use of non-renewable fossil fuels like oil | Still emits carbon dioxide- large amounts of energy are needed to process bio fuels for useOften wide-scale removal of rainforest to clear land for production | Green taxes | Adding a ‘green tax’ to the costs of flights or introducing road pricing schemes e.g. London Congestion Charge Reduces travel-related greenhouse gas emissions | Policies only penalise the poor, while the rich can drive and fly around the world |
Tackling social problems created by globalisation Option | +ve | -ve | Fair Trade | Attempt to reduce the economic unfairness of globalisation. - By 2006 total value of UK fair trade sales was £300 million and growing at 40% per year- More money goes to poor workers | As the numbers of fair trade schemes grow it become harder to monitor how fair they are | Ethically sourced goods | Consumers can avoid purchasing goods produced under exploitative ‘sweatshop’ conditions. | Supply chains and outsourcing by TNCs makes it hard to enforce codes of practice e.g. Gap are against worker exploitation but third parties producing goods for them could use sweatshop conditions | Trade Reforms | Governments and international organisations have tried to improve the terms of trade for poor nations, especially rules regulating import and export of agricultural produce. | - Huge subsidies to farmers under CAP and protective trade tariffs protecting the EU forces up the cost of imported African goods-European farmers resist measures to open markets up to greater competition as it could threaten their livelihoods | Aid | Governments give aid and NGOs help collect money directly from the public to help address the economic unfairness of globalisation- In 1984 and in 2004-05 Band Aid raised money for famine relief in Ethiopia | - Aid can result in dependency for poorer nations and can make it difficult for emerging businesses to profit |
What questions have been asked?
* Describe and explain why globalisation has been accelerating (15) * Describe the growth and spatial division of labour for one named TNC (10) * Evaluate the strategies used to solve the problems caused by globalisation (15) * Describe and explain how internal factors have caused changes in the UK population in the 20th Century (10) * Describe and explain the social and economic impacts of an ageing population (10) * Discuss the consequences of migration into Europe (10) * Using a named example, discuss the reasons for intra-EU migration and the consequences for the countries involved (10) * Describe the push and pull factors for rural-urban migration in a named country (10) * Compare 2 megacities you have studied (10) * Describe and explain how an urban area could become more sustainable (10) * Using examples, explain how some countries have been affected by debt, and the impacts this has had on them (10) * Using examples, assess how far TNC bring benefits and problems for their suppliers and consumers (10) * Explain the benefits and problems that economic migrants can bring for a. the host country and b. the source country (15) * Using examples you have studied, explain the problems that the world’s megacities face in trying to be more sustainable (15) * Referring to examples, assess some of the strategies that can be used to try to create a more sustainable world (15) * Suggest why most of Africa is switched off from development (10) * Explain how people can manage the environmental and social costs of globalisation for a better world (15) * Explain why the moral and social consequences of globalisation may be a causefor concern (15) * Explain why many megacities are currently experiencing rapid rates of growth.(15) * Explain how transport improvements have helped build a more interconnectedworld.(15) * Examine the impact of UK retirement migration to the Mediterranean on source and host regions.(15)
Suggest reasons why the distribution of world billionaires is changing. (10)
* Suggest why there is an urgent need to improve residential slums such as Dharavi.(10)
Suggest reasons why the membership of trade blocs, such as the EU, has changed over time. (10)
Suggest why the UK government welcomes some migrants but not others.(10)
Explain how ethical purchasing strategies, such as Fair Trade, can play a part in creating a more equitable (equal) world.(15)
Explain the geographical challenges resulting from a greying population. (15)
Explain how social and economic factors have led to changes in the UK’spopulation age structure. (15)
Suggest why different groups of people may have different views about the needfor a ‘greener Christmas’. (10)
Suggest what this survey shows about changes in the structure and characteristicsof British families after 1960. (10)
Suggest reasons why the ‘globalisation scores’ shown vary so greatly. (10)
Explain how globalisation affects internal and international migration flows. (15)
Using Figure 10 and your own knowledge, suggest why people in Britain oftenneed to consult a wide range of records when studying their roots. (10)
Keywords
Birth rate – the number of births per 1,000 people per year in a region
Branch plant – a factory built in a country by a TNC that has its headquarters elsewhere
Core- the most developed and highly populated region of a country
Death rate – the number of deaths per 1,000 people per year in a region
Deindustrialisation – the decline of regionally important manufacturing industries
Dependency – when a nation relies for income on outside sources and has only weak control over its own economic future
Development gap – the difference in levels of economic and social well-being between the richest and poorest people on the planet
Displaced persons – people who are forced to move, by war, famine, political persecution or natural disaster
Ecological footprint – a measurement of the area of land or water required to provide a person/society with the energy, resources and good they consume and the waste they produce
Economic migrant – a migrant whose primary motivation is to seek employment
Food miles – the distance food travels from a farm to the consumer
Foreign Direct Investment – A financial injection made by a TNC into a nation’s economy e.g. building new facilities
Global Hub – a settlement providing a focal point for activities that have a global influence
Global shift – the global-scale relocation of different types of industrial activity e.g. manufacturing
Greying population – a population structure in which the proportion of people aged over 65 is high and rising
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) – a measure of the financial value of the goods and services produced with a territory
Human Development Index – a United Nations measure of economic and social development that takes into account income per capita, life expectancy and adult literacy
Illegal migrants – people who avoid border and immigration controls and enter a new country illegally
Internal migration – the movement of people between different regions within the same nation
Intervening obstacle – barrier to a migrant such as a political boarder or physical feature e.g. mountains
Intervening opportunity – an alternative migration destination that exists between the migrant’s place of origin and intended destination
Minimum wage – an hourly wage set by a nation’s government that all companies must pay to their employees
Multiplier effect – the positive spin-offs that follow an initial investment in a region
Natural increase – the difference between the birth rate and the death rate, usually converted into a percentage
Net migration – the balance between immigration and emigration
Parent company – the original business that a global TNC has developed around e.g. Walt Disney Company
Petrodollars – money derived from selling oil
Poverty:
* Absolute poverty – income levels below what is needed to maintain an adequate diet * Relative poverty – income levels that are below average for a region
Purchasing Power Parity – a measure of average wealth of people in a country
Quaternary sector – country’s employment structure that includes research, IT and financial management
Rural-Urban migration – a movement of population from rural to urban areas
Shrinking world – distant places start to feel closer and take less time to reach due to technology
Social mobility- the movement of individuals between different levels of a social hierarchy
Spatial division of labour – common practice among large companies of moving low-skilled work abroad to place where labour costs are low
Structural adjustment programmes- strict conditions imposed countries receiving loans from the IMF and World Bank.
Switched-on places – nations, regions or cities that are strongly connected to other places through the production and consumption of goods and services
Switched-off places – nations, regions or cities that are poorly connected
Technopole – a cluster of technologically innovative businesses and research institutes e.g. Silicon Valley
Tertiary sector- also known as the service sector, consisting of business that produce no physical product but either sell a product or offer a service such as tourism/education
Transnational Corporation (TNC) – a company that has operations in more than one country
Voluntary migrants – people who move for quality of life reasons
World city – a city with major economic and political power e.g. New York
What is globalisation?
Globalisation refers to the way the many places and people are becoming ever more closely linked.
Countries have always been connected through trade, colonialism and cooperation through international organisations e.g. UN. Post 1940s globalisation is different because of:
- Lengthening connections between people and places (bottled water brought to the UK from Fiji, 16,000 km away
- Deepening connections to other people and places in more areas
Population changes are an important part of globalisation as greater levels of international migration are a strong influence of globalisation of population dynamics. Globalisation does however concentrate wealth in certain areas.
The Demographic Transition Model suggests that populations follow common patterns, divided into 5 stages of development. This is based on relative changes in Crude BR and DR. It does however link demographic changes to the evolution of the economy. What is important is that it
Demonstrated that Economic growth shadowed by: * Declining DR and BR * Declining FR (People choose to have fewer children) * Longer life expectancy (health care improved)
From this it can be seen that demographic changes are both a cause and effect of globalisation. i.e. The vast increase in numbers in stages 2-3 is what drives megacity growth, creating global hubs (and markets too); while globalisation of technology and perhaps cultural norms can be advanced as a reason why all nations are ultimately 'expected' to go through the stages as described.
Factors that have accelerated globalisation
TNCs
Have brought cultural as well as economic changes to places where products are made and consumed
Transport
1960s Boeing 747 made international travel a common thing. Recent cheap flights companies e.g. Ryanair have allowed mass travel
Commuter and IT computer-aided design and manufacturing have allowed it to become more flexible and less reliant on human labour
IT technology allows managers to keep in touch via email and video-conferencing
International organisations
International Monetary Fund for example has been able to channel loans from the richest nations to countries that apply for help. Other examples include WTO and NGOs such s Oxfam who connect places and people through flows of aid or debt relief
Markets
More people have enough wealth to consumer large amounts of goods and services. Lead to the growth of stock markets e.g. London, Shanghai
Effects of globalisation on migration
People are seen as global citizens because we can visit or move to distant places e.g. UK to Australia. There is a distinct link between globalisation, inward investment to cities and migration. Inward investment is where a city takes money from an external source and uses it to improve their region by investing in industries, businesses etc. This then leads to job opportunities in that area which will result in migration to that particular location. Globalisation has also made it easier to travel, import and export to other countries. Many choose to invest in china and expand their businesses their due to cheap labour. This has then resulted in people migrating to the bigger cities in search of work.
It is important to note, that although globalisation has made it easier for money, food and goods to travel, for people it has become harder mainly due to terrorism. America is one of the strictest countries for letting people cross their boarders, along with European countries
Global disparities in wealth and poverty
In the past the world was divided into ‘developed’ and ‘developing’, however globalisation has led to the distribution of people living in poverty to become more complex
* A large number of previously poor nations are now relatively wealthy (in terms of GDP) e.g. Malaysia, Egypt, Brazil & China * Also rich elites in many countries - make it difficult to generalise about rich and poor nations as a whole * Places such as Sao Paulo, Beijing and Bangalore – low HDI, but are home to millions of people with affluent lifestyles
Grouped into 3 categories – 1. Types of countries i.e. economic groups
2. Teams of globalisation i.e. political groups e.g. EU, NAFTA
These political groupings are different to economic groups such as NICs as they: * Have allowed trade agreements to be drawn up that allows national boundaries to be crossed and therefore trade to flow freely * Contain nations at varying levels of economic development e.g. USA and Mexico are part of NAFTA 3. TNCs – groups countries by companies i.e. McDonalds
These help to build bridges between nations and promote common patterns of consumption e.g. Burger King launched in China in 2005. The largest firms have ‘branch plants’ in most countries which enables them to keep costs down and ensure their products are consumed across the world/
Why countries group together
Trade blocs exist for trading purposes; bring economic strength and security to nations. Free trade is encouraged by the removal of internal tariffs and can also protect members by establishing a common external tariff for foreign imports. This ensures that it is more expensive to import goods and therefore customers will prefer to purchase trade bloc goods instead. The EU has also integrated a common currency, the euro with some shared political legislation e.g. European Parliament established in 1979.
Benefits
Removal of internal tariffs allows: * Markets to grow – in 2004 ten new nations joined the EU and Tesco gained access to 75m extra customers * Firms that have a comparative advantage should prosper e.g. French wine-makers have advantages due to their climate and soil * Enlarged market increases demand raising the volume of production and lowering manufacturing costs = economies of scale * Smaller national firms within a trade bloc can merge to form TNCs therefore making their operations more cost-effective * In the EU, members are eligible for EU Structural Funds to help develop their economies
TNCs and global business and trade
Opposing views about TNCs For | Against | * Raising living standards – TNCs invest in the economies of the developing nations * Transfer of technology – south Korean firms e.g. Samsung have learned to design products for foreign markets * Political stability – investment by TNCs has contributed to economic growth and political stability e.g. China * Raising environmental awareness – due to large corporate image TNCs do respond to criticism e.g. Co-op has ‘green credentials’ | * Tax avoidance – many avoid paying full taxed in countries they operate in through concessions * Limited linkages – FDI does not always help developing nations economies * Growing global wealth divide – selective investment in certain global areas is creating a widening divide e.g. Southeast Asia vs. sub-Saharan Africa * Environmental degradation – example of Bhopal, India disaster in 1984 |
How do TNCs affect global wealth? * TNCs bring FDI to nations – even if wages are low workers will still spend money after they have been paid = stimulates growth of other local services * When TNCs locate in a trade bloc they bring wealth to poorer regions as they often source parts locally * One of the most effective mechanisms for wealth redistribution
What are global networks?
The term ‘global network’ refers to links between different countries in the world, this includes – flows of capital, traded goods, services, information (and people). Some areas are well connected i.e. high income areas, others poorly i.e. low income areas
A network is a model that shows how places are linked together. E.g. London Underground. A GLOBAL HUB is used to describe a place which is especially well connected. Connections between these hubs are called flows and include:
- Money= major capital flows are routed through global stock markets
- Raw materials = e.g. food and oil traded between nations
- Manufactured goods and services = value of world trade is 70 trillion dollars
- Information = internet has brought real-time communication between distant places
- People = movement of people still an issue due to border controls and immigration law
The World at Night:
This can be used to show not only how population is spread out but also where wealth is found. The richest regions of Europe and North America are brightly lit. We can also able to see rich CORE regions in countries with less overall national growth e.g. cities in Brazil.
An example: Role of technology in a shrinking world – Easy Jet
Background:
Founded in 1995 by Sir Stelios Haji-loannou, it began running slights solely within the UK with just 2 aircraft. By 1996 the company flew to Barcelona and today have around 300 flight routes in the EU.
In 2005, announced expansion into new markets outside the EU including Istanbul and Marrakech.
Role of Technology in building a global network:
- One of the 1st airlines to use the internet = 1st online sale in April 1998
- 95% of all flights today are booked online (Europe’s biggest internet retailers)
- 1998 Easy jet brought 40% of TEA Basel AG, a Swiss air company, allowing it to establish its first European base in Geneva
- By 2006 company owned 122 planes, carrying 33million people each year
- Places connected to the easy jet network become switched on e.g. Tallinn (Estonia) became an easy jet destination in 2004 and the city has brought more money and boosted trade in the city
- Future plans are aiming to move over towards Global Distribution Systems (book and sell tickets for multiple airlines) which has in the past been used exclusively for traditional airlines
Switched-on vs. Switched-off places
Global hubs possess qualities that make other places want to connect to them e.g. Beijing, London etc
Named Example: Switched on place = China
China is a success due to a combination of physical and human factors. In 1995 China’s GNP $620 per capita and by 2005 it was $1700 per capita (near 3 fold increase)
Physical factors: 1) Lots of natural resources (vast reserves of coal, gas and oil) 2) Development of energy base e.g. HEP and nuclear power stations 3) Links to close developing markets of South Korea, Taiwan and India
Human factors 1) Vast population willing to work hard in both education and employment 2) China trains 600,000 engineers every year = strong technological foundation 3) Problems of rural workers fuelling China’s economic growth as they move to urban areas for work 4) Low wages attracts TNCs = creates issues of exploitive conditions 5) Developing computer use (25 out of 100 people) will increase its connections to the rest of the world 6) Prolonged spending on health and education over 50 years has provided a healthy, literate and skilled workforce 7) Creation of industrial Export Processing Zones has stimulated cheap mass manufacturing
Named Example: Switch off Place = Gambia
In 1995 GNP $320 per capita but in 2005 this had dropped to $290 per capita.
Physical Factors: 1) No mineral or natural resource deposits 2) Limited agriculture due to climatic conditions 3) Natural hazards e.g. droughts are increasing due to global warming 4) Physical isolation means investors do not see it as an import/export base
Human factors 1) 75% of people depend on crops and livestock for their live hoods (subsistence farming) 2) Country is dependent upon aid 3) Small-scale manufacturing of groundnuts, fish and hides (all for export) 4) Low prices for food exports 5) Lack of skills and literacy deters inward investors 6) Politically isolated
Some countries have gone from being switched off to switch on e.g. Hong Kong, Thailand and South Korea. This proved that natural resources don’t have to be there in order for growth as these have limited resource base, even lack of land due to high population density. Instead they developed on wealth built on manufacture oriented and education.
Changing populations 1) Family size
- Population of UK rose from 38million in 1901 to 61 million in 2007
- Individual household sizes have fallen from 4 in 1900 to 2 children today
- Life expectancy has increased, so grandparents live longer extending family households 2) Population Structure
- UK has a top heavy population structure with more old people than young
- In 1931 7% of population was over 65 and 24% under 16
-Today 16% are over 65 and 19% under 16
- Life expectancy in 1901 was 50 for men and 57 for women (today 77 for men and 82 for women) 3) Migration and ethnicity
- Movement away from manufacturing and mining towns in the North of England towards settlements with service-sector jobs
- Southeast drift of UK population has resulted in 26% of people living there
- Significant trend of people leaving towns to live in rural areas (COUNTER-URBANISATION)
- Age selective migrations of retired people to the coast
- Large amounts of international migration = ethnic mix in the UK 4) Employment
- Decline of traditional manufacturing and job losses in farming and mining lead to more work in services, media and finance 5) Social aspirations
- During 20th Century average wages rose and more people entered higher education = social mobility
Reasons for changing pattern of population in the UK
Phase 1 – before the 1970s
- Population was still growing due to natural increase
- Death rate had fallen since 1800 due to major improvements in food supply, health and hygiene
- Post-war baby boom lead to high birth rates
- Total population grew from 38 million to 55 million between 1901 and 1971
Phase 2 – since the 1970s
- Total population has increased more slowly and most growth due to immigration
- Birth and death rates remained constant
- Total population grew from 55 million to 61 million between 1971 and 2007
Factors affectingUK population and migration
The challenges of ageing populations
Issue of Global Greying
The phenomenon of ‘greying’ is set to ‘go global’ as most OCED countries now have an aging population e.g. South Korea. At the World level, the number of people aged over 60 is set to exceed those aged under 15 for the 1st time in 2047. This has been helped by China as they had the one child policy.
Impacts of a greying population | Costs | Benefits | Housing | * Increase in housing shortages as people living longer keeps properties off the market * House prices trebling between 1995-2005 * Increase costs of subsidised housing | * Many older people own their own homes and can therefore borrow money from banks | Pensions | * 60% of Britain’s work to support 21% of population who are pensioners * By 2030 56% will work for 27% pensioners * Longer working life need as there are not enough working population to support the pensions | * Steady income source when retired * Many older people have a company pension scheme | Health care | * Rise in terminal diseases which require expensive treatment * By 2026 the health treatment will cost £30 billion per year * Shortages of spare hospital beds | * Big companies such as Boots and BUPA see elderly business as a great opportunity to boost profits | Social Services | * Government gives free TV license to over 75s and £200 winter fuel allowance * Free public transport passes | * Grandparents often look after grandchildren so that the parents can go out to work |
Population Pyramids for a greying population:
Christchurch – high elderly dependents
Reading – high economically active
Possible solutions to an ageing population: * Raise the retirement age (Australia, Canada and Denmark already have). In Iceland it is 70! * Get people to make own pension arrangements * Change pension laws so those that need more help get it and those that don’t get less
International migrations into Europe
Historical Movements: Migration is not a new concept, by 2005; 190 million worldwide were living outside their country of birth. In the UK by 2007, over 8% of the population was foreign born. This is mainly due to the links between its former colonies and during the 2nd World War the UK relied on its colonies for soldiers which remained in the UK after the war. These were then joined by economic migrants from Jamaica etc who filled labour shortages. This was encouraged under the 1948 British Nationality Act, which gave UK citizenship to people from the commonwealth. (Since been restricted since 1962)
The EU Schengen Agreement in 1985 abolished border controls between EU countries which allowed people to move freely across countries.
Who goes where and why?
HISTORICALLY
* Economic and cultural links with former colonies * E.g. France and North African colonies * E.g. UK and Uganda, India, West Indies
SHARED LANGUAGE * Indians (e.g. so many Indian doctors were able to come to UK and practice medicine) and Chinese to UK * North Africans to France The EU is a highly desirable destination for many non-European migrants, refugees and asylum seekers. The EU has a reputation of being hard to gain access to and has the nickname ‘Fortress Europe’
Current Movements: Illegal migrants
Between 4-8 million illegal migrants are thought to be in the EU with total illegal immigration in the UK estimated at 0.5 million. It is a popular choice due to the wide variety of routes that can be taken into Europe e.g. boat through the Canary Islands, Malta.
Current movements: Asylum Seekers
These claims peeked in the early 1990s and again in 2001-02 but have since fallen across Europe. Majority are from middle and near East or other countries with political or ethnic difficulties e.g. Russia, Sudan
Named Case Study: Post-accession labour flows from Eastern Europe – Poles to the UK
Attractions of the UK * Wages – e.g. nurses can earn x4s the amount than in Latvia. In 2007, 1.3 million poles had travelled to Britain for seasonal work the government predicted, but they stayed! * Free health care – NHS spent £350 million on maternity services for foreign-born mothers * Free education * Cheap accommodation – the housing in the UK is cheaper and of better quality * Ease of migration – Only UK, Ireland and Sweden decided to allow unlimited migration from the new member countries in 2004 * Good Exchange rate – a few pounds earned in the UK were worth a lot of zloty (polish currency) so migrants would send remittances (money) home to their families
Why leave Poland? * Lack of work * Decline in agriculture and knock-on effect on the economy has lead to a steady 17% unemployment rate * Low average wages – average income in the EU in 2004 was 3xs greater than in Poland * Low availability of housing – in 2004 there were 300 dwellings for every 1000 people
Consequences: | Source Benefits | Source Negatives | Host Benefits | Host Negatives | Economic | * Polish economy grows because money is sent back to Poland e.g. 2006, €3.5 billion | * Shortage of labourers as most migrants are working age = economy doesn’t grow as much * Migrants who plan to settle only send around 8% remittances home | * Fills skills gaps * Economic turn around * Workers will work for less than British workers e.g. £60 per day for builders rather than £120 | * Money earned by the polish workers isn’t all spent in the UK but send home to Poland * Drives wages for jobs down (see builders) | Social | * Skills learnt by migrants can be taken back to Poland * Unemployed reduced | * Poland’s population has shrunk e.g. fell 0.3% between 2003-2007 * Birth rate decreased as people of reproductive age are leaving * Growing worker exploitation of polish * Significant amounts of ‘brain drain’ * Ageing population develops * Family break up as generally young men migrate leaving families behind * A culture of emigration and a sense that leaving is a good thing - this can cause societies to undervalue themselves | * Migration of working age people has helped the problems cause by the UKs ageing population * Young migrants can pay taxes which support older retired people * Increased cultural as Polish products have opened up areas e.g. West Midlands * Numbers attending Catholic church increased | * Increased strain on services e.g. education/ health care * Social/cultural tensions * Increased crimes * Overcrowding * Demand for resources such as housing leads to shortages, rising prices etc | Environmental | * Less pressure on resources such as land | | | * Increased immigration from Poland has meant more air travel e.g. 3.3 million in 2006 = increased greenhouse gases = global warming * Increased congestion, urban air pollution and urban sprawl |
Named Case Study: Retirement Flows to the Mediterranean
Causes: 1) Spanish Climate - 10°c warmer than Britain and has less rainfall, with leads to improved health 2) Life style – Laid back, slower pace of life 3) Lower crime rate and absence of ‘youth’ culture 4) Cost of living in Spain tends to be a lot cheaper e.g. Utility bills are 60% of the UK prices 5) Value of properties in UK have increased meaning when these are sold there is a lump sum of money to support them through their retirement 6) Family/friends – many have holidayed there or already have family living there
Accessibility – low cost airlines have made the cost of travelling a lot cheaper so people can afford to fly back to the UK regularly
Consequences: | Negatives | Housing | * Although housing is cheaper many areas have no access to mains water so have to use deposit tanks which isn’t safe to drink * 50000 illegal homes built in Spain and many Britain’s have brought these * Valencia law – allows developers to build on part of your land if it will improve the area for other people * Often purpose build accommodation are isolated * Coastal development has lead to destruction of natural landscape | Services | * Postal system is not very organised * Health system struggles to cope with increased demand * Health care bills very expensive (no NHS) | Social | 1) Language barrier – people struggle to communicate with locals = conflicts |
Rural-urban migration –causes and processes
Urbanisation is the increase in the proportion of a region or country’s population living in urban areas. This may occur as a result of rural-to-urban migration and/or natural population increase in urban areas.
Causes of urbanisation:
1. Internal growth - Natural increase from city dwellers having a high birth rate
2. Rural to urban migration- Most who move are young, fertile and therefore causes a high birth rate (migration fuels a high internal growth)
Megacities
The different patterns of population movement that happen in cities make up the cycle of urbanisation.
Megacities are those having a population over 10 million. Megacities can be classified via: a) Level of development – many of Asia’s cities are centres of wealth whilst Africa’s are poor b) Type of migrant – some migrants are young and skilled, whilst others poorer and old c) Growth factors – cities can be growing due to migration or internal growth d) Planning – many Asian cities are beginning to plan their growth e) Rate of population growth – Varies from 2-4% per year in Latin American cities to 4-8% in African cities
Slow growing, mature Europe and North America, population 70%+ urbanNo slums | Growing, consolidating South America and SE Asia, population 40-50% urbanUnder 20% slums | Rapidly growing, immatureSouth/ SE Asia and Africa, population under 30% urban20% + slums | * Tokyo * Moscow * LA * New York(NB some growing faster than others) | * Beijing * Rio * Shanghai * Buenos Aires * Sao Paulo * Mexico City | * Jakarta * Lagos * Mumbai * Cairo * Delhi * |
World cities on the other hand are defined more by influence than size:
- Political influence e.g. New York is home to the United Nations
- Transport and communications e.g. Heathrow in London has more international passengers than any other airport
- Economic power – presence of stock exchanges and the headquarters of major TNCs
Named Case Study: Megacity in the developing world: Mumbai
Background:
- Mumbai provides 33% of India’s tax revenue
- Home to Bollywood
- Rents is some areas are more than in London and New York
- Population of more than 20 million
- High population density = 20,000 people per km2
Reasons for rapid growth
Mumbai is experiencing HYPER-URBANISATION due to various factors and its economy has grown based on manufacturing. There however, has been an increase in IT and financial services and has become a major centre for out-sourced work. It is also a major media centre for India with one of the largest film industries in the world located there.
Impacts:
- 60% of Mumbai’s population live in poverty in slums like Dharavi
- Decline in old manufacturing jobs and increase in the informal sector
- Low average incomes e.g. £40 per month
- High amounts of air pollution and water problems
- Dharavi can however be describe as sustainable as it recycles 80% of its waste and is worth $1.5 million a year
Transport | Housing | Employment | - widen and beautify the main north-south and east-west roads-provide more public transport and increase the amount of parking space-25km bridge linking the city to the settlements across the Bay of Mumbai-To earn carbon credits the city is investing in energy efficient trains | - increase housing availability to reduce the number of people living in slums- make housing more affordable- the Dharavi land is worth $10 billion – In return for free land, developers must allocate at least 20% of new projects to affordable housing- Slum dwellers are given free apartments 21m2 in area | - aims to create 200,000 high-end service sector jobs in the financial, healthcare and entertainment sectors (raising GDP by 3% per year)-500,000 jobs in construction, retail, tourism and recreation (raising GDP by 2% per year)-200,000 jobs in Special Export Zones around the port and airport |
How is Mumbai becoming more sustainable?
Vision Mumbai is a plan to tackle problems created by the rapid population growth and turn the city into a world-class location by 2013. Work began in 2004. But in order for Vision Mumbai to be successful they plan to remove the Dharavi slum which is home to 1 million residents. By 2007, 200,000 people had been moved and 45,000 homes demolished as 300 hectares of land were cleared for development.
Named Case Study: Megacity in the developed World – Los Angeles
Background:
- Is the 2nd largest city in the USA
- Home to 24 million people
- By 1970s was the fastest growing city in USA
- Average population density of 3000 per km2
Reasons for growth 1) Arrival of railway in 1876 stimulated rapid growth = ½ million arrived within 40 years 2) Discovery of oil and opening of manufacturing plants 3) Aircraft industries located test flights and production sites here due to good weather 4) Development of film industry in Hollywood in the 1920-30s
Problems created:
Suburban sprawl arrival of transport links e.g. railway/motorways mean people can live further from work. Creates problems of congestion and development of night time dormitory settlements
Increasing reliance on cars 10 million car owners create an environmental hazard = smog. Los Angeles sits in a basin which means the pollution becomes trapped above the city.
Housing shortages due to high rates of migration
Urban tensions due to ethnic differences
Unemployment deindustrialisation of the economy has meant the loss of thousands of manufacturing jobs
Water increasing conflict with neighbouring states as water has to be piped in from 350km away
Waste 24 million people produce 50,000 tonnes of waste per day
Donut city industries have moved out of the central area leading to a hole in the centre. Has now been filled by headquarters of TNCs
How can Los Angeles be more sustainable?
Progressive Los Angeles Network (PLAN) proposes an agenda for sustainable living which focuses on the issues of transport, food, economic development and housing.
Proposals include: a) Providing community benefits such as childcare and affordable housing b) Promoting clean fuel vehicles and green energy c) Ensuring developers built more affordable housing in all residential developments d) Improve public transport e) Promote smart growth where people can live and in the same areas
Sustainable development is a form of development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’ Brundtland Report
Ecological Footprint = It is a measure of the amount of land and water that a population needs in order to produce the resources that it consumes and to absorb its waste with existing technology * Sustainable cities are high on the agenda of both city and national governments. Cities are bound to draw heavily on their surrounding regions.
Strategies for improving slums and shanties | Eviction | Security of tenure | Site & Service | Consolidation | Outline | 6.7 million people were excited from slums in 2000-2002Extreme solution which simply removes the slums | 30-50% in developing cities have no legal right to occupy the land they inhabit. Tenure grants them rights | Sets out roads, sewers and water connections before slums develop. Low income people move in and construct their homes on prepared sites | Residents gradually improve their own homes | Advantage | Allows infrastructure to be completedIf new housing is provided it can work | Utility companies will connect to areas with secure tenureGroups will form to improve conditions | Sanitation and water have major health benefitsPrevents urban sprawl | Proceeds at an affordable rateLow cost | Disadvantage | Slums may reappear in new locationsPeople lose homes and businessesEconomic activity may decline | May encourage further illegal land occupationCompensation may have to be paid to land owners | Requires careful planning and choosing of siteDifficult to persuade residents to move in as rent may be required | May take decadesOnly starts when tenure is secured |
NGOs are trying to encourage water companies to connect to those living in the slums of the developing world. In Dhaka, Bangladesh, the NGO called DushthaShasthua Kendra (DSK) is persuading the water company to install 40 communal water pumps for $26,000 and each house will pay back $1 per month.
In MexicoCity private cars are banned from driving in the city on certain days of the week according to the last digit on their number plate.
In Delhi, all buses and rickshaws were converted to cleaner compressed natural gas in 2002.
Consequences of globalisation
Positive and negative effects of globalisation
Moral consequences of globalisation
Often the movement of TNCs into the developing world can lead to exploitation of workers as they are paid very low wages and have few rights.
Morally wrong? * Workers in these countries are producing the same products that formerly came from Europe. However they do not benefit from the same high levels of pay and health and safety (hence the lower cost and the attraction of these locations!) * Many Chinese factory workers experience similar working conditions to those in the UK during the 19th century. * Trade unionists campaigning for improved rights do so at the risk of facing persecution, being kidnapped or even murdered. * Workers often live in slum districts where living conditions are poor and disease is rife.These conditions in many ways mirror those of London slums in the 19th century.
Morally right? * Poor working conditions in cities are often better than those of rural areas which may be harsher. * There is also evidence that conditions are improving e.g. in 2006, China announced it was banning child labour.
Social consequences of globalisation
Cuba is a good example of a country switching into the global economy.For years it has been under the rule of Fidel Castro.Since the Soviet Union collapsed in 1989, Cuba has isolated itself from much of the outside world.Since 2004, Virgin Atlantic has been sending flights directly into Cuba.Along with the tourists, the influence of television and the internet is eroding local traditions and values.
Environmental costs of globalisation * Deforestation is closely tied to economic growth, trade and debt.Poorer countries want to develop. To do this they need raw materials such as timber and oil (for industrialisation and trade) and land for farming.This inevitably leads to deforestation e.g. Central America’s rainforest have fallen from around 500,000km² to an estimated 90,000 km² today. * Oil pollution – increased global trade means more shipping. Ecosystems are damaged by oil pollution from shipping * Carbon emissions – globalisation has meant products can be sold a long way from where they are made. This means they are transported long distances before they are brought which creates pollution and contributes to global warming * Waste – increased global trade means people have access to more products are low prices so they can afford to be more wasteful
Reducing the environmental costs of globalisation Option | +ve | -ve | Recycling | Aim to raise awareness of recycling or refuse to buy items that carry too much packaging- At least 80% of our rubbish could be reused, recycled or composted- Landfills are running out and both incineration and landfill release greenhouse gases- Recycling is cleaner, greener and provides new raw materials | - Viability can be threatened by the energy used in shipping paper and glass for reprocessing in China- cheap cost of goods encourages people to treat items as disposable e.g. clothes-Collection, sorting and processing uses more energy than generating less waste in the first place | Local buying | Clock up fewer FOOD MILES than imported food- Producing food in Africa is less energy intensive than in the UK | Energy used in producing winter crops in UK can generate even more carbon emissions than importing it by air- Can impact on farmers abroad- Estimated in 2002 the food in Britain travelled a distance of 30 billion miles- Often consumers still use cars to go shopping- buying locally can undermine Fair Trade and means poorer countries can lose markets | Organic buying | Attempts to reduce the environmental impacts of food production by avoiding the use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides | Organic food often imported from abroad making it more energy intensive- can destroy more forests as less use of fertilisers means more land is needed to grow the same amount | Carbon credits | Firms offer individuals or organisations the chance to erase the environmental damage caused by their greenhouse gas emissions- Trees soak up carbon dioxide, so you can pay for a tree to be planted to soak up the carbon produced on a flight you take | Not a solution to climate change- Trees actually release carbon dioxide in the first 10 years of their lives- Not seen as scientific valuable so removed from EU Emission Trading Scheme | Bio fuels | Oil from crops can be used instead of conventional fossil fuels -Saves on use of non-renewable fossil fuels like oil | Still emits carbon dioxide- large amounts of energy are needed to process bio fuels for useOften wide-scale removal of rainforest to clear land for production | Green taxes | Adding a ‘green tax’ to the costs of flights or introducing road pricing schemes e.g. London Congestion Charge Reduces travel-related greenhouse gas emissions | Policies only penalise the poor, while the rich can drive and fly around the world |
Tackling social problems created by globalisation Option | +ve | -ve | Fair Trade | Attempt to reduce the economic unfairness of globalisation. - By 2006 total value of UK fair trade sales was £300 million and growing at 40% per year- More money goes to poor workers | As the numbers of fair trade schemes grow it become harder to monitor how fair they are | Ethically sourced goods | Consumers can avoid purchasing goods produced under exploitative ‘sweatshop’ conditions. | Supply chains and outsourcing by TNCs makes it hard to enforce codes of practice e.g. Gap are against worker exploitation but third parties producing goods for them could use sweatshop conditions | Trade Reforms | Governments and international organisations have tried to improve the terms of trade for poor nations, especially rules regulating import and export of agricultural produce. | - Huge subsidies to farmers under CAP and protective trade tariffs protecting the EU forces up the cost of imported African goods-European farmers resist measures to open markets up to greater competition as it could threaten their livelihoods | Aid | Governments give aid and NGOs help collect money directly from the public to help address the economic unfairness of globalisation- In 1984 and in 2004-05 Band Aid raised money for famine relief in Ethiopia | - Aid can result in dependency for poorer nations and can make it difficult for emerging businesses to profit |
What questions have been asked?
* Describe and explain why globalisation has been accelerating (15) * Describe the growth and spatial division of labour for one named TNC (10) * Evaluate the strategies used to solve the problems caused by globalisation (15) * Describe and explain how internal factors have caused changes in the UK population in the 20th Century (10) * Describe and explain the social and economic impacts of an ageing population (10) * Discuss the consequences of migration into Europe (10) * Using a named example, discuss the reasons for intra-EU migration and the consequences for the countries involved (10) * Describe the push and pull factors for rural-urban migration in a named country (10) * Compare 2 megacities you have studied (10) * Describe and explain how an urban area could become more sustainable (10) * Using examples, explain how some countries have been affected by debt, and the impacts this has had on them (10) * Using examples, assess how far TNC bring benefits and problems for their suppliers and consumers (10) * Explain the benefits and problems that economic migrants can bring for a. the host country and b. the source country (15) * Using examples you have studied, explain the problems that the world’s megacities face in trying to be more sustainable (15) * Referring to examples, assess some of the strategies that can be used to try to create a more sustainable world (15) * Suggest why most of Africa is switched off from development (10) * Explain how people can manage the environmental and social costs of globalisation for a better world (15) * Explain why the moral and social consequences of globalisation may be a causefor concern (15) * Explain why many megacities are currently experiencing rapid rates of growth.(15) * Explain how transport improvements have helped build a more interconnectedworld.(15) * Examine the impact of UK retirement migration to the Mediterranean on source and host regions.(15)
Suggest reasons why the distribution of world billionaires is changing. (10)
* Suggest why there is an urgent need to improve residential slums such as Dharavi.(10)
Suggest reasons why the membership of trade blocs, such as the EU, has changed over time. (10)
Suggest why the UK government welcomes some migrants but not others.(10)
Explain how ethical purchasing strategies, such as Fair Trade, can play a part in creating a more equitable (equal) world.(15)
Explain the geographical challenges resulting from a greying population. (15)
Explain how social and economic factors have led to changes in the UK’spopulation age structure. (15)
Suggest why different groups of people may have different views about the needfor a ‘greener Christmas’. (10)
Suggest what this survey shows about changes in the structure and characteristicsof British families after 1960. (10)
Suggest reasons why the ‘globalisation scores’ shown vary so greatly. (10)
Explain how globalisation affects internal and international migration flows. (15)
Using Figure 10 and your own knowledge, suggest why people in Britain oftenneed to consult a wide range of records when studying their roots. (10)
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