psych 101 final essay

PSY235 ESSAY FINAL -
Please select and answer comprehensively any five (5) questions. The final exam covers Chapters 11-19 of Development through the Lifespan. Supplemental professional journal articles can also be used to support your answers. Each answer should be roughly two (2) type-written pages double-spaced (500 words). Font type should be Times New Roman 12. 1. Describe the major hormonal changes that occur during adolescence. Describe girls’ reactions to menarche and boys’ reactions to spermarche during puberty. What factors influence the way adolescents respond? Describe the impact of puberty on parent–child interaction and the adaptive value of this change in adolescents’ relationships with their parents.
Puberty is the time in which a child's sexual and physical characteristics mature. It occurs due to hormonal changes. Adolescence is the period between puberty and adulthood. The exact age a child enters puberty depends on a number of different things, such as genes, nutrition, and gender. During puberty, endocrine glands produce hormones that cause body changes and the development of secondary sex characteristics.
In girls, the ovaries begin to increase production of estrogen and other female hormones. In boys, the testicles increase production of testosterone. The adrenal glands produce hormones that cause increased armpit sweating, body odor, acne, and armpit and pubic hair. This process is called adrenarche.
Menarche, the onset of menstrual periods, occurs midway through puberty. Most girls reach menarche in their 12th year. The menstrual cycle is regulated by a feedback loop involving the ovaries, the anterior pituitary, and the hypothalamus. In boys, the presence of testosterone and other hormones stimulates the testes to produce sperm. Most boys experience spermarche, the first ejaculation of seminal fluid, by mid-adolescence.
Adolescents who have a warm and loving relationship with their parents experience fewer emotional or behavioral problems during puberty. For most adolescents, however, closeness with parents temporarily decreases and conflict increases. Research suggests that ethnicity and culture may play a role. Girls often feel anxious or scared during their first menstruation and may be afraid to approach their parent at first. Its not something that has ever happened to them before, but mothers will usually discuss what is going to happen with their daughters before the time comes. A female might have negative feelings about dealing with her menstrual cycle if her mother, or caregiver is not there as a support system during this time. It is also very important because due to hormones, this can be a very emotional time. I think for boys experiencing spermarche, it is less uncomfortable, because they probably dont even tell their parent.

2. Discuss some preventative measures adults can take to avoid or slow the progress of cardiovascular disease. Explain the combined gender–racial bias that is especially dangerous for African-American women with heart disease.
Heart disease, is a leading cause of death among adults. There are things that we can do to improve our health and decrease our risk. Smoking or using tobacco of any kind is one of the most significant risk factors for developing heart disease. Chemicals in tobacco can damage your heart and blood vessels, leading to narrowing of the arteries (atherosclerosis). Atherosclerosis can ultimately lead to a heart attack. Carbon monoxide in cigarette smoke replaces some of the oxygen in your blood. This increases your blood pressure and heart rate by forcing your heart to work harder to supply enough oxygen. Women who smoke and take birth control pills are at greater risk of having a heart attack or stroke than are those who don't do either because both smoking and taking birth control pills increase the risk of blood clots. When it comes to heart disease prevention, no amount of smoking is safe. But, the more you smoke, the greater your risk.
Getting regular, daily exercise can reduce your risk of fatal heart disease. And when you combine physical activity with other lifestyle measures, such as maintaining a healthy weight and diet, the payoff is even greater. Physical activity helps you control your weight and can reduce your chances of developing other conditions that may put a strain on your heart, such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol and diabetes. Its important to get at least 30 to 60 minutes of moderately intense physical activity most days of the week.
A diet rich in fruits, vegetables and whole grains can help protect your heart. Beans, other low-fat sources of protein and certain types of fish also can reduce your risk of heart disease. Limiting certain fats you eat also is important. Saturated fat and trans fat are the ones to try to limit or avoid. Try to keep saturated fat to no more than 10 percent of your daily calories. And, try to keep trans fat out of your diet altogether.
Heart disease is the No. 1 killer in women. Researchers have found that there may be a gene that makes African-Americans much more sensitive to the effects of salt, which in turn increases the risk for developing high blood pressure. The African-American population also tends to have higher rates of obesity and diabetes, which puts them at greater risk for high blood pressure and heart disease. 3. According to Levinson, what four developmental tasks must middle-aged adults confront in order to rebuild their life structure? Provide examples to illustrate all four. What are possible selves, and why are they important in middle adulthood?
Levinson's The Season's of a Mans Life (1978) presents a psychosocial theory in the tradition of Erikson. Levinson conducted a series of indepth interviews with 40 men in the age range of 35-45. There were three subgroups of homemakers, business executives, and university professors. His results, as well as those of others proposes that "a common path of change within which men and women approach developmental tasks in somewhat different ways." (Levinson, 1996; Roberts & Newton 1987). Similar to Erikson, Levinson viewed development as a sequence of qualitatively specific eras. Otherwise called stages, or seasons. Each stage begins with a transition, and is followed by a stable phase where the individual builds their life structure creating peace and enhancing their overall quality of life. Eventually there is a time where people question their current structure, and this is when the next transition will occur.
The Life Structure is very important to Levinsons theory. It consists of all types of relationships, including friendships, marriages, and co-workers. There are four developmental stages that middle-ages adults must confront in order to rebuild their Life Structure:
1. young-old: The middle age person is looking for new ways to be both young and old at the same time. They must give up some youthful qualities while retaining and transforming others. This is a time to find the positive meaning in being older. For example, as women age they grow more concerned about looking younger. 2. destruction-creation: During this stage, there is a greater awareness of mortality and the person will focus on how they have acted in a destructive way towards others, and how others have acted that way towards them. They will reflect on negative experiences with parents, friends, and co-workers countered by a strong desire to do right, and leave behind a legacy for future generations.
3. masculinity-femininity: The middle aged person must reconcile the masculine and feminine parts of self; for men, greater acceptance of traits of nurturance and caring; for women. For women this generally means being more open to "masculine" characteristics of autonomy and assertiveness. (Gilligan, 1982; Harris, Ellicott, & Holmes, 1986)
4. engagement-separateness: The middle aged adult must create a balance between engagement with the external world and separateness from it. For many men and for women who have had successful careers, this may mean

4. What are some stereotypes of late adulthood? How does stereotype threat impact elders’ functioning? What are some cultural differences in aging stereotypes? What are some characteristics of wise elders? Explain the benefits of continuing education for elders. How can educators increase program effectiveness?
There are so many stereotypes attached to late adulthood. We tend to picture the elderly as slowing down in life, having to be cared for, and not capable of doing all the things they once could. We treat older people as if they should not have the same privileges such as driving, and this can make it hard for them to get to doctors appointments, the grocery store, and other important places. If family members feel that their elderly relatives "cant drive" anymore they are taking away a part of their independence and freedom, which can also leave them feeling very depressed.
Elderly people have many more experiences then us and have seen things that we never will. Just because they might not be able to see or hear as well as we do doesn't mean that they don't hold onto a wealth of knowledge that they can share with us.
For working seniors, continuing education can lead to better career opportunities and financial rewards. Those who are studying just to gain knowledge and academic certification will earn more respect from their friends and families, and they can inspire their children or grandchildren to pursue higher education. Continuing education is very beneficial for seniors, because it can rejuvenate their minds and bring new meaning to their lives. Learning and studying keeps the mind engaged and our thinking clear. For people who no longer work, it is important to stimulate the mind. From a social aspect going back to school in late adult hood can open new channels of interaction and introduce us to new friends inside and outside of the classroom.

5. Define the four social theories of aging. Discuss the meaning of optimal aging, and provide some examples of how to facilitate it. Describe four diverse functions of friendships in late adulthood.
Four major theories explain the psychosocial aspects of aging in older adults. Disengagement theory views aging as a process of mutual withdrawal in which older adults voluntarily slow down by retiring, as expected by society. Advocates of disengagement theory hold that mutual social withdrawal benefits both individuals and society. Disengagement by the elderly may not be due to personal preference, but rather, a failure of the social world to provide the opportunity for engagement.
Activity theory, on the other hand, sees a positive correlation between keeping active and aging well. Advocates of activity theory believe that mutual social withdrawal runs counter to traditional American ideals of activity, energy, and industry. Currently, research has not shown either of these models to be superior to the other. In other words, growing old means different things for different people. Individuals who led active lives as young and middle adults will probably remain active as older adults, while those who were less active may become more disengaged as they age. In this view, elders' life satisfaction depends on conditions that permit them to remain engaged in roles and relationships (Maddox, 1063)
The Continuity Theory, unlike the Activity Theory, does not view elders' efforts to remain active as a replacement for lost social roles. According to this view, most aging adults will try to maintain an identity which includes their personality, interests, roles and skills. This striving for continuity does not mean an elders' life is static.
Finally, the Socioemotional Selectivity Theory states that social interaction is a lifelong selection process. When we are older we maintain relationships with family members and close friends into our eighties, when they will gradually diminish and we will have only a few very close relationships, most likely relatives. When our remaining time is limited, we place more importance on the emotional quality of these relationships.
As older adults approach the end of their life span, they are more apt to conduct a life review. The elderly may reminisce for hours on end, take trips to favorite childhood places, or muse over photo albums and scrapbooks. Throughout the process, they look back to try to find the meaning and purpose that characterized their lives. In their quest to find life's meaning, older adults often have a vital need to share their reminisces with others who care, especially family.