Psychology of Learning and Human Development
UNIT-I
PSYCHOLOGY DEFINITION: The word Psychology derivesfrom Greek word ”Psyche” and “Locus” which means Psyche → Soul Locus → Science or Knowledge The Psychology literary means “the science of the soul”. A science that systematically studies and attempts to explain observablebehaviour and its relationship to unseen “mental” process that go on inside the organism and to external events in the environment. GOALS:
Description Explanation Prediction Control of behaviour
Methods of Psychology:
a. Introspection b. Observation c. Experiment d. Case-study e. Anecdotal f. Field Study g. Differential h. Questionnarie i. Developmental
Introspection:
a. It is the oldest method in psychology. b. It means inter + inspection. c. Which means self or viewingfwithinself. d. Self – observation.
Observation:
It implies observating the behaviour of others and this method provides direct knowledge of behaviour.This is most useful to the teachers. It emphasis that on perception,recordingof the observatingstudents,classification and Analysis of behavior and Generalization.
Types of Observation:
i. ii. iii. iv. Direct & Indirect Natural & Artificial Scheduled & Unscheduled Participant & Non-participant
Experiment:
This is to study to control & predict human behaviour. It is defined as systematic or Pre-planned observation.Under controlled conditions.This involves control,replication&randomization.Itis Independent and Dependent variable.
Independent Variable:
It is also called as stimulus variable or input variable It operates within a person or within his environment to affect his behaviour.
Dependent variable:
It is also known as a response variable or output variable. Observed aspect of the behaviour of an organism that has been stimulated.
DevelopmentMethod:
This method is also known as the genetic method. The infant grows up to maturity through childhood & adolescence areinferried.This has two types .They are 1. Longtitude method 2. Cross section method. In Longtitude method the same individual & group of individual studied over a period . (eg) Harvard developmental studies 3500 children were studied for 12 years . Piaget’s cognitive development is an example for congtitudal search. The Cross sectional method are different individual of different ages are examined.
Case-Study:
This method is to study “the individual or a group of individuals to detect and the diagnose their specific problem and suggest remedial measures”. It is also known as Case-Study history.It is a form of qualitative analysis involving careful and complete observation of a person or institution.
Types of Case-Study: i. ii. iii. Case studies of Individual Case studies of Institutions Case studies of communities
Steps involved in Case- study:
1) Identification of the problem 2) Collection of patient data from all possible sources 3) Diagnosis of the problem 4) Suggestion remedial measures 5) Follow up
Questionnarie Method:
The questionnaire is a popular technique for gathering data for by securing answer to a series of question related to the set of question which are printed. It also have two types. i. Direct method ii. Indirect method Series of question with a short time Unable to contrast the subjects of investigation directly. Impersional/general data to be collected Compare person & groups.
Differentiate Method:
Differences between two phenomena which are naturally different. (eg) Anoxia affects the permanent growth & development of a child.
Branches of Psychology: General Phychology:
It deals with concept of perception,emotion,motivation,learning,thinking,source of individual differences and their measurements
Child Psychology:
It deals with the growth & development of the children. Role of Heredity&Environment in child . Differences in adjustment of behavior. Infant & adolescent psychology also emerged out of this psychology.
Abnormal Psychology:
It is popular among professional psychologist. Concerned with description and abnormal study of abnormal forms of behavior. Various forms of behavioural disorders like Psychosis,Neurosis,etc.,
Psychological Psychology:
It deals with the basis of mental process like Central Nervous System, Sensory Glands and their structure.
Comparitive Psychology:
It concerned about the comparision of human begins with that others animals find out similarities and dissimilarities with each other.
Social Psychology:
It is applied science and deals with attitude & performance. Social problems of are gives high importance.
Applied Psychology:
Developing new methods to detect whether a person is lying or not.
Using in the investigation of criminals.
Educational Psychology:
“It is a branch of psychology which is concerned with psychological researches as applied to any or all aspects of educational process and practices.It is in relation to problems like learning,Teaching and Teaching”.
Scope of Education Psychology: Kolesnikmentions the problems:
a) Differences among students b) Motivations c) Methods of Instruction d) Evaluation e) Classroom Management f) Mental Health g) Character Formation h.c.lindgren opines the basic elements of educational psychology: i. ii. iii. iv. v. The Learner The Learning Process Learning Experience Learning Situation Teacher
Learner:
Subject matter is knitted It helps the learners to acquints the need of knowing the Learner. The innate ability and capacity of the individuals are measured and also measured the covert, overt and conscious and unconscious behaviour.
Learning Process:
It deals with nature of learning. The topics such as law, principles, theories, concepts, problemsolving are taken and concerned on it.
Learning Experience:
It deciding the experience are desirable . Deals with the knowledge and princeples of psychology.
Learning Situations:
It denotes the environmental factors and learning situations between the learner and the teacher. Class room climate, group dynamics, techniques are considered in this level.
The Teacher:
Teacher is very necessary in teaching learning process.he plays his role properly in this process. The scope of Educational Psychology is also inspire him to become a successful teacher.
Need for the knowledge of Educational Psychology for classroom Teacher:
Teacher follows the Way 1) Contribution of Theory education: i. To understand the development characteristics of children. ii. The development of child through infant,childhood and adolescence. iii. They have own characteristics. iv. Teachers should modified their behavior is an specific goal of the educator.
2) Understand the nature of classroom learning: i. Teacher should know the principles of learning. ii. Problems of learning and Remedial measures are should give much importance to the children iii. Guidance are much effective to them. 3) To understand individual differences 1) The needs and the requirements of the class which has great range of individual differences. 4) Understand Effective Teaching Methods: i. Teaching is not depend on one aspects of theory. ii. It relates several theories of Teaching-Learning. iii. Different approaches evolved to tackle the problems of different age levels of teaching\ 5) Causes of problems of children: The problems are successfully solve them 6) Knowledge of Mental Health: Mental Health of teacher and children will give effective learning. 7) Curriculum Constructions: The psychological principles are used in formulated curriculum for different stages. 8) Measurement of learning outcomes. 9) Guidance for the education of exceptional children
UNIT-II
HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Heredity is sometimes referred to as Nature and Environment as Nuture.
DEFINITION OF HEREDITY:
“Heredity is defined as the totality of biologically transmitted factors that influence the structure of the body .Everything the child begets biologically from his parents, belongs to heredity”. MEANING OF ENVIRONMENT: Environment influence the belonging to different categories which affect the growth process of the individual.
MECHANISM OF HEREDITY:
Every individual’s origin is due to the union of “germ cells” of the parents. The male germ called Sperm. Female germ Ovum. Union chromosomes named as “X” Female chromosomes are “Y” Fertilised cell has 46 chromosomes. Reduction of chromosomes.
FRATERNAL AND IDENTICAL TWINS:
a) The Twins are born because of two ova getting simultaneously fertilized are called Fraternal Twins. b) Two individuals developed out of one egg fertilized that pair twins called as Identical Twins.
LAWS OF HEREDITY:
i. ii. iii.
Like tends to begat. Variation between parents and offsprings. Tendency towards regression in successive generations.
Differences between social and Biological Heredity: 1) Social Heredity refers to culture and civilisation mankind from generation to generation. 2) Biological Heredity refers to the genes from their parents.
Meaning of Growth:
1) The Term “Growth” refers to purely in physical state. 2) Increases in size ,height, weight etc., 3) It is the components of the developmental process.
Characteristics of Growth:
i. ii. iii. iv. Growth refers to increases larger and heavier. It is quantitative ,additive and augmental. It is objectively observable. Rate of growth is not uniform.
Meaning of Development:
Development implies the overall changes in shape , form or structure. It indicates the changes in the quality or character rather than quantitative aspects.
Characteristics of Development:
i. ii. iii. iv. It is progressive in change. It is continuous in all mental activity It is the complex process It is influenced by maturation and learning Qualitative in nature
v.
Principles of Growth:
i. ii. iii. iv. v. Principles of continuity Individual activity Rate of growth and development is not uniform Principle of integration Development is predictable.
Meaning of Maturation:
a) It is a natural process b) Growth takes place within an individual c) It involves changes that are associated with normal growth
Meaning of Learning:
a) It is change in behavioural pattern b) It is a process which takes place as a result of the stimulate from outside. c) Process of learning through some activity ,training or experience.
Aspects of Human Development
The Aspects of Human Development such as physical and physiological development.They are related to locomotor and skill developments ,cognitive development and emotional development and social development.
Physical Development:
i. ii. iii. Anatomical growth and physiological growth are the two components of physical development Growth in the skeleton and bones changes in height and weight . Motor development refers to the growth and development of bodily organs.
Mental Development:
It includes the development of intellectual powers of thinking and reasoning ,imagination, concentration.
Emotional Development:
It starts with basic instinct of “General Excitement” takes place during the primary emotions like joy ,fear , anger ,complex and secondary emotions like disguist , jealousy ,elation ,etc., This develop the behavior of the children.
Moral Development:
i. ii. It includes the evaluation of moral sense to discriminate the right and the wrong of character. Social and moral development are inter-twined
Social Development:
i. ii. The child is self-centered and animalistic in character at the initial stage. He is developed through society rules and norms.
Development Tasks:
“A Task which arises at a period in a life of an individual successfully achievement of which leads to his happiness and success with later ,which while failure leads to unhappiness and difficulty with later tasks”
UNIT-III COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Cognitive development , refers as the intellectual development is a vital aspects in the growth and development of a child. It refers to the gradual growth is called as cognitive abilities. Attention: Attending is the first step in the mental process of knowing called cognition. Definition: Attending is defined as the mental activity of focusing on certain aspects of one’s current experiences and ignoring others. McDougall defines “attending “as “striving to cognize” It increases the one’s efficiency and vital for acquisition of skills. It is also an aid to remembering and recall. Span of Attention: “Span of Attention refers to the number of indipendennt ,distint or separate stimuli that can be attended to by an individual , at a glanze” It is also known as perceptual span. It denotes number of object that canexsist in the focus at a time.
It is measured through the apparatus named “Tachitoscope”. The Adult Span of Attention is 6 to 8 numbers. Shifting of attention: We cannot be continuously attending on any object for more than 10 seconds .Because attention is characterized by “fluctuation”. Division of Attention: We cannot attending do two things simultaneously but through Practice and Experience. We can do two things without any intruption and mistakes. Eg. Talking while knotting the clothes Factors of Attention: There are two factors of Attention. 1. Internal Factors / Subjective. 2. External Factors / Objective. Internal Factors: The five internal factors are i. ii. iii. iv. v. Interest Need Mental set Mood Physiological Needs.
Interest : The objects of big size, can easily arrest our attraction.This plays an important role.One’s interest is a dominant place of an attention. Need: The another important is Need . Those who need things will realize the attention of it. Mental Set: One’s mind set is very important for attention. It is the disposition of readiness to react at a particular time. Physiological Condition: The body condition and the physic health is much more important for Attention. External Factors: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. Size: Objects in big size, will arrest the attention. Size Intensity Change Contrast Novelty Movement Repetition Systematic Form
Intensity: It is to the quality of stimuli the high intensity like loud sound deep striking colors easily attracts the attention. Change: The sudden change in stimulus will easily attracts our attention. Contrast: A stimulus presents itself as a contrast in the midst of other stimuli it turns out to be attracts our attention. Novelty: A stimulus is Novel and unusal will gains the attention. Movement: The moving objects are easily arrest our attention rather than immovable ones. Repetition: A stimulus even in low quality will repeatedly appears will arrest our attention quickly. Systematic Form: Objects with systematic forms are easily attended to and retained long in our memory as compared to objects which are incomplete or irregular in form Kinds of Attention: Involuntary Attention:
This attention is spontaneous , free, natural and passive. Attention of young children is of this nature. Voluntary Attention: This type of attention involves some effect or will. We have to force ourselves to attend to objects in which luck of interest. It is intentional. Inattention and Distraction: Inattention: This means not paying attention to a particular stimulus or to any stimulus. It is due to obsence of Internal and External factors. Lack of Interest, Motivation are example for Inattention. Distraction: This refers to attending to irrelevant stimuli that are not part of the main subject task. This due to poor productivity and waste of energy resulting fatingue. Sensation: “Sensation is the immediate result of a sense organ being acted by appropriate stimuli” Perception:
“Perception is a psychological process in which the sensory inputs received from the sensory organs are processed ,organized and interpreted based on the past experience of the organism so that the nature of the stimuli are meaningfully understood”. Perception=Sensation + Meaningful Interpretation Laws of Perceptual Organism: i. ii. iii. iv. v. Law of Pragnanz Law of Proximity Law of Similarity Law of Closure Law of Continuity
Law of Pragnanz Pragnanz means compact but significant. Perceive the things as a whole pattern. That only it should give meaningful , simple and stable. Mental act of “Organising” takes place during perception as per this law.
Law of Proximity: According to this law perce[tional groups are favoured according to nearness of the parts. Closely located the things are percepted as a whole.
Law of Similarity: Wertheimer stated this law “other things are being equal the stimuli that are similar , will have greater tendency to be groupe as a single unit” Law of Closure: This law indicates the closed or complete figure are more stable than incomplete objects. Law of Good condition: It indicates that organism in perception appears to be going infinitely in the same direction. ERRORS OF PERCEPTION: Illusion: Illusion are wrong or mistaken perceptions which fail to correspond with the situation as objectively assessed. i. ii. iii. iv. v. Illusion of movements Illusion of perspectives Reversible perspective figures Muller-Lyer illusion Optical Illusion
Hallucination: i. ii. This means fake perception ,it is different form of illusion in that. It has no sensory basis and it is a dream like image often mistaken.
Meaning of Concept: Concept refers to generalized image or idea which stands for a group of objects that have some common characteristics. Types of Concept:
Concepts
Simple Concept
Complex concept
imaginary concepts
Concept of Objectives
Concept of aspects
Quality
Relations
i.
ii.
iii.
Simple Concept: The presence of a single quality It is the simplest form of concept Complex Concept When more than one property attribute distinguished the character of concept It is a complex concept. To see the object as a whole. Concept of Objects:
Eg. Book, House Concepts of Aspects: a) Related to properties or qualitives: Eg.Honesty , Simplicity , Smooth. b) Relational Concepts : Eg. Bigger than , taller than ,etc., BRUNER’S COMPLEX CONCEPTS INTO THREE TYPES: A conjuctive concept A group of objects have more features in common It is like simple concepts DISTINCTIVE CONCEPTS They include several attributes on either or basis with things covered by this concepts RELATIONAL CONCEPTS They have nothing todo with specific traits or attributes of objects,evens or persons BRUNER’S THEORY OF CONCEPT FORMATION Bruners regards human brain as having three modes of representation Enactive (two-three years) iconic (five-nine years) symbolic (above nine years )
1. The earlist representative level is Enactive 2. The infant represents objects and events through appropriate motor responses 3. The nest level is children conceive objectgs or events without action they represent through figures or images that is called Iconic 4. The last stage is called as symbolic this refers the child represent through symbols or languages. The child’s thinking is dominant. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS: 1. Increases the ability of the learner to the related materials 2. Fosters interest in the learning itself 3. Develops one’s ability to solve problems systematically easily the materials learned.
CONCEPT MAPS: “concept maps is useful in explaining the general principles formed out of many related ideas and also the mutual relationship existing between the various general principles” Energy
Solar Energy Heat
Stream Convert Electric generations Uses of concept maps It helps to understand the relationship between various ideas in the lesson. Understand the general principles To prepare the summary of ideas Follow up activity Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development: Cognitive development arises as a result of the interaction between the individual and the world and passes through a serves of sequential stages. Schemata for processing information and these structures. Organism is the tendency to systematic and unify experiences into a coherent system .It is looking and grasping Adaptation is the tendency to complementary process of “accommodation” to the external environment. It is due to modified the cognitive structure. Stages of cognitive Development: Piaget’s “Know an object one must act upon it either physically or mentally” The 4 important stages of cognitive Development are:1. Sensory motor stage (0 to 2 years) 2. Pre-Operational stage (2 to 7 years)
3. Concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years) 4. Formal operational stage ( above 11 years) Sensory –motor stage:a. This mainly based on the experiences of “senses” b. The major intellectual activity is the sensory interaction of the environment. c. Development through physical and without language. d. Development of sensory , motor and perceptual skills. e. Co-ordination of motor activities. f. For a child is “ out of sight” is “out of mind” is “object permanence”. g. Self-concept , trial and error method develop curiosity.
UNIT-IV
SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Meaning of Social Development: “The ability to behave in accordance with social expectations. It is a process by which the individual born with potentials of enormously wide range”. Components of Social Development: i. ii. iii. iv. Individual learn particular way Socialization is concerned Learns to include more and more people in his group. I- feeling changed into We- feeling.
Erickson’s stage of Social Development: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Birth up to 1 year II year III year VI to onset of puberty Adolescence Early childhood Middle adulthood Late Adulthood Mother Parents Basic Family Neighbor Peer groups Friends Divided labor Mankind Trust vs. mistrust
Characteristics of Social Maturity: i. ii. Sense of his proper place Accepts responsibility for his action
iii. iv. v. vi. vii.
Responsibility for his action Self-Pitying Realistic level of aspiration Self-concept Co-operation ,pleasing manner, optimistic look
Emotional Development: “A complex state involved heightened perception of an object or situation, widespread or repulsion and behavior organized for approach or withdrawal” According to McDougall all human emotions i. ii. iii. i. ii. iii. iv. i. ii. iii. Cognition Affection Conation Emotions are prevalent Differ from person to person Quality of displacement Upsurge reasoning and thinking Pleasantness – Unpleasantness Attention – Rejection Level of activation
Characteristics of Emotion:
Categories of Emotions:
Emotional Maturity: This is the last stage of emotional development i. ii. iii. iv. Able to control emotions Express the emotions socially Exercise his emotions at a proper time Emotional maturity shows no sudden shift
Emotional Intelligent:
“The Innate potential to feel, use,communicate,recognize,remember,learn, from, manage and understand emotions”. Characteristics of E.I: i. ii. iii. iv. Innate potential Ability to feel emotions Ability to remember emotions Unique potential for emotional sensitivity
Moral Development: The Evaluation of moral sense to discriminate the right or wrong and development of character. Social and moral development are inter twined. Stages of Moral Development: i. Prudential stage: Behavior means of pleasure and pain. ii. iii. Authoritarian stage: Dominating influences by parents and teacher. Social stage: Governed by social acceptance. Kohlberg’s Theory: This is based on Piaget’s Cognitive development theory. a) Pre conventional level: Avoid punishment and gain rewards. This is the 1st level. There is no internalization. Conventional level:
Child identifies their parents and conforms to what they regard as right or wrong. Post-conventional level: Moral judgement is rationalized and controlled by internalized ethical code and relatively independent. Self-concept: The self-concept is a system of attitudes , feelings and perceptions that individual has of himself.It is greatly influenced by his behavior environmental situations. This is called as self-concept.
UNIT-V LEARNING ,TRANSFER OF TRAINING ,REMEMBERING AND FORGETTING Learning: “A relatively permanent change in behavior which accours as a result of activity training, practice or experience”. i. ii. iii. iv. v. i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. Universal Learning is continuous Multiple and integrative Problem- solving and emotional learning Contingent upon experience Motivation Need Maturation Feedback The level of intelligent Attention Guidance Field of learning suits one’s aptitude Effectiveness of learning
Factors Influencing Learning:
Learning Curves: The rate of growth of learning can be graphically represented and the resultant curve is called learning curve. Possitive Accelerated Curve: It is the simple task like memorize a list of words. Motor skills like type writing , arranging match sticks. Gradually increases through performing.
Negative Accelerated Curve: It gains at the beginning but gradually decreases as a learning process. Lack of practice gets negative curve. S-Shaped Curve: Learning curves are passitively accelerated initially slow and gain process and these will be a spurt followed by plateau and further activity makes a steady progress and the maximum limit zenith i. ii. iii. iv. Plateau are period of consolidation Decline in motivation Absence of feed back Boredom
Thorndike Trial And Error Theory: This process developing neural connections between stimuli and responses. The Human Beings are too resort to it learn complex and apstract tasks as well as tasks involving motor skills. 1) The motive appears in the form of need 2) Different kinds of responses to the situations 3) Irrelevant unsuccessful forms of activity 4) Progressive integression Experiment: A hungry cat placed in a box.A piece of fish in a dish was kept out side the box.The cat become restless while see the fish and few triaks are eliminated accidentantlyThey operate the mechanism the cat gets the fish. Laws:
Laws of Readiness Conducting unit is ready to conduct to allow it to do so is satisfying not to allow annoying. Law of preparetory adjustment. Motivstion is the royal read to learning. Law of Exercise: Modifiable connection is maid between a stimulus and response the connection strength increases if it is repeated number of times law of frequency. Law of Effect: Modifiable connection is maid between a stimulus and a response and is followed up to by satisfying state of affiairs the strength increases follows the dis satisfying state of affiairs. Classical Conditioning: In 1904 ,Pavlov’s classical conditioning are expremented by dog. “A process in which is a natural stimulus which is not associated with any special natural response, on Pairing with a natural stimulus, acquires all the charecteristics of natural stimulus”. Experiment: When put the food the dog salivated this is the natural response.Food is UCS and salivation is UCR.We trained the dog to ring a bell is a CB and the dog hear the bell sound it salivates that is CR . Stage 1: UCS ------> UCR
CS Stage 2:
------>
No specific response
CS + UCS ------->CR Stage 3: CS ------> CR Laws of Condition: Law of Causation: A CR is established by the contiguous pairing of CS and UCS. Law of Experimental Extinction: If CR is elicted without reinforcement by the presentation of the UCS,then the CR get weakened.It is spontaneous recovery. Law of Generalisation: Once C>R is established It may be elicited by any stimulus to the original CS.Condition was established using bell as the C.S. Law of Discrimination: A selective CR can be establised by selective reinforcement. Law of Higher Order Conditioning: Second order condition is weak compared to first order.The neutral stimulus is taken place in that. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning: B.F.Skinnerbelived that no stimulus is capable of aliciting a unique response from an organism.All such response are
emitted response operant condition is called R-type conditioning. Experiment: A hungry cat is placed inside a huge box .the movement of the rat was measured electrically by chance it pushed a bar it gets the food .It repeatedly pressed the bar and every time got food pullets. Reinforcement is central to operant conditioning. Skinner’s Condition to Education: i. ii. Individualisation of Instruction Behavior modification Techniques
Gestalt Theory of Insight Learning: Gestalt , German word means “ whole” pattern ,configuration .The whole is always great than the sum of the parts. Insight Learning: He experiments , the chimpanzee named Sultan , Left in a cage and two sticks are put inside it and for the quiet longer distance bunch of banana was placed.The two sticks are have a hole to joined together and make a long one .The monkey tried to take banans but it can’t .It play with two sticks suddenly it got joined and get the banans .It is called as “Flash of Ideas”. Stages of Insight Learning: a] Preparation b] Incubation c] Insight or Illumination d] Evaluation Gagne’s Theory of Hierarchical learning:
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii.
Gagne’s theory are having 8 stages .They are Signal Learning: S-R-Learning: Changing : It acquired is a chain of 2 or more S-R –connections. Verbal Association : Learning of chains that are verbal . Discriminitive Learning: Concept Learning: To give a common response to a class of stimuli each other widely in physical appearance. Rule Learning: A rule Of chain is two or more concepts. Problem –Solving: Internal events and the rules are acquired combined to produce on heigher order rule.
General response through signal. A precise response to a discriminated stimulus.
Different in identifying response to many stimuli.
Transfer of Learning: It is defined as the application or carry of knowledge , skills, habits , attitudes , etc., acquired in one situation to some other situation for which they were not specifically learn. Types of Learning: Positive Learning: The learning of a particular task is facilities to another task. Negative Learning:
It is less easy to perform on a particular task but it is not much interfere with that. Zero Transfer: The learning of one task makes no difference what so ever to the learning of a subsequent task. Memory : The capacity to reproduce what they learnt . Kinds of Memory : 1. Short Term Memory 2. Long Term Memory. Forgetting : Our inability to recall thee learned material when we need it most is called forgetting. Ebbinghus Experiment: The curve of forgetting is a quantitative study of the loss of refention after lapse of time .It applies mainly to LTM. According to him ½ is forgetten in the first half an hour. 2/3 in 8 hours ,4/5 in a week . The forgetting curve suggests that forgetting is never complete and total. Better Memory: a. Motivation to learn b. Follow SQ3R c. Over-learning d. Mnemonic devices e. Multisensory learning
UNIT-VI
INTELLEGENCE AND CREATIVITY
The human individual has several points of uniqueness and superiority over the animals the most important of which is “Intelligence”. Nature of Intelligence: a. Ability for adjustment or adaptation b. Ability to tearn c. Abstract thinking. Definition: “Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of an individual to act purposefully ,to think rationally and to deal effectively with the environment”. Characteristics of Intelligence Person: 1) Unitary Theory –Monarch Theory 2) Spearman’s Two-factor Theory 3) Thorndike’s Multi –factor Theory Spearman’s Two-factor Theory: This was proposed by 1904.This first factor was general capacity and which is basically a reasoning factor. According to this every different mental ability involves a general factor which shares with all mental activities and a specific factors. Guilford’s Structure of Intellect:
Guilford factor of analysis was conducted in the lab at the university of south California in 1966. 1) Six operation 2) Five contents 3) Six products Six Operations: 1) Cognition: This involves immediate discovery , awareness , comprehension and understanding. 2] Memory Recording: It is retention of what is reconized for short duration. Memory Retention: It refers to the retention of what is recognized for a long period of time (LTM). Convergent Thinking: Generation of information from the given data.It refers intelligence . Different Thinking: It refers to thinking in different directions. It is Convergent Thinking. Evaluation: The decisions are the goodness , correctness. Five Content: Visual Content: Concentre material been perceived through ideas .
Auditory Content: Information perceived through ears . Symbolic Content: It is composed of letters. Organised general pattern. Semantic Content : It is form of clear cut ideas . Self-explanatory. Behavioral content: Social intelligence enables understand human communications. Six Products: Units : The figure of grounded ,relativelysegregrateditems. Classes : Sets of information and common properties. Relations: It is meaningful and definable. System: Items of information with structure . Transformation: Changes like redefinition ,modification. Implication: It concerned with explorations of informations. HorwardGardaer-Theory of Multiple Intelligence:
It has eight types of intelligence . Linguistic Intelligence : It refers verbal ability. Logical –Mathematical Intelligence: Logical reasoning and numerical skills. Spatial Intelligence : Like sculptors , engineers . Kinesthetic Intelligence: Type by surgeons ,dancers. Musical Intelligence: Musicians ,Muscicologists , Violinist. Inter-personal Intelligence: Highly Important for those who mingle and deal with public. Inter-personal Intelligence: Abilities are exhibited by planners and strategists. Naturalistic Intelligence: It means of poet ,Gardener ,etc., Concept Age: “An expression of the extent of development achieved by the individual , stand in terms of the performance that can be expected at any given age”. I.Q=M.A/C.A*100 Distribution of I.Q:
It is a bell – shaped structure average I.Q is 90 to 110. Creativity: It is a process is the emergence in actim of a novel relation or product growing out of the uniqueness of the individual on the one hand, and the material events on the other hand. Convergent Thinking: It represents more or less responses for tend to converge to the most acceptable answer for the stimulus . It is vertical thinking.It is stimulus bond. Divergent Thinking: This type searches of many possible responses for a given stimulus .Often going beyond the data in hand.It is get away from usual ideas.It is lateral thinking.
UNIT-VII MOTIVATION AND GROUP DYNAMICS
Motivation: It is a process of arousing, maintaining and controlling or behavioral. Definition: Motive means “to look within “. It refers to biological and social trends factors that initiate, sustain and stop goal directed behavior of organisms’ Characteristics of Motives: i. ii. iii. i. ii. Psychological process Energy Mobilization Restless to achieve the goal steps. Primary motives Secondary motives.
Classifications of Motives:
Theories of Motivation: Instinct Theory of McDougall Hull’s Dive –reduction Theory Maslow’s Theory of Hierarchical Needs Murray’s NeedTheory Maslow’s Theory of Hierarchical Needs:1. Physiological Needs: This is the survival needs for the human being,food, water, oxygen etc. 2. Safety needs:
This includes shelter,safety,clothing, etc. 3. Affiliation Needs: It refers to hunger for affection. Apupil, who is not lovable because of his behavior, needs to be loved most”. 4. Esteem Needs: This is the desire for strength, mastery, competency, etc. 5] Achievement Needs: The need for knowledge and the need for understanding cognitive development. 6]Aesthetic Needs: It concerned on aesthetic and beauty ,pleasure in beauty. Level of Aspiration: “The level of future performance in a familiar in a familiar task which an individual, knowing this level of past performance in the task,explicitly undertakes to reach”. Concept of Achievement Motivations: This implies “a striving to achieve a standard of excellence in actions” Characteristics of Achievement Motivation: i. ii. iii. iv. Well in competitive tasks Skill exercise to game of chance Fact and hard learners They are energetic
Measuring Achievement motivation: McClelland used pictures of the T.A.T. Thematic Apperception Test .A certain pictures are shown to them and the children
wants to yawn the picture about the achievements related content and works are in that. Test used for multiple choice questions. Role of Punishments and Rewards: Rewards means to “stamp in” Punishment means to “stamp out” Advantages of Reward: 1] It is positive reinforces 2] Lead to social recognition 3] Enhances the efficiency and develop high. Advantages of Punishment: 1) To deterrent of wrong behavior 2) Corrects the wrong doer 3) Warns to not do again. Leadership: “Any one act as a model to others is in a group is often called the leader of the group”. Important Qualities of a Leader: Identification with the group Superiority of the leader over others Knowing group psychology Dynamic and flexible. Types of Leadership: a) Authoritarian b) Democratic c) Liaises-Faire Concept of Class-room Climate:
The behavior of the Teacher and Student set a typical atmosphere in the classroom which motivates thee Teacher to teach and students to learn called as Classroom Climate. Factors affecting classroom climate: a) Teacher b) Students c) Subject
UNIT-VIII PERSONALITY AND SOME OF ITS Meaning of Personality: The term personality derived from Latin word “Persona” which means “facial masks”. Definitions: “An individual‘s personality is the resulting individually arising out of the interactions of a self-conscious and the intelligent person and the environment in which they lives”. Characteristics: i. ii. iii. iv. Self-consciousness Dynamic Unique Adjustable CONSTITUENTS
Factors Influencing Personality: The three factors are: i. ii. iii. i. ii. iii. i. ii. Biological Sociological Psychological Physique Chiriquí Nervous System Home School
Biological Factors:
Sociological Factors:
iii. iv. i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi.
Language Culture Intelligent Motivation Emotion Attitude Interest Sentiment
Psychological Factors:
These are some belongs to Heredity and others are environment .The biological factors and the intelligent are belongs to heredity .All others are belongs to environment. Theories of Personality: i. ii. iii. iv. i. Typological Theory Personality Trait Psycho-dynamic Social learning theory
Three Approaches of Personality: Type-Approach: Psycho-sematic types are the central theme like leadership. ii. iii. Trait-Approach: Basic personality traits are concerned here. Type cum Trait Approach Describe the individual personality. It is the combination of Type and Trait Approach. Extroversion Introversion
Eysenck’s Type cum Trait Personality:
Neuroticism Stability Psychotic Normality Hierarchical Structure: Type level in personality Trait level Habitual response level Specific response level Freud’s psycho Analytic Theory: There are three stages in this Freud’s Theory. Id Ego Super Ego ID: Inborn quality and fluid called ‘libido’. It is completely UN conscious stage pleasure principles. Ego: It corresponds the “self” It mediates between ID and super ego .conscious stage. Super Ego:
A system developed in the individual by incorporating parentual standards. Personality Assessment: Methods of Assessment Personality Subjective Personality Projective Techniques Rorschach Ink-blot test T.A.T Productive Techniques non-subjective personality
Non-Projective Subjective 1) Autobiography 2) Self-rating 3) Verbal responses a) Questionnaire b) Attitude c) Inventories d) Interview e) Aptitude f) Interest inventories Rorschach Ink-bolt: This developed by RorschachSwisspsychiatrists. Objective 1] Observation 2] Check list 3] Rating scale 4] Performance & situational test
“What he sees in the picture” 10 cards it consists. 5 is black &white, 2 is black & red, 3 various colors. It has 3 types: Location Determinants Content Aptitude: Aptitude= capacity+ Interest. “Aptness and quickness to succeed in a specific field”. Types: Music Aptitude Mechanical Aptitude Fine Arts Attitude: A mental state of readiness, organized through experience, dynamic influence upon the individual response in all objects.
UNIT- IX
Types of Conflicts: i. ii. iii. Approach –Approach Avoidance –Avoidance Approach – Avoidance
Defense Mechanism: “Adjustment mechanism as any habitual process or barriers in reaching goal”
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi.
Introversion Fantasy Projection Rationalism Compensation Identification Regression Displacement Sublimation Withdrawal Supression & Repression
Juvenile Delinquency: “This belongs to the children below the age of 18, who indulge in such antisocial acts which is committed by adults are legally punishable” Mental Health: It is full of harmonious functioning of the whole personality. Mental Illness: A mental state of an individual in which he/she express behavior s and experiences which are significally deviant from those of Natural Persons who generally adhere to the rules and regulations of conduct , follows the normal codes. Mental Hygiene: “It consists of measures to reduce the incidence of mental illness through prevention and early treatment and to promote mental health”.
UNIT-X GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING Definition of Guidance: “Fundamental of all guidance is the help or assistant given by a competent person to an individual so that the latter may direct his life by developing his point of view make his own decisions and carry out those decisions”. Functions: Understand himself Satisfaction To take own decisions Types of Guidance: i. ii. iii. Counseling:i. ii. iii. i. ii. iii. It is face –to- face relationship. Professionalized service Rapport between the counselee and counselor. Directive counseling Non-Directive counseling Eclectic Approach Educational Guidance Vocational Guidance Personal Guidance
Types of Counseling:
Group Counseling:
Activities during which information regarding common problems is discussed by the participating counselees are often labeled as “Group Counseling” Gifted Children: It is said 3 to 5 %of children have their I.Q 130 and above. a) Intellectually gifted b) Specially Talented c) Logical Thinking d) Sense of Humor Slow Learners: i. ii. iii. Those who are educationally backward pupils. There I.Q is between 70 to 80. General affecting achievement in schools.
Under-Achievers: Students having high cognitive ability .If score continually very low marks in achievement tests. Causes: i. ii. iii. Factors related to Honked Environment Social Environment School Environment iv. Pupils Individual Characteristics.
PSYCHOLOGY DEFINITION: The word Psychology derivesfrom Greek word ”Psyche” and “Locus” which means Psyche → Soul Locus → Science or Knowledge The Psychology literary means “the science of the soul”. A science that systematically studies and attempts to explain observablebehaviour and its relationship to unseen “mental” process that go on inside the organism and to external events in the environment. GOALS:
Description Explanation Prediction Control of behaviour
Methods of Psychology:
a. Introspection b. Observation c. Experiment d. Case-study e. Anecdotal f. Field Study g. Differential h. Questionnarie i. Developmental
Introspection:
a. It is the oldest method in psychology. b. It means inter + inspection. c. Which means self or viewingfwithinself. d. Self – observation.
Observation:
It implies observating the behaviour of others and this method provides direct knowledge of behaviour.This is most useful to the teachers. It emphasis that on perception,recordingof the observatingstudents,classification and Analysis of behavior and Generalization.
Types of Observation:
i. ii. iii. iv. Direct & Indirect Natural & Artificial Scheduled & Unscheduled Participant & Non-participant
Experiment:
This is to study to control & predict human behaviour. It is defined as systematic or Pre-planned observation.Under controlled conditions.This involves control,replication&randomization.Itis Independent and Dependent variable.
Independent Variable:
It is also called as stimulus variable or input variable It operates within a person or within his environment to affect his behaviour.
Dependent variable:
It is also known as a response variable or output variable. Observed aspect of the behaviour of an organism that has been stimulated.
DevelopmentMethod:
This method is also known as the genetic method. The infant grows up to maturity through childhood & adolescence areinferried.This has two types .They are 1. Longtitude method 2. Cross section method. In Longtitude method the same individual & group of individual studied over a period . (eg) Harvard developmental studies 3500 children were studied for 12 years . Piaget’s cognitive development is an example for congtitudal search. The Cross sectional method are different individual of different ages are examined.
Case-Study:
This method is to study “the individual or a group of individuals to detect and the diagnose their specific problem and suggest remedial measures”. It is also known as Case-Study history.It is a form of qualitative analysis involving careful and complete observation of a person or institution.
Types of Case-Study: i. ii. iii. Case studies of Individual Case studies of Institutions Case studies of communities
Steps involved in Case- study:
1) Identification of the problem 2) Collection of patient data from all possible sources 3) Diagnosis of the problem 4) Suggestion remedial measures 5) Follow up
Questionnarie Method:
The questionnaire is a popular technique for gathering data for by securing answer to a series of question related to the set of question which are printed. It also have two types. i. Direct method ii. Indirect method Series of question with a short time Unable to contrast the subjects of investigation directly. Impersional/general data to be collected Compare person & groups.
Differentiate Method:
Differences between two phenomena which are naturally different. (eg) Anoxia affects the permanent growth & development of a child.
Branches of Psychology: General Phychology:
It deals with concept of perception,emotion,motivation,learning,thinking,source of individual differences and their measurements
Child Psychology:
It deals with the growth & development of the children. Role of Heredity&Environment in child . Differences in adjustment of behavior. Infant & adolescent psychology also emerged out of this psychology.
Abnormal Psychology:
It is popular among professional psychologist. Concerned with description and abnormal study of abnormal forms of behavior. Various forms of behavioural disorders like Psychosis,Neurosis,etc.,
Psychological Psychology:
It deals with the basis of mental process like Central Nervous System, Sensory Glands and their structure.
Comparitive Psychology:
It concerned about the comparision of human begins with that others animals find out similarities and dissimilarities with each other.
Social Psychology:
It is applied science and deals with attitude & performance. Social problems of are gives high importance.
Applied Psychology:
Developing new methods to detect whether a person is lying or not.
Using in the investigation of criminals.
Educational Psychology:
“It is a branch of psychology which is concerned with psychological researches as applied to any or all aspects of educational process and practices.It is in relation to problems like learning,Teaching and Teaching”.
Scope of Education Psychology: Kolesnikmentions the problems:
a) Differences among students b) Motivations c) Methods of Instruction d) Evaluation e) Classroom Management f) Mental Health g) Character Formation h.c.lindgren opines the basic elements of educational psychology: i. ii. iii. iv. v. The Learner The Learning Process Learning Experience Learning Situation Teacher
Learner:
Subject matter is knitted It helps the learners to acquints the need of knowing the Learner. The innate ability and capacity of the individuals are measured and also measured the covert, overt and conscious and unconscious behaviour.
Learning Process:
It deals with nature of learning. The topics such as law, principles, theories, concepts, problemsolving are taken and concerned on it.
Learning Experience:
It deciding the experience are desirable . Deals with the knowledge and princeples of psychology.
Learning Situations:
It denotes the environmental factors and learning situations between the learner and the teacher. Class room climate, group dynamics, techniques are considered in this level.
The Teacher:
Teacher is very necessary in teaching learning process.he plays his role properly in this process. The scope of Educational Psychology is also inspire him to become a successful teacher.
Need for the knowledge of Educational Psychology for classroom Teacher:
Teacher follows the Way 1) Contribution of Theory education: i. To understand the development characteristics of children. ii. The development of child through infant,childhood and adolescence. iii. They have own characteristics. iv. Teachers should modified their behavior is an specific goal of the educator.
2) Understand the nature of classroom learning: i. Teacher should know the principles of learning. ii. Problems of learning and Remedial measures are should give much importance to the children iii. Guidance are much effective to them. 3) To understand individual differences 1) The needs and the requirements of the class which has great range of individual differences. 4) Understand Effective Teaching Methods: i. Teaching is not depend on one aspects of theory. ii. It relates several theories of Teaching-Learning. iii. Different approaches evolved to tackle the problems of different age levels of teaching\ 5) Causes of problems of children: The problems are successfully solve them 6) Knowledge of Mental Health: Mental Health of teacher and children will give effective learning. 7) Curriculum Constructions: The psychological principles are used in formulated curriculum for different stages. 8) Measurement of learning outcomes. 9) Guidance for the education of exceptional children
UNIT-II
HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Heredity is sometimes referred to as Nature and Environment as Nuture.
DEFINITION OF HEREDITY:
“Heredity is defined as the totality of biologically transmitted factors that influence the structure of the body .Everything the child begets biologically from his parents, belongs to heredity”. MEANING OF ENVIRONMENT: Environment influence the belonging to different categories which affect the growth process of the individual.
MECHANISM OF HEREDITY:
Every individual’s origin is due to the union of “germ cells” of the parents. The male germ called Sperm. Female germ Ovum. Union chromosomes named as “X” Female chromosomes are “Y” Fertilised cell has 46 chromosomes. Reduction of chromosomes.
FRATERNAL AND IDENTICAL TWINS:
a) The Twins are born because of two ova getting simultaneously fertilized are called Fraternal Twins. b) Two individuals developed out of one egg fertilized that pair twins called as Identical Twins.
LAWS OF HEREDITY:
i. ii. iii.
Like tends to begat. Variation between parents and offsprings. Tendency towards regression in successive generations.
Differences between social and Biological Heredity: 1) Social Heredity refers to culture and civilisation mankind from generation to generation. 2) Biological Heredity refers to the genes from their parents.
Meaning of Growth:
1) The Term “Growth” refers to purely in physical state. 2) Increases in size ,height, weight etc., 3) It is the components of the developmental process.
Characteristics of Growth:
i. ii. iii. iv. Growth refers to increases larger and heavier. It is quantitative ,additive and augmental. It is objectively observable. Rate of growth is not uniform.
Meaning of Development:
Development implies the overall changes in shape , form or structure. It indicates the changes in the quality or character rather than quantitative aspects.
Characteristics of Development:
i. ii. iii. iv. It is progressive in change. It is continuous in all mental activity It is the complex process It is influenced by maturation and learning Qualitative in nature
v.
Principles of Growth:
i. ii. iii. iv. v. Principles of continuity Individual activity Rate of growth and development is not uniform Principle of integration Development is predictable.
Meaning of Maturation:
a) It is a natural process b) Growth takes place within an individual c) It involves changes that are associated with normal growth
Meaning of Learning:
a) It is change in behavioural pattern b) It is a process which takes place as a result of the stimulate from outside. c) Process of learning through some activity ,training or experience.
Aspects of Human Development
The Aspects of Human Development such as physical and physiological development.They are related to locomotor and skill developments ,cognitive development and emotional development and social development.
Physical Development:
i. ii. iii. Anatomical growth and physiological growth are the two components of physical development Growth in the skeleton and bones changes in height and weight . Motor development refers to the growth and development of bodily organs.
Mental Development:
It includes the development of intellectual powers of thinking and reasoning ,imagination, concentration.
Emotional Development:
It starts with basic instinct of “General Excitement” takes place during the primary emotions like joy ,fear , anger ,complex and secondary emotions like disguist , jealousy ,elation ,etc., This develop the behavior of the children.
Moral Development:
i. ii. It includes the evaluation of moral sense to discriminate the right and the wrong of character. Social and moral development are inter-twined
Social Development:
i. ii. The child is self-centered and animalistic in character at the initial stage. He is developed through society rules and norms.
Development Tasks:
“A Task which arises at a period in a life of an individual successfully achievement of which leads to his happiness and success with later ,which while failure leads to unhappiness and difficulty with later tasks”
UNIT-III COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Cognitive development , refers as the intellectual development is a vital aspects in the growth and development of a child. It refers to the gradual growth is called as cognitive abilities. Attention: Attending is the first step in the mental process of knowing called cognition. Definition: Attending is defined as the mental activity of focusing on certain aspects of one’s current experiences and ignoring others. McDougall defines “attending “as “striving to cognize” It increases the one’s efficiency and vital for acquisition of skills. It is also an aid to remembering and recall. Span of Attention: “Span of Attention refers to the number of indipendennt ,distint or separate stimuli that can be attended to by an individual , at a glanze” It is also known as perceptual span. It denotes number of object that canexsist in the focus at a time.
It is measured through the apparatus named “Tachitoscope”. The Adult Span of Attention is 6 to 8 numbers. Shifting of attention: We cannot be continuously attending on any object for more than 10 seconds .Because attention is characterized by “fluctuation”. Division of Attention: We cannot attending do two things simultaneously but through Practice and Experience. We can do two things without any intruption and mistakes. Eg. Talking while knotting the clothes Factors of Attention: There are two factors of Attention. 1. Internal Factors / Subjective. 2. External Factors / Objective. Internal Factors: The five internal factors are i. ii. iii. iv. v. Interest Need Mental set Mood Physiological Needs.
Interest : The objects of big size, can easily arrest our attraction.This plays an important role.One’s interest is a dominant place of an attention. Need: The another important is Need . Those who need things will realize the attention of it. Mental Set: One’s mind set is very important for attention. It is the disposition of readiness to react at a particular time. Physiological Condition: The body condition and the physic health is much more important for Attention. External Factors: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. Size: Objects in big size, will arrest the attention. Size Intensity Change Contrast Novelty Movement Repetition Systematic Form
Intensity: It is to the quality of stimuli the high intensity like loud sound deep striking colors easily attracts the attention. Change: The sudden change in stimulus will easily attracts our attention. Contrast: A stimulus presents itself as a contrast in the midst of other stimuli it turns out to be attracts our attention. Novelty: A stimulus is Novel and unusal will gains the attention. Movement: The moving objects are easily arrest our attention rather than immovable ones. Repetition: A stimulus even in low quality will repeatedly appears will arrest our attention quickly. Systematic Form: Objects with systematic forms are easily attended to and retained long in our memory as compared to objects which are incomplete or irregular in form Kinds of Attention: Involuntary Attention:
This attention is spontaneous , free, natural and passive. Attention of young children is of this nature. Voluntary Attention: This type of attention involves some effect or will. We have to force ourselves to attend to objects in which luck of interest. It is intentional. Inattention and Distraction: Inattention: This means not paying attention to a particular stimulus or to any stimulus. It is due to obsence of Internal and External factors. Lack of Interest, Motivation are example for Inattention. Distraction: This refers to attending to irrelevant stimuli that are not part of the main subject task. This due to poor productivity and waste of energy resulting fatingue. Sensation: “Sensation is the immediate result of a sense organ being acted by appropriate stimuli” Perception:
“Perception is a psychological process in which the sensory inputs received from the sensory organs are processed ,organized and interpreted based on the past experience of the organism so that the nature of the stimuli are meaningfully understood”. Perception=Sensation + Meaningful Interpretation Laws of Perceptual Organism: i. ii. iii. iv. v. Law of Pragnanz Law of Proximity Law of Similarity Law of Closure Law of Continuity
Law of Pragnanz Pragnanz means compact but significant. Perceive the things as a whole pattern. That only it should give meaningful , simple and stable. Mental act of “Organising” takes place during perception as per this law.
Law of Proximity: According to this law perce[tional groups are favoured according to nearness of the parts. Closely located the things are percepted as a whole.
Law of Similarity: Wertheimer stated this law “other things are being equal the stimuli that are similar , will have greater tendency to be groupe as a single unit” Law of Closure: This law indicates the closed or complete figure are more stable than incomplete objects. Law of Good condition: It indicates that organism in perception appears to be going infinitely in the same direction. ERRORS OF PERCEPTION: Illusion: Illusion are wrong or mistaken perceptions which fail to correspond with the situation as objectively assessed. i. ii. iii. iv. v. Illusion of movements Illusion of perspectives Reversible perspective figures Muller-Lyer illusion Optical Illusion
Hallucination: i. ii. This means fake perception ,it is different form of illusion in that. It has no sensory basis and it is a dream like image often mistaken.
Meaning of Concept: Concept refers to generalized image or idea which stands for a group of objects that have some common characteristics. Types of Concept:
Concepts
Simple Concept
Complex concept
imaginary concepts
Concept of Objectives
Concept of aspects
Quality
Relations
i.
ii.
iii.
Simple Concept: The presence of a single quality It is the simplest form of concept Complex Concept When more than one property attribute distinguished the character of concept It is a complex concept. To see the object as a whole. Concept of Objects:
Eg. Book, House Concepts of Aspects: a) Related to properties or qualitives: Eg.Honesty , Simplicity , Smooth. b) Relational Concepts : Eg. Bigger than , taller than ,etc., BRUNER’S COMPLEX CONCEPTS INTO THREE TYPES: A conjuctive concept A group of objects have more features in common It is like simple concepts DISTINCTIVE CONCEPTS They include several attributes on either or basis with things covered by this concepts RELATIONAL CONCEPTS They have nothing todo with specific traits or attributes of objects,evens or persons BRUNER’S THEORY OF CONCEPT FORMATION Bruners regards human brain as having three modes of representation Enactive (two-three years) iconic (five-nine years) symbolic (above nine years )
1. The earlist representative level is Enactive 2. The infant represents objects and events through appropriate motor responses 3. The nest level is children conceive objectgs or events without action they represent through figures or images that is called Iconic 4. The last stage is called as symbolic this refers the child represent through symbols or languages. The child’s thinking is dominant. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS: 1. Increases the ability of the learner to the related materials 2. Fosters interest in the learning itself 3. Develops one’s ability to solve problems systematically easily the materials learned.
CONCEPT MAPS: “concept maps is useful in explaining the general principles formed out of many related ideas and also the mutual relationship existing between the various general principles” Energy
Solar Energy Heat
Stream Convert Electric generations Uses of concept maps It helps to understand the relationship between various ideas in the lesson. Understand the general principles To prepare the summary of ideas Follow up activity Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development: Cognitive development arises as a result of the interaction between the individual and the world and passes through a serves of sequential stages. Schemata for processing information and these structures. Organism is the tendency to systematic and unify experiences into a coherent system .It is looking and grasping Adaptation is the tendency to complementary process of “accommodation” to the external environment. It is due to modified the cognitive structure. Stages of cognitive Development: Piaget’s “Know an object one must act upon it either physically or mentally” The 4 important stages of cognitive Development are:1. Sensory motor stage (0 to 2 years) 2. Pre-Operational stage (2 to 7 years)
3. Concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years) 4. Formal operational stage ( above 11 years) Sensory –motor stage:a. This mainly based on the experiences of “senses” b. The major intellectual activity is the sensory interaction of the environment. c. Development through physical and without language. d. Development of sensory , motor and perceptual skills. e. Co-ordination of motor activities. f. For a child is “ out of sight” is “out of mind” is “object permanence”. g. Self-concept , trial and error method develop curiosity.
UNIT-IV
SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Meaning of Social Development: “The ability to behave in accordance with social expectations. It is a process by which the individual born with potentials of enormously wide range”. Components of Social Development: i. ii. iii. iv. Individual learn particular way Socialization is concerned Learns to include more and more people in his group. I- feeling changed into We- feeling.
Erickson’s stage of Social Development: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Birth up to 1 year II year III year VI to onset of puberty Adolescence Early childhood Middle adulthood Late Adulthood Mother Parents Basic Family Neighbor Peer groups Friends Divided labor Mankind Trust vs. mistrust
Characteristics of Social Maturity: i. ii. Sense of his proper place Accepts responsibility for his action
iii. iv. v. vi. vii.
Responsibility for his action Self-Pitying Realistic level of aspiration Self-concept Co-operation ,pleasing manner, optimistic look
Emotional Development: “A complex state involved heightened perception of an object or situation, widespread or repulsion and behavior organized for approach or withdrawal” According to McDougall all human emotions i. ii. iii. i. ii. iii. iv. i. ii. iii. Cognition Affection Conation Emotions are prevalent Differ from person to person Quality of displacement Upsurge reasoning and thinking Pleasantness – Unpleasantness Attention – Rejection Level of activation
Characteristics of Emotion:
Categories of Emotions:
Emotional Maturity: This is the last stage of emotional development i. ii. iii. iv. Able to control emotions Express the emotions socially Exercise his emotions at a proper time Emotional maturity shows no sudden shift
Emotional Intelligent:
“The Innate potential to feel, use,communicate,recognize,remember,learn, from, manage and understand emotions”. Characteristics of E.I: i. ii. iii. iv. Innate potential Ability to feel emotions Ability to remember emotions Unique potential for emotional sensitivity
Moral Development: The Evaluation of moral sense to discriminate the right or wrong and development of character. Social and moral development are inter twined. Stages of Moral Development: i. Prudential stage: Behavior means of pleasure and pain. ii. iii. Authoritarian stage: Dominating influences by parents and teacher. Social stage: Governed by social acceptance. Kohlberg’s Theory: This is based on Piaget’s Cognitive development theory. a) Pre conventional level: Avoid punishment and gain rewards. This is the 1st level. There is no internalization. Conventional level:
Child identifies their parents and conforms to what they regard as right or wrong. Post-conventional level: Moral judgement is rationalized and controlled by internalized ethical code and relatively independent. Self-concept: The self-concept is a system of attitudes , feelings and perceptions that individual has of himself.It is greatly influenced by his behavior environmental situations. This is called as self-concept.
UNIT-V LEARNING ,TRANSFER OF TRAINING ,REMEMBERING AND FORGETTING Learning: “A relatively permanent change in behavior which accours as a result of activity training, practice or experience”. i. ii. iii. iv. v. i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. Universal Learning is continuous Multiple and integrative Problem- solving and emotional learning Contingent upon experience Motivation Need Maturation Feedback The level of intelligent Attention Guidance Field of learning suits one’s aptitude Effectiveness of learning
Factors Influencing Learning:
Learning Curves: The rate of growth of learning can be graphically represented and the resultant curve is called learning curve. Possitive Accelerated Curve: It is the simple task like memorize a list of words. Motor skills like type writing , arranging match sticks. Gradually increases through performing.
Negative Accelerated Curve: It gains at the beginning but gradually decreases as a learning process. Lack of practice gets negative curve. S-Shaped Curve: Learning curves are passitively accelerated initially slow and gain process and these will be a spurt followed by plateau and further activity makes a steady progress and the maximum limit zenith i. ii. iii. iv. Plateau are period of consolidation Decline in motivation Absence of feed back Boredom
Thorndike Trial And Error Theory: This process developing neural connections between stimuli and responses. The Human Beings are too resort to it learn complex and apstract tasks as well as tasks involving motor skills. 1) The motive appears in the form of need 2) Different kinds of responses to the situations 3) Irrelevant unsuccessful forms of activity 4) Progressive integression Experiment: A hungry cat placed in a box.A piece of fish in a dish was kept out side the box.The cat become restless while see the fish and few triaks are eliminated accidentantlyThey operate the mechanism the cat gets the fish. Laws:
Laws of Readiness Conducting unit is ready to conduct to allow it to do so is satisfying not to allow annoying. Law of preparetory adjustment. Motivstion is the royal read to learning. Law of Exercise: Modifiable connection is maid between a stimulus and response the connection strength increases if it is repeated number of times law of frequency. Law of Effect: Modifiable connection is maid between a stimulus and a response and is followed up to by satisfying state of affiairs the strength increases follows the dis satisfying state of affiairs. Classical Conditioning: In 1904 ,Pavlov’s classical conditioning are expremented by dog. “A process in which is a natural stimulus which is not associated with any special natural response, on Pairing with a natural stimulus, acquires all the charecteristics of natural stimulus”. Experiment: When put the food the dog salivated this is the natural response.Food is UCS and salivation is UCR.We trained the dog to ring a bell is a CB and the dog hear the bell sound it salivates that is CR . Stage 1: UCS ------> UCR
CS Stage 2:
------>
No specific response
CS + UCS ------->CR Stage 3: CS ------> CR Laws of Condition: Law of Causation: A CR is established by the contiguous pairing of CS and UCS. Law of Experimental Extinction: If CR is elicted without reinforcement by the presentation of the UCS,then the CR get weakened.It is spontaneous recovery. Law of Generalisation: Once C>R is established It may be elicited by any stimulus to the original CS.Condition was established using bell as the C.S. Law of Discrimination: A selective CR can be establised by selective reinforcement. Law of Higher Order Conditioning: Second order condition is weak compared to first order.The neutral stimulus is taken place in that. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning: B.F.Skinnerbelived that no stimulus is capable of aliciting a unique response from an organism.All such response are
emitted response operant condition is called R-type conditioning. Experiment: A hungry cat is placed inside a huge box .the movement of the rat was measured electrically by chance it pushed a bar it gets the food .It repeatedly pressed the bar and every time got food pullets. Reinforcement is central to operant conditioning. Skinner’s Condition to Education: i. ii. Individualisation of Instruction Behavior modification Techniques
Gestalt Theory of Insight Learning: Gestalt , German word means “ whole” pattern ,configuration .The whole is always great than the sum of the parts. Insight Learning: He experiments , the chimpanzee named Sultan , Left in a cage and two sticks are put inside it and for the quiet longer distance bunch of banana was placed.The two sticks are have a hole to joined together and make a long one .The monkey tried to take banans but it can’t .It play with two sticks suddenly it got joined and get the banans .It is called as “Flash of Ideas”. Stages of Insight Learning: a] Preparation b] Incubation c] Insight or Illumination d] Evaluation Gagne’s Theory of Hierarchical learning:
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii.
Gagne’s theory are having 8 stages .They are Signal Learning: S-R-Learning: Changing : It acquired is a chain of 2 or more S-R –connections. Verbal Association : Learning of chains that are verbal . Discriminitive Learning: Concept Learning: To give a common response to a class of stimuli each other widely in physical appearance. Rule Learning: A rule Of chain is two or more concepts. Problem –Solving: Internal events and the rules are acquired combined to produce on heigher order rule.
General response through signal. A precise response to a discriminated stimulus.
Different in identifying response to many stimuli.
Transfer of Learning: It is defined as the application or carry of knowledge , skills, habits , attitudes , etc., acquired in one situation to some other situation for which they were not specifically learn. Types of Learning: Positive Learning: The learning of a particular task is facilities to another task. Negative Learning:
It is less easy to perform on a particular task but it is not much interfere with that. Zero Transfer: The learning of one task makes no difference what so ever to the learning of a subsequent task. Memory : The capacity to reproduce what they learnt . Kinds of Memory : 1. Short Term Memory 2. Long Term Memory. Forgetting : Our inability to recall thee learned material when we need it most is called forgetting. Ebbinghus Experiment: The curve of forgetting is a quantitative study of the loss of refention after lapse of time .It applies mainly to LTM. According to him ½ is forgetten in the first half an hour. 2/3 in 8 hours ,4/5 in a week . The forgetting curve suggests that forgetting is never complete and total. Better Memory: a. Motivation to learn b. Follow SQ3R c. Over-learning d. Mnemonic devices e. Multisensory learning
UNIT-VI
INTELLEGENCE AND CREATIVITY
The human individual has several points of uniqueness and superiority over the animals the most important of which is “Intelligence”. Nature of Intelligence: a. Ability for adjustment or adaptation b. Ability to tearn c. Abstract thinking. Definition: “Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of an individual to act purposefully ,to think rationally and to deal effectively with the environment”. Characteristics of Intelligence Person: 1) Unitary Theory –Monarch Theory 2) Spearman’s Two-factor Theory 3) Thorndike’s Multi –factor Theory Spearman’s Two-factor Theory: This was proposed by 1904.This first factor was general capacity and which is basically a reasoning factor. According to this every different mental ability involves a general factor which shares with all mental activities and a specific factors. Guilford’s Structure of Intellect:
Guilford factor of analysis was conducted in the lab at the university of south California in 1966. 1) Six operation 2) Five contents 3) Six products Six Operations: 1) Cognition: This involves immediate discovery , awareness , comprehension and understanding. 2] Memory Recording: It is retention of what is reconized for short duration. Memory Retention: It refers to the retention of what is recognized for a long period of time (LTM). Convergent Thinking: Generation of information from the given data.It refers intelligence . Different Thinking: It refers to thinking in different directions. It is Convergent Thinking. Evaluation: The decisions are the goodness , correctness. Five Content: Visual Content: Concentre material been perceived through ideas .
Auditory Content: Information perceived through ears . Symbolic Content: It is composed of letters. Organised general pattern. Semantic Content : It is form of clear cut ideas . Self-explanatory. Behavioral content: Social intelligence enables understand human communications. Six Products: Units : The figure of grounded ,relativelysegregrateditems. Classes : Sets of information and common properties. Relations: It is meaningful and definable. System: Items of information with structure . Transformation: Changes like redefinition ,modification. Implication: It concerned with explorations of informations. HorwardGardaer-Theory of Multiple Intelligence:
It has eight types of intelligence . Linguistic Intelligence : It refers verbal ability. Logical –Mathematical Intelligence: Logical reasoning and numerical skills. Spatial Intelligence : Like sculptors , engineers . Kinesthetic Intelligence: Type by surgeons ,dancers. Musical Intelligence: Musicians ,Muscicologists , Violinist. Inter-personal Intelligence: Highly Important for those who mingle and deal with public. Inter-personal Intelligence: Abilities are exhibited by planners and strategists. Naturalistic Intelligence: It means of poet ,Gardener ,etc., Concept Age: “An expression of the extent of development achieved by the individual , stand in terms of the performance that can be expected at any given age”. I.Q=M.A/C.A*100 Distribution of I.Q:
It is a bell – shaped structure average I.Q is 90 to 110. Creativity: It is a process is the emergence in actim of a novel relation or product growing out of the uniqueness of the individual on the one hand, and the material events on the other hand. Convergent Thinking: It represents more or less responses for tend to converge to the most acceptable answer for the stimulus . It is vertical thinking.It is stimulus bond. Divergent Thinking: This type searches of many possible responses for a given stimulus .Often going beyond the data in hand.It is get away from usual ideas.It is lateral thinking.
UNIT-VII MOTIVATION AND GROUP DYNAMICS
Motivation: It is a process of arousing, maintaining and controlling or behavioral. Definition: Motive means “to look within “. It refers to biological and social trends factors that initiate, sustain and stop goal directed behavior of organisms’ Characteristics of Motives: i. ii. iii. i. ii. Psychological process Energy Mobilization Restless to achieve the goal steps. Primary motives Secondary motives.
Classifications of Motives:
Theories of Motivation: Instinct Theory of McDougall Hull’s Dive –reduction Theory Maslow’s Theory of Hierarchical Needs Murray’s NeedTheory Maslow’s Theory of Hierarchical Needs:1. Physiological Needs: This is the survival needs for the human being,food, water, oxygen etc. 2. Safety needs:
This includes shelter,safety,clothing, etc. 3. Affiliation Needs: It refers to hunger for affection. Apupil, who is not lovable because of his behavior, needs to be loved most”. 4. Esteem Needs: This is the desire for strength, mastery, competency, etc. 5] Achievement Needs: The need for knowledge and the need for understanding cognitive development. 6]Aesthetic Needs: It concerned on aesthetic and beauty ,pleasure in beauty. Level of Aspiration: “The level of future performance in a familiar in a familiar task which an individual, knowing this level of past performance in the task,explicitly undertakes to reach”. Concept of Achievement Motivations: This implies “a striving to achieve a standard of excellence in actions” Characteristics of Achievement Motivation: i. ii. iii. iv. Well in competitive tasks Skill exercise to game of chance Fact and hard learners They are energetic
Measuring Achievement motivation: McClelland used pictures of the T.A.T. Thematic Apperception Test .A certain pictures are shown to them and the children
wants to yawn the picture about the achievements related content and works are in that. Test used for multiple choice questions. Role of Punishments and Rewards: Rewards means to “stamp in” Punishment means to “stamp out” Advantages of Reward: 1] It is positive reinforces 2] Lead to social recognition 3] Enhances the efficiency and develop high. Advantages of Punishment: 1) To deterrent of wrong behavior 2) Corrects the wrong doer 3) Warns to not do again. Leadership: “Any one act as a model to others is in a group is often called the leader of the group”. Important Qualities of a Leader: Identification with the group Superiority of the leader over others Knowing group psychology Dynamic and flexible. Types of Leadership: a) Authoritarian b) Democratic c) Liaises-Faire Concept of Class-room Climate:
The behavior of the Teacher and Student set a typical atmosphere in the classroom which motivates thee Teacher to teach and students to learn called as Classroom Climate. Factors affecting classroom climate: a) Teacher b) Students c) Subject
UNIT-VIII PERSONALITY AND SOME OF ITS Meaning of Personality: The term personality derived from Latin word “Persona” which means “facial masks”. Definitions: “An individual‘s personality is the resulting individually arising out of the interactions of a self-conscious and the intelligent person and the environment in which they lives”. Characteristics: i. ii. iii. iv. Self-consciousness Dynamic Unique Adjustable CONSTITUENTS
Factors Influencing Personality: The three factors are: i. ii. iii. i. ii. iii. i. ii. Biological Sociological Psychological Physique Chiriquí Nervous System Home School
Biological Factors:
Sociological Factors:
iii. iv. i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi.
Language Culture Intelligent Motivation Emotion Attitude Interest Sentiment
Psychological Factors:
These are some belongs to Heredity and others are environment .The biological factors and the intelligent are belongs to heredity .All others are belongs to environment. Theories of Personality: i. ii. iii. iv. i. Typological Theory Personality Trait Psycho-dynamic Social learning theory
Three Approaches of Personality: Type-Approach: Psycho-sematic types are the central theme like leadership. ii. iii. Trait-Approach: Basic personality traits are concerned here. Type cum Trait Approach Describe the individual personality. It is the combination of Type and Trait Approach. Extroversion Introversion
Eysenck’s Type cum Trait Personality:
Neuroticism Stability Psychotic Normality Hierarchical Structure: Type level in personality Trait level Habitual response level Specific response level Freud’s psycho Analytic Theory: There are three stages in this Freud’s Theory. Id Ego Super Ego ID: Inborn quality and fluid called ‘libido’. It is completely UN conscious stage pleasure principles. Ego: It corresponds the “self” It mediates between ID and super ego .conscious stage. Super Ego:
A system developed in the individual by incorporating parentual standards. Personality Assessment: Methods of Assessment Personality Subjective Personality Projective Techniques Rorschach Ink-blot test T.A.T Productive Techniques non-subjective personality
Non-Projective Subjective 1) Autobiography 2) Self-rating 3) Verbal responses a) Questionnaire b) Attitude c) Inventories d) Interview e) Aptitude f) Interest inventories Rorschach Ink-bolt: This developed by RorschachSwisspsychiatrists. Objective 1] Observation 2] Check list 3] Rating scale 4] Performance & situational test
“What he sees in the picture” 10 cards it consists. 5 is black &white, 2 is black & red, 3 various colors. It has 3 types: Location Determinants Content Aptitude: Aptitude= capacity+ Interest. “Aptness and quickness to succeed in a specific field”. Types: Music Aptitude Mechanical Aptitude Fine Arts Attitude: A mental state of readiness, organized through experience, dynamic influence upon the individual response in all objects.
UNIT- IX
Types of Conflicts: i. ii. iii. Approach –Approach Avoidance –Avoidance Approach – Avoidance
Defense Mechanism: “Adjustment mechanism as any habitual process or barriers in reaching goal”
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi.
Introversion Fantasy Projection Rationalism Compensation Identification Regression Displacement Sublimation Withdrawal Supression & Repression
Juvenile Delinquency: “This belongs to the children below the age of 18, who indulge in such antisocial acts which is committed by adults are legally punishable” Mental Health: It is full of harmonious functioning of the whole personality. Mental Illness: A mental state of an individual in which he/she express behavior s and experiences which are significally deviant from those of Natural Persons who generally adhere to the rules and regulations of conduct , follows the normal codes. Mental Hygiene: “It consists of measures to reduce the incidence of mental illness through prevention and early treatment and to promote mental health”.
UNIT-X GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING Definition of Guidance: “Fundamental of all guidance is the help or assistant given by a competent person to an individual so that the latter may direct his life by developing his point of view make his own decisions and carry out those decisions”. Functions: Understand himself Satisfaction To take own decisions Types of Guidance: i. ii. iii. Counseling:i. ii. iii. i. ii. iii. It is face –to- face relationship. Professionalized service Rapport between the counselee and counselor. Directive counseling Non-Directive counseling Eclectic Approach Educational Guidance Vocational Guidance Personal Guidance
Types of Counseling:
Group Counseling:
Activities during which information regarding common problems is discussed by the participating counselees are often labeled as “Group Counseling” Gifted Children: It is said 3 to 5 %of children have their I.Q 130 and above. a) Intellectually gifted b) Specially Talented c) Logical Thinking d) Sense of Humor Slow Learners: i. ii. iii. Those who are educationally backward pupils. There I.Q is between 70 to 80. General affecting achievement in schools.
Under-Achievers: Students having high cognitive ability .If score continually very low marks in achievement tests. Causes: i. ii. iii. Factors related to Honked Environment Social Environment School Environment iv. Pupils Individual Characteristics.
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