Slavery, Segregation and Civil Rights: Their Impact on American Sports

Slavery, Segregation and Civil Rights: Their Impact on American Sports
Norman A. Fisher, Jr.
Lasell College

. Abstract
To many people, the sports world is a place in which none of the normal problems of the "real" world could possibly exist. The participants seem to be rich beyond measure, many are educated and well spoken, and though there are disputes, they usually center on money-not trivial problems like poverty and homelessness. Many also believe that the sports world is a model of race relations for the rest of society. Through television and other media coverage, fans see that on the playing field it does not matter whether you are black or white, what matters is your ability. Therefore, sports are often used as a paradigm of how an integrated society should look.
A more sensitive look at the sports world reveals that this idyllic picture is misleading. Although in the major professional sports and college sports today the majority of players are African-American, this does not mean that racism is absent. In college athletics black athletes often deal with racial stereotypes, isolation from the rest of the campus, and the reality that they are in school to play sports, not to get a degree. Furthermore, African-Americans are underrepresented in the coaching and administrative ranks throughout college sports. The professional sports picture shows more integration on the playing field, but few chances for management or other opportunities after a career is over.
This research paper will analyze the effect of Slavery, Segregation and civil rights on sports. The first section will deal with the athletic recreational habits of slaves on southern plantations. The second section will provide an overview of segregation as it relates to equity issues. The third section will provide an overview of the role of sports upon the civil right movement.

Sports in Shackles
The general views people have on slavery, quantitative analysis showed that the majority of individuals identify slavery as a racist institution, defining slaves simplistically as masses of people involved within it. This perception is not far off from the views of those who initially forced Africans from their homelands hundreds of years ago. Historically it is easy to lose count of the over thirteen million slaves taken from Africa. Legends have developed from countless stories about American slavery and these tales laid the foundations for famous characters in history books and literary works. However, each slave, whether born in America or Africa, famous or not, was a person. Every slave had a face, a name, a family, and a life. Despite the institution of slavery and the harsh conditions presented by plantation life; tradition, culture and individuality were preserved within the numerous slaves whose voices are not heard in history books. These were men, women, and children who aimed to step beyond the social boundaries branded upon them by slavery. The life of the American slave is a topic that maintains distinct variables of cultural and social interaction. The institution of slavery oppressed Africans and African-Americans as a people; however, their will to experience a normal setting through cultural entities such as music, religion, and sports is the essential narrative on the accurate story of millions of people who have been lost in one of history's darkest sagas.
Though sports were an outlet for slave individuality, these communal and individual events did not restrict the plantation owners' firm grasp on the individual freedoms of slaves in an attempt to limit their knowledge of the outside world. (Davis, 2006) Overseers and owners held slaves under rules regarding all aspects of life, including recreation and sports. Countless slaves lacked the proper equipment and venues to participate in certain sports. According to the Georgia slave narratives, one slave on a plantation on the Dixon property recalled, "recreation was not considered important so no provision was made in the regular routine.” The slaves were rarely given the opportunity to participate in individual events without the consent or supervision of the slave owners or the overseers on the plantation.(Bladdingame, 1977) Slave owners strongly maintained strict conditions to limit individuality and the development of African American slave culture. In an attempt to keep African American slaves ignorant of religion, freedom, and education, the reality of freedom or a world away from the plantations within the institution for many slaves became blurred in the midst of the harshness of their daily lives. Slaves on a farm in Alabama developed a perspective similar to the numerous other slave communities, "life was kiner happier durin' slavery cus' we never knowed nothin' 'bout any yuther sort of life or freedom."(Bladdingame, 1977) For numerous slaves the only social experience they ever encountered was the work they were forced to do every day.
Sports were a way to not only release built up emotions and frustrations, but were also a physical escape from the realities of slave life. The athletic and physical thrill of sports, competition, and hunting were pivotal aspects of life for many African American slaves, yet recreational activities stretched far beyond the limits of brute activity and physical athleticism. To battle the oppression felt throughout the trials of their enslavement, American slaves produced an entire realm of self-identification through their recreational inclinations. Including numerous activities and cultural entities, these important elements did not necessarily signify survival or even physical ventures for the slaves, but rather were components of the cultural foundations of the slave community. Vast amounts of research on slave culture reveal such themes as music, dancing, weddings, and sports as important aspects of the individual tradition within slave communities.

In the 18th and 19th centuries, sports among all cultures had similar foundations. African sports, even before slavery, involved many of the fundamental activities that African Americans participated in after their forced trek to America. The roots of traditional African sports included things like wrestling, jumping, running, ball games, and stick or spear throwing, all of which continued their cultural role as slaves from Africa adapted to a life of bondage in the United States. Wrestling in African culture during the early 18th century and for eras preceding the 1700s, was not only a popular cultural sport but was an important celebration of life and a rite of passage. (Coakley, 2007) Elders forced young men to wrestle other young boys in the tribe to prove their strength and courage before crossing from boyhood to manhood. Entire ceremonies were based around the sport of wrestling, and only the strongest members of African tribes were able to partake in these competitions and festivals. This was done in order to prove the strength of a tribe and the individuals who lived within its confines. Wrestling was a prominent sport among Africans because their lives promoted themes of physicality and nature. To them, this sport represented a way of life. Many inland tribes who depended on animal husbandry and growing crops staged wrestling matches as a form of ritual to appease the gods to ensure agricultural success. (Kolchin, 1993)
Running was, and is still today, a prominent physical aspect of life in Africa. Young men in tribes would tend to livestock in pastures far from their homes and would often run to the location of their daily chores. The boys would partake in races against one another, highlighting their speed and agility in individual athletic competitions. Because enclosed pastures were not readily utilized at this time, roaming animals and distant fields were central to raising much of the livestock for the African tribes. This required running to be a vital element of not only play, but work as well in order to maintain the safety and cultivation of animals. (Coakley, 2007)
Similar to wrestling, jumping was another sport that was crucial to African culture in regards to the young boys' transition into manhood. Initiation rituals among African tribes include many different forms, depending on the different cultures presented, and in the case of high jumping, the ability to leap great lengths proved a man's strength and physical capabilities. Physical prominence was an attribute respected by many tribal African communities. Accordingly, jumping symbolized the ability to overcome the natural surroundings, creating an importance for this particular activity within the communities. In certain tribes, a young boy's final test before his declaration of manhood required him to jump higher than his height standing straight up. If the young boy failed to reach his peak during the jump, he would be forced to train longer than the others and was looked down upon. This cultural aspect was extremely important in many African traditions as it was composed of traditional symbolism that represented a vital stage of growth amongst the tribe's people. (Baker, 1999)
Unlike African tradition, in American slave culture sports were not symbolic of the transitional phase into the adult life, nor were they utilized as veneration of the gods. The sport or recreational activity most similar in African tradition to American slave culture was the use of sticks, spears, or ultimately, hunting. Stick games, spear throwing, and hunting served as both a source of recreation and food production within the different cultures. This was, and arguably still is today in parts of the continent, a prominent communal theme in African culture. While many African tribes relied on agriculture to survive, other tribes' primary source of survival focused on hunting for sustenance. Hunting was also used for religious purposes, sacrificial practices, and community festivals and recreation. Parties largely focused around the successes of tribal hunting expeditions. The men would venture out to kill wild animals on day-long hunting trips.
As a cultural aspect of slavery, sports were an extremely important element of life for the American slave. The competition and athleticism provided through sports granted slaves healthy outlets for aggression and enjoyment with and away from their masters. Although slaves primarily participated in sports on their own time and own terms, occasionally the masters of the plantations would pit their strongest and most valiant slave against a slave from a neighboring plantation in boxing or wrestling matches. (Adams, 1936-1938) These events were prominent among southern plantations and served as forms of entertainment for slave masters and their families as well as the slaves living in the area. Owners predominantly purchased male slaves for their strength and physical prowess. Their white counterparts throughout the country were often times astounded by the brute force and strength presented by the slaves both shipped from Africa and those bred domestically. (Kolchin, 1993) These slaves were not only efficient field hands but they also made for entertaining competitors within the confines of the ring. The excitement among the plantations would brew as the boxing matches were intense, bare-knuckled brawls filled with violence and blood. (Adams, 1936-1938) Ultimately, the plantation owner whose slave was crowned victor of the match would take the losing slave home. The loser, in other words, was the bet in these competitions.
Segregation as it Relates to Equity Issues
Perhaps the reason that racial issues in sport capture the attention of so many people is a result of demographics. African-Americans, who earlier in the century were segregated into black leagues, have in less than 50 years become the dominant racial group in basketball and football, despite the fact that they only make up 12.6% of the US population. (U.S. Census Bureau, 1998) Today black players constitute 77% of the NBA, 64% of the WNBA, 65% of the NFL, and 15% of MLB.(Lapchick and Mathews, 1999) As well, in college 60% of male Division I basketball players and 51% of football players are black. African-American females constitute 35% of Division I basketball players and 31% of cross country-track and field athletes.(NCAA, 1988) From the era of Jackie Robinson when black athletes in white leagues were an anomaly, to the present day, a role reversal has come about. Black athletes emerged from segregated black leagues after World War 2, and have become disproportionately represented in basketball, football, track and field, boxing, and to a lesser extent in baseball. This swift demographic shift has stimulated a great deal of interest in the question of why blacks have become such a dominant force in our major sports.
As might be expected, intercollegiate athletics have paralleled the professional story. For example in 1948 - 10% of college basketball teams had a black member. By 1966 - 45% of college basketball teams had a black member. In 1975 - 92% of college basketball teams had a black member.(Berhorn and Yetman, 1976) In 1997 - 61% of male Division 1 basketball players were black. Perhaps the rise of the black collegiate athlete is demonstrated best by inclusion in the SEC, the last major athletic conference to integrate.(Eitzen and Sage, 1986) In 1968 there were 11 blacks on athletic scholarship in the SEC, but Alabama, Auburn, Florida, Mississippi, Mississippi State, LSU, and Georgia remained all white. By 1970 there were 41 blacks receiving scholarships and only LSU and Mississippi did not have a black athlete. But by 1972 there were 100 blacks playing on SEC football teams and many others participating in basketball and track. Eitzen and Sage (1986) point out that by this time Tennessee and Mississippi had black starting quarterbacks. They also dramatize the rise of the black athlete in conveying that at the University of Alabama in 1968 no blacks were on any of its teams, but by 1975 its basketball team had an all black starting line-up! Given that just 12 years earlier, Governor George Wallace physically blocked black students from enrolling at the University, this was remarkable progress for black athlete’s inclusion in the world of intercollegiate athletics. Today, in Division I of the NCAA black males make-up 60% of basketball players and 51% of football players and 27% of track athletes, while black females constitute 35% of basketball players and 31% of track athletes.(NCAA, 1998)
Not only have African Americans come to demographically dominate basketball, football, and track in the United States, but they have also excelled when excellence is considered. Only one of the 14 gold medals won by male U.S. athletes at the Atlanta Olympic games was won by a white. Furthermore, Price(1997a) points out that 23% of players in the 1998 baseball all-star game were black. As well, in 1997 13 of the 15 individuals selected for USA Today's All-USA high school basketball team were black, and 23 out of the 25 members selected for the All-USA high school football team were black. Finally, blacks have dominated the world heavy weight boxing title since 1937 when Joe Louis became champion, interrupted only by Rocky Marciano (1952-55), Igemar Johannson (1959-60) and Jerry Cooney (1983-84).
The role of sports upon the civil right movement
When examining the advancement of the civil rights movement through sports, one must first begin with the people who made change happen. Whether it was a conscious stand or unintentional advocacy, athletes and coaches throughout the past century used their participation in sports to change the racial atmosphere in our country. They moved our nation forward into a new way of thinking, and without them we may not enjoy the relative equality we experience today. Such work was not easy, however; these figures overcame countless obstacles and underwent much suffering to emerge as the heroes they are today. (Oglesby, 1983)
Sports are a unique environment because they capture the attention of nearly the entire country. Not to mention, in the first half of the 20th century, sports provided the primary form of national entertainment because television had yet to become a fixture in the American household. Furthermore, unlike television and movies, the men and women that participate in sports are not characters or personalities; the person seen on the court or the field is the same person off of it as well. Add to this the dedicated allegiance a fan feels for their team, and all of a sudden the sports world becomes a dynamic atmosphere in which citizens are able to invest their time, thoughts, and emotions. This was fine as long as it resembled society- segregated and based upon the ideas of white supremacy. Indeed, sports serves as a microcosm for society, and once civil rights activists recognized this; they were able to use sports as a platform to advocate social change and equality in the entire country.
The best example is also the most well-known: Branch Rickey’s “noble experiment” and the integration of the MLB by Jackie Robinson in 1947. Prior to Robinson’s MLB debut, baseball, which was America’s pastime, was divided between the dominant all-white major leagues and the lesser negro leagues. In other words, it literally resembled American society at the time. (Wiggins, 1994)
Rickey recognized the power of sports and understood that integration in baseball could be the first step toward integration in society. It was extremely difficult to accomplish, and Robinson underwent tremendous suffering and discrimination because of his ground breaking role. But, once Jackie began playing, the stadiums were packed. Whites cheered for him. The same whites who wouldn’t let a Negro drink from the same water fountain were now paying money to see a black man perform on the field and represent their team.
Similarly, Joe Louis was able to become an American hero on the international boxing stage, perhaps never more so than when he defeated Germany’s Max Schmeling in 1938. This boxing matchup captured the same ideals that had been present two years earlier- that of American freedom rising above the beliefs of the Nazi regime. In both cases, American citizens were able to overcome their discriminatory ideologies and view these athletes as men who represented them and their country, as opposed to black men who should be placed below members of white society. But although they were each responsible for seismic, if fleeting, changes in American racial perceptions, I don’t believe either Owens or Louis sought to advocate racial equality through their participation in sports; rather, they each had a passion and a talent, as well as a desire to serve their country, and what emerged were two acts of American heroism that allowed citizens to step outside of their narrow mindsets of racist beliefs and look upon these two African Americans in a whole new light. (Anderson, 1996)
Meanwhile fellow athletes such as Althea Gibson and Fritz Pollard also had tremendous impacts in their respective sports through integration and their individual accomplishments. The more they accomplished the more mainstream and famous an African American face became in the media, and slowly the public began to warm to these black athletes. It was a step in the right direction, although progress was slow. And as more and more African American athletes began to play professional sports, they were able to not only assimilate racial equality into the mindsets of citizens, but also challenge the fundamental ideas upon which racism was based, which is perhaps the most important influence these notable athletes had upon the civil rights movement. This is because their exceptional performance on the field and the court (examples include Jackie Robinson’s Rookie of the Year Award, Althea Gibson’s Wimbledon Championship, Jack Johnson’s heavyweight title, Wilma Rudolph’s gold medals, and more) proved that blacks were equal to whites, thus challenging the ideals of racial supremacy upon which discrimination was based. This idea- that if blacks were equal on the field, they were equal off it as well- began to infiltrate its way into society, thus beginning the subtle yet definitive shift in the American conscious and allowing civil rights activists and athletes to promote social justice in our country.
Ultimately, black athletes were able to serve as symbols for their fellow African Americans by representing racial equality and changing the role of the African American community in the United States. It began with initial integration, particularly in professional sports, as the greatest barriers to equality fell with the trail blazing efforts of athletes such as Jackie Robinson and Althea Gibson. These athletes’ athletic performances then went on to prove to society that blacks were equal to their white counterparts, thus challenging and eventually overthrowing ideas of racial supremacy. They also familiarized the white public with the concept of aligning themselves alongside other African Americans as white fans began to unite behind the black stars of their favorite teams. Finally, athletes began to challenge societal inequalities by speaking out against discrimination and making public calls for social justice, thus changing the way African Americans were viewed both in sports and in society. Ultimately, these individual athletic figures were able to unite across decades to change the face of race relations in the United States and bring about a new atmosphere of innovation and racial equality

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