Modern History Notes
WWI Summary
➢ War on the Western Front:
✓ The Reasons for the stalemate on the Western Front:
Stalemate: Situation where neither side could make a successful breakthrough on the Western Front. The Schlieffen Plan; was the German strategic plan that was to be put into action if there was war against both France and Russia simultaneously. The Franco-Russian Alliance: alliance of 1893 stated that if either France or Russia were attacked by Germany, the other would assist it.
▪ When war broke out in August 1914, it was expected that the war would be over by Christmas. ▪ The reality of encirclement from the Entente powers forced Germany’s military planners to develop the Schlieffen plan. ▪ Under The Schlieffen Plan, Germany would seek to knockout France in a massive, lighting attack while just holding off the Russians in the east, and then, with France defeated, would deal with the Russians in what was likely to be a longer campaign. ▪ In 1911, the new German army commander, Moltke, decided to modify the plan. He decided that the German troops would not move through the Netherlands as German interests would be better served by keeping the Dutch neutral – Trade can continue during wartime. Also Moltke weakened the hammer-swing to strengthen the hinge. This would prove disastrous as for the plan to have any chance of success; the swing through Belgium had to be massive and rapid. ▪ Quote: “Moltkes substantial modification…probably doomed the German campaign in the west before it was ever launched”. (L.C.F Turner).
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The Failure of the Schlieffen Plan; ▪ The modifications made to the Schlieffen Plan by Moltke proved fatal. The bottleneck that occurred at Aachen and Liege allowed Belgian + French time to mobolise; British also sent troops to Belgium. ▪ Moltke lost his nerve and began to divert more troops away from the hammer-swing to the hinge, thus further weakening the thrust through Belgium. ▪ Belgian resistance proved far stouter than the Germans had anticipated. ▪ British forces fought the Germans at Mons, though defeated; they succeeded in further slowing the German advance. ▪ Moltke ordered his forces to swing round to the east of Paris, but the German advance was finally halted in September 1914 at the Battle of the Marne. ▪ Germany failed to knock out France and now faced a 2-front war. ▪ After the defeat at the Marne, the Germans retreated back to the River Aisne and dug in. From then on both sides attempted to out-flank each other by getting around each other’s end of trenches. This was known as ‘the Race to the Sea’. All they achieved was to create a line of trenches from the Swiss Alps, to the English Channel. ▪ Both sides were dug in and neither could break through the enemy’s lines, thus creating a Stalemate on the Western Front.
✓ The Nature of trench warfare and life in the trenches dealing with experiences of Allied and German soldiers:
▪ Trenches were first seen as temporary so they weren’t built well, especially the British and French ones, but as the war wore on, they became more complex. ▪ Both British and German trenches developed and stretched back for kilometers. There were often reinforcement and supply trenches behind the front lines, with communication trenches connecting them. There was barbed wire, observation posts and machine-gun nests on the front line. This made it almost impossible to break through the enemy lines. ▪ Trenches were often zigzagged to add more lines of fire at an attacker and to lessen the effect of a shell burst of grenade, and allowed parts of the trench to still be defended even if the enemy occupied another section. ▪ No-mans land was the area between two enemy trenches. It was as narrow as 50 metres or as wide as 8-10 kilometres. It was a hazardous area as going ‘over the top’ of one’s trench made one a target for sniper fire. Also, no-mans land was full of craters from explosives and was also sometimes riddled with mines. Soldiers feared being left behind to die in no-mans land. ▪ Life in the trenches was horrible; The distinctive odour produced by the combination of the decaying flesh of humans and horses, the latrines, rotting sandbags, mud and body odour made life in the trenches almost unbearable. ▪ Mud was a constant bane for soldiers in trenches due to the heavy rain that fell on France and Belgium. Combined with the clay of the trenches and the constant artillery bombardment, the battleground on the western Front turned into muddy quagmires. ▪ Sickness and disease plagued the soldiers. They suffered from Trench foot – a painful swelling of the feet caused by constant immersion in water. This would later lead to gangrene. They also suffered from diarrhea and dysentery due to poor hygiene. ▪ Lice and rats were constant pests; wasn’t a single soldier in the trench who didn’t have lice. Bites left red marks on skin and could cause the disease ‘trench fever’. Rats thrived on decomposing flesh and numbered in the millions. Were known as ‘trench rats’ or ‘corpse rats’ and were carriers of Weil’s disease. ▪ There were also psychological effects: shell shock; a psychological or emotional condition caused by prolonged experience of artillery barrages. Given little sympathy, affected many. ▪ The many new weapons brought into the war also made an impact on life in the trenches. Men would fear standing up over the trenches because of snipers, artillery would tear apart a man, and gas was also introduced later in the war. ▪ Whilst these soldiers were fighting the battles, the commanders of the armies stayed long behind their lines in their ‘Chateaus’ directing their armies into massive battles that gained little. ▪ Trench warfare on the Western Front was a war of attrition, costing the lives of millions of soldiers.
The Trench: ▪ At least 3 lines of trenches (Front line, support, reserve). ▪ These were linked to the rear by communications trenches – enabling soldiers + supplies to move to and from front line out of enemy sight. ▪ Barbed wire placed in front of trenches to slow enemy down. ▪ Parapret are a low protective wall along side the trenches – heightened with sandbags. ▪ Parados the back of the trench was also heightened to protect soldiers from enemy fire and prevent troops being silhouetted. ▪ Reinforcements consisted of sandbags, timber and corrugated iron. ▪ Duckboards a board that is laid over the sump to prevent the soldiers walking in the mud and water. ▪ British and French did not design their trenches for long-term occupation. ▪ German trenches were remarkably more comfortable, stable, and long-term. Up to 12m underground, running water, electricity, bunk beds. Quote: “A single square mile of British trench system contained 900 miles of barbed wire, 6 miles of sandbags, 1 million cubic feet of timber and 360,000 square feet of corrugated iron” (D Winter; The First of the Few: Fighter Pilots of the First World War, Viking Press, New York, 1982).
✓ Overview of strategies and tactics to break the stalemate including key battles: Verdun, The Somme, Passchendaele:
New Tactics:
▪ ‘Over The Top’ tactics were largely used by the Allies. They resulted in vast loss of life and very little gain. They followed a predictable pattern:
1) Artillery Bombardment – last for hours, even days. Aim of annihilating anyone in the enemy trench, cutting barbed wire, wiping out defensive artillery behind enemy lines.
2) At a pre-arranged time, bombardment would stop.
3) At ‘Zero’ hour a piercing whistle signaled the moment to go ‘over the top’.
4) Once in ‘no mans land’ organization decreased as enemy fire increased. Men were so loaded down with equipment they could only move slowly.
5) Once out in the open, the soldiers had to endure heavy machine gun fire, rifle bullets and artillery shells and were expose with no cover.
▪ The Creeping Barrage was a tactic used by the Allies (particularly Haig) in which infantry advances behind the cover of carefully targeted barrage. Disadvantages include soldiers being killed by ‘Friendly fire’ by misguided artillery. ▪ Storm troopers in 1918 the Germans used specially trained storm troopers, who advanced in small groups rather than massed attacks. Storm troopers used grenades, mortars and sometimes flame throwers to attack the enemy trenches from the flank.
Key Battles:
Both sides launched offensives to try and break the stalemate on the western front. ▪ Verdun: February-July 1916 ▪ In 1916 German commander Falkenhayn decided to attack the historical French fortress of Verdun, as its guns were moved elsewhere. He knew the French would defend it to the death because of its strategic position and its historical status as a great French fortress. So his strategy was to “bleed the French white”. ▪ General Petain refused to give up despite French losses. ▪ Quote; “They shall not pass” (General Petain). ▪ Almost the whole French army served at Verdun. Outcome; ▪ Town of Verdun was destroyed. ▪ German losses: 330,000 French losses: 350,000. ▪ Verdun had been held by the French, the Germans did not break the French resistance.
▪ The Somme: July-November 1916
▪ Relieve pressure on French at Verdun; designed to be a combined British + French attack, however, due to Verdun, it was largely a British battle. ▪ The Somme holds the record for the battle with the largest casualties ever. The British started the offensive off with a massive artillery bombardment of 1.6 million shells in one week. But the German dugouts were so deep and well structured that the German soldiers were safe. When the bombardment ended, the German soldiers simply went back to their positions. The British were told that the artillery would cause so many casualties that they could simply walk over no-mans land and take control of empty trenches. ▪ The attack was a huge failure. The German machine gunners mowed down the easy targets. By the end of the first day, there were 60, 000 British casualties. ▪ Although this happened, the offensive was ordered to continue, causing thousands of more casualties on both sides. The battle finally ended in November. Outcome: ▪ British losses: 420,000 French losses: 200,000 German losses: 650,000. ▪ British generals blamed inexperienced men rather than their poor planning. ▪ Haig clamed that his intentions all along had been one of attrition. ▪ Germany retreated to the Hindenburg line after the battle.
▪ Passchendaele (Third Battle of Ypres): July-December 1917 ▪ Also known as the third battle of Ypres. ▪ British again asked to take pressure off the French after the French had suffered massive losses at Verdun. ▪ Aimed to capture Belgian ports of Ostende and Zeebrugge, which were being used by German submarines. ▪ Haig also hoped for a further wearing down of the German army. ▪ A huge bombardment four and a half million shells combined with the worst rains in thirty years turned the battlefields in to a quagmire. ▪ Constant rain along with mud left the battlefield as a sea of mud, rendering tanks, horses, cannons, supplies and men to become bogged. Outcome: ▪ Allied losses: 300,000 German losses: 250,000 ▪ British gain of 10km ▪ Weapons: ▪ New and more deadly weapons were introduced during WWI to try and break the stalemate. These weapons were used with the already standard rifles. ▪ The machine-gun was used before WWI but never in its numbers. They were used mainly for defensive fighting. ▪ Heavy Artillery was used on a scale never seen before. These guns could launch shells up to 20km. They were used mainly to weaken the enemy lines before an infantry attack. ▪ Gas was used for the first time in WWI; it was more feared than actually fatal. ▪ The wind made it unreliable is it could blow back onto the soldiers at any time. ▪ Thousands of cylinders had to be carried up to the frontline and placed into position; gas shell was used to release the gas. ▪ Production of gas masks soon made gas useless. ▪ 3 types; chlorine, phosgene and mustard. ▪ NOT the breakthrough weapon hoped for. ▪ Tanks were also used for the first time in WWI. ▪ First used by British on the Somme. ▪ Were slow, had a fighting time of only eight hours, were easy targets for grenades and mortars and were easily bogged. ▪ Main uses were to flatten barbed wire, provide advancing troops support and shelter, and knock out enemy machine gun nests. ▪ Tank crews faced risk of carbon-monoxide poisoning, over heating, were noisy and deafening. ▪ NOT until 1918 that they played a decisive role.
✓ Changing attitudes of Allied and German Soldiers to the War over time: ▪ In 1914 there was tremendous enthusiasm for the war. This was the result of romantic notions of glory and adventure, patriotism, peer pressure, a desire to impress women, the chance for regular employment, government propaganda and ignorance about the nature of modern warfare. It was believed the war would be over by Christmas 1914. ▪ As the war progressed and the true nature of modern warfare began to be revealed, many of the troop’s attitudes changed due to the massive casualties, the futility of attrition warfare, and the conditions of the trenches and the callousness of the generals. ▪ For the British, the carnage at the Somme significantly impacted upon the troop’s morale. Recruitment figures dropped seriously low and in 1916, the government was forced to introduce conscription to maintain troop numbers. ▪ However, war-weariness and disillusionment in the British army never reached the levels that it did in other European armies, despite the futility, the callousness and the casualty lists. ▪ By late 1916, the Russian army was experiencing mass desertion, mutiny and frequent incidents of enlisted men murdering their officers. ▪ The Tsar’s government had lost all support by early 1917 and it collapsed. ▪ In Germany soldiers developed the same feelings of disillusionment and war-weariness as the Allies. They to shared their trenches with rats and knee-deep water. ▪ The Germans suffered greatly from the Allied blockade. Troop supplies were severely shortened and limited. Overtime the limited number of munitions and food resources were having a drastic impact on the German soldiers. This eventually led to major strikes in Kiel in 1917. ▪ The regime of the Kaiser collapsed in Germany before the war ended in 1918 and a republic was declared.
➢ The Home Fronts in Britain and Germany:
✓ Total War and its social and economic impact on civilians in Britain and Germany: ▪ Total war refers to the complete dedication of a nation’s resources and people to the war effort. Governments control the economy, censorship, propaganda, conscription, domestic security and many aspects of its people’s lives. ▪ Germany committed to total war from the beginning and so were very well organized, hence its success on the battlefield even with a naval blockade imposed on it. ▪ Germany set up a number of departments that had control over specific things during the war. The “War Raw Materials Department” controlled supplies and labour. The “Central Purchasing Company” bought goods from neutral countries. The “Imperial Grain Office” dealt with food and rationing. There were many other departments set up during the war, but eventually, the blockade took its toll on Germany, its economy was crippled and could not sustain more war. ▪ Karl Helferrich, the German Minister of Finance, in order to finance the war ordered more bank notes to be printed and went on a borrowing spree; resulted in inflation. ▪ The German governments also placed a variety of restrictions on the people in order to maximize efficiency. The German people suffered dramatically during the war. Discontent rose due to decreasing standards of living, power and fuel shortages. ▪ Great food shortages were creating anger and frustration in Germany which eventually ended in strikes and riots; Parts of Germany were facing starvation; the winter in 1916 was known as the ‘turnip winter’, it being one of the few items readily available. ▪ Shortages were met by using resources of occupied countries or by producing substitute or ersatz goods. ▪ Germany had the largest percentage of women working. ▪ Britain did not come to terms with total war as quickly as Germany did. ▪ Many women were working ‘male’ professions, such as in industry, police and some even joined the women’s branches of the armed forces; this was mainly through the effective use of British propaganda. ▪ On 8 August 1914, the Defence of the Realm Act (DORA) gave the British government power to regulate and control lives of its citizens. E.g. restricting British drinking habits and needing permission to buy binoculars. ▪ Food restrictions were also placed due to the German U-Boat campaign; rationing was introduced in 1916. ▪ In 1915, the Ministry of Munitions was set up to control and increase munitions manufacturing. Lloyd George, the minister of munitions, did this by settling industrial relations with the unions so there would be no strikes. ▪ To finance the war, Britain issued war savings certificates and sold war bonds. Tax was increased greatly, but still had to borrow from the United States.
✓ Recruitment, Conscription, Censorship and Propaganda in Britain and Germany:
▪ Recruitment is the enlisting of new soldiers for an army in order to replace losses or to build up existing forces. ▪ Conscription is the forced enlistment of men into the armed forces. ▪ Censorship is the restriction of information. It was designed to minimize bad news or keep it from the public entirely. ▪ Propaganda is the deliberate presentation of a one-sided view of an issue.
▪ Britain never had a large pre-war army. When the war broke out, recruitment agencies were set up. Many men signed up, enthusiastic about the war. By January 1915, 1.34 million men had joined. ▪ The army set high physical standards at first but as the casualties mounted up and the volunteers dried up, these were eventually forgotten. ▪ A number of propaganda posters were set up to try to get more men to volunteer. They targeted women to persuade men to enlist, so if they didn’t they were seen as cowards. They attempted to shame men into enlisting. ▪ Finally, with the volunteer system failing, conscription was introduced with the Second Military Service Act in 1916. Conscientious objectors were persecuted and treated badly – people who refuse to enlist in the army on moral grounds. ▪ British propaganda stated with the blaming of Germany for the war and encouraged men to enlist. Later, propaganda had more of an emphasis on the need to maintain national sacrifice and unity on the home front. ▪ Propaganda used stereotypes, calling Germans barbarians and telling stories about them. The title “Hun” or “the Boche” were used to call Germans. Propaganda also censored some information, talking up the victories, remaining silent about the defeats etc. Lies were often associated in propaganda. ▪ Cartoons in newspapers were an effective way to spread propaganda. The Church also supported the war and backed the governments. ▪ As the war dragged on and as the casualty lists continued to mount, it became important to limit the amount of information available to the civilian population (censorship). ▪ Censorship was intended to boost morale as it excluded the bad battle details, only providing positive aspects. ▪ Germany had less trouble getting men to fight. Although there were many volunteers early in the war, conscription was an accepted thing in German society. Germany had already had a huge army before the war. ▪ German propaganda differed from British mainly for this reason. Where Britain tried to get men to fight, Germany didn’t need to. They concentrated more on anti-British propaganda in its posters and society. Also, German propaganda tried to justify the actions of the German Government. The line it followed was to argue that Germanys invasion of Belgium and France, according to the Schlieffen Plan, was a defensive response to the aggression it was facing from Britain, France and Russia. This was defensive propaganda. German soldiers were portrayed as heroes, defending the fatherland etc. ▪ Quote; “The defense of the Fatherland, forced on us by the enemy challenge, will demand sacrifice of blood and treasure” (Kaiser Wilhelm ll). ▪ German censorship was very effective during the war. The German government withheld many of its information from the public, including German losses, peace movements etc. ▪ Censorship was used to maintain morale, governments censored unsavory battle details. ▪ Both the Allied and Germans believed that their country had been infiltrated by spies and this belief provided another justification for censorship.
✓ The variety of attitudes to the war and how they changed over time in Britain and Germany: ▪ When the war started, it was met with overwhelming enthusiasm and even relief in Britain. This was mainly due to the propaganda used by the British government. There was little resistance, in the form of a few socialists and pacifists. ▪ Larger opposition started in 1916 when the huge numbers of casualties began to show in Britain. People at home were becoming sick of the war, war-weariness set in as more demands were made on the workforce. Shortages of supplies and enemy raids on cities further increased resistance. ▪ There wasn’t much opposition to the war in Britain. There were only a small number of groups that opposed the war; most of them were the conscientious objectors, who the government dealt with. ▪ There were some strikes in Britain; Lloyd George knew that they weren’t protesting against the war but the pressures that it put on them. He fixed the problem by starting relations with the workers unions, and by raising wages and promising women the vote; he dealt with the problem ‘with kid gloves’. ▪ So Britain experienced little war dissent due to less economic strain than Russia or Germany, Lloyd George knew how to deal with dissent, and propaganda helped get the people’s support. Although there was little dissent, there was a change in attitude from the British people from enthusiasm to apathy during the war. ▪ Germany’s initial reaction to the war was much like Britain’s, one of enthusiasm. The little opposition to the war by peace-groups was silenced by the tight lid the German government had – due to the authoritarian government Germany had at the time. ▪ As the war wore on, the German people suffered more severely due to the blockade and failing economy. There were shortages in almost everything and what they had was very poor in quality. Unlike Britain, German authorities paid little attention to worker’s welfare; they lacked a Lloyed George figure. ▪ On the 1st of May 1916, there was a massive anti-war protest. There were thousands of strikes across Germany, in January 1918; over 1 million workers went on strike. ▪ In 1917, the political union of Germany began to crack. The Social Democratic Party was challenged when the Independent Social Democratic Party (USPD) was formed, breaking away. The split was mainly due to differing attitudes towards the war, the USPD opposed the war. ▪ By October 1918, Germany was on the fringe of revolution. The abdication of the Kaiser seemed inevitable.
✓ The Impact of the War on Women’s lives and experiences in Britain: ▪ Before the war, women in Britain were limited to work in childcare and domestic duties. During the war, women played a major part in almost all aspects of non-combat roles. ▪ Women in WWI worked on the battlefield as nurses, under bad conditions. Womens services were set up during the war, the Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC), the Women’s Royal Naval Service (WRENS) and the Women’s Royal Air Force (WRAP) were the main organizations set up. ▪ On the home front, millions of women went to work in the munitions factories. Conditions here were tough and they were called munitionettes or canaries for the yellowed skin they had due to the chemicals. ▪ Other women took on other jobs as men went off to fight. They became farmers, blacksmiths, grave-diggers, managers and ambulance drivers. But still some areas were off-limits to women. Women rarely worked in shipbuilding, accounting or architecture. ▪ The existence of lower female pay made women more attractive to employers seeking to reduce costs. However, it was feared that if unskilled women entered the factories, the status of skilled workers would be permanently damaged. ▪ The war certainly improved the position of women in society. They had gained greater self-respect, took them out of the confines of domesticity, made higher pay possible and finally the government was convinced to give them the vote. Women became recognized as an essential part of the nation’s economy and were perceived to be moving along the path towards gender equality. ▪ Even though the working rights of women took a giant leap towards equality, there was still a huge gap between them and men in terms of right and wages. ▪ Before the war, women in Britain were lobbying for the right to vote. But in December 1917, the British government passed a bill that allowed women suffrage. Women over 30 who were householders or the wives of householders could vote. This meant that women who were able to vote were middle-class, married and not young. Yet the majority of female workers were working-class, single and young. Thus the vote was hardly a reward for female war service. ▪ Quote; “Of all the changes wrought by the war, none has been greater than the change in the status and position of women” (Mary Macarthur 1918). ▪ After the war, women were encouraged to return to the home or to traditional female jobs. The Restoration of Pre-War Practices Act actually tried to take jobs from working-class women. ▪ Quote: “On the face of it, no one could have been less equipped for the job than these gently nurtured girls who walked straight out of Edwardian drawing-rooms into the horrors of the First World War” (L. Macdonald, The Roses of No Man’s Land).
➢ Turning Points
✓ Impacts of the entry of the USA and of Russian Withdrawal: ▪ The entry of the USA into WWI meant that the Allied would be refreshed with more supplies and men. The USA were to send 100 000 soldiers to Europe with 250 000 more coming each month after. ▪ The reasons for Americas entry were:
1) The German foreign minister, Zimmermann, sent a secret note to the German Minister in Mexico suggesting joint German – Mexican action against the United States.
2) Germany’s unrestricted submarine warfare campaign which was German policy of attacking all shipping heading towards Britain. Attacks on the ships led to the deaths of many Americans. The Lusitania incident which killed 124 Americans greatly angered the United States. ▪ Finally on the 6th of April, the United states decaled war on Germany. ▪ This also meant that if Germany wanted to achieve victory, they would’ve had to act quickly, before the United States arrived. ▪ The Russian Withdrawal from WWI made this move possible (Two revolutions in 1917 led to Russia’s formal withdrawal from the war in 1918 as the regime of Tsar Nicholas ΙΙ collapsed). It freed up 52 German divisions to be transferred to the Western Front.
The Treaty of Brest Litovsk, March 1918 ▪ Lenin knew that he must end the war, to hold on to government. Trotsky was sent to negotiate with Germans, they failed, and Germany was able to advance. Lenin was desperate to end the war, and was forced to a peace agreement under harsh terms. Germany and the Bolshevik regime agreed to peace terms in the Treaty of Brest Litovsk on 3 March 1918. Lenin accepted these terms as he believed there would be a socialist revolution soon, seeing the treaty torn up.
✓ Ludendorff’s Spring Offensive and the Allied Response: ▪ With Germany’s Western Front bolstered by the extra troop previously on the Eastern Front, Ludendorff launched his offensive (Operation Michael) on 21 March 1918 in an attempt to achieve victory before the Americans arrived. ▪ The Offensive was almost a success. The German armies got within shelling distance of Paris, but a determined effort by the Allied forces now all led by General Foch stopped the German advance on the Marne. ▪ On 18 July, Foch launched the Allied counter-attack and forced the retreat of the Germans. The Allies were now bolstered with fresh US troops. With the German’s out-manned, they were forced back almost to their border where the armistice was signed.
➢ Allied Victory
✓ Events leading to the Armistice, 1918: ▪ The British by the time of the Armistice had a far better equipped army than ever before. British factories were producing large numbers of better tanks, machine-guns, trench mortars and shells. ▪ Each British battalion, although lower in the number of men than before the war, were very well armed, more so than the Germans. In addition to the armament of the infantry, they were supported by tanks and aero planes. ▪ When the Allies began pushing the initial success of the Germans during the Spring Offensive back, the Army’s morale collapsed. The 65km advance in 7 days had exhausted the men, with their supply wagons far behind, traveling in the cratered and difficult terrain. ▪ To make matters worse, the Germans found out that the British were far better supplied than their propaganda told them. This led to mass desertions. ▪ The Army was also now made up of replacement units, mostly boys. They did not have the same patriotic thinking as their predecessors. Also there was an influenza epidemic spreading through the army and their eastern reinforcements talked of socialism and peace. The German Army was in tatters by August 1918. ▪ The Allies had pushed through the Hindenburg line and Luderndorff admitted to the Kaiser that they could not win the war. ▪ Luderndorff recommends that Germany adopt a democratic form of government in hopes of a lesser punishment. ▪ The Armistice was signed on 11 November 1918.
✓ Reasons for the Allied Victory and German collapse: ▪ The main reason for Allied Victory was that they simply outlasted the Germans. ▪ By 1918, the British naval blockade had severely damaged Germany. No blockade can be 100% effective, but the Allied blockade caused enormous hardship for the German economy. The lack of key imports put severe limits on the ability of the German economy to supply its armies and placed enormous strains on the home front. ▪ Britain on the other hand, had little shortages and their army was well supplied. By 1918, they army was far better equipped than the Germans. ▪ The entry of the USA spelt the doom for the Germans. The American impact on the war was enormous. Allied morale lifted while German morale fell. If the Germans wanted to win, they would’ve had to fight fresh and well-equipped troops, something that they could not do due to the state of their army. ▪ The German army had suffered immense casualties so by the end of the war, they had no reserves and were resorting to conscripting young boys and old men. Lloyd Georges work in the munitions Ministry was coming to fruition with Allied forces now bountifully supplied, whereas German industry was nearing a state of collapse. The German army was literally exhausted. ▪ German had no allies in Europe after Austria-Hungary pulled out of the war. ▪ By the end of the war, the German war-machine had simply run out of steam whilst the Allies were bolstered by the Americans and were better supplied. Reasons for Germany’s defeat were: ▪ Germany was forced to fight a two front war. ▪ Germany could never match the combined economic and military might of the Allies. ▪ The German economy could not keep its army supplied. ▪ The entry of the United States in April 1917 meant that Germany had to face the strength and wealth of the greatest power on earth. ▪ The Allied naval blockade ensured that the longer the war went on, the more difficulty Germany had supplying its army and feeding its people. ▪ Germany’s allies were liabilities. ▪ Strains on the German home front lowered morale.
✓ The roles and differing goals of Clemenceau, Lloyd George and Wilson in creating the Treaty of Versailles: ▪ The treaty of Versailles included delegates from almost a hundred countries, but the big decisions were made by President Wilson of the USA, Lloyd George of Britain and Georges Clemenceau of France. The location of the conference was badly chosen because as the host, Clemenceau dominated the conference. ▪ President Wilson: ▪ Had little understanding of the nature of European politics. ▪ Wilson saw himself as an idealist and wanted a fair peace settlement. ▪ He proposed the idea of the League of Nations to guarantee world peace and supported democracy in all nations. ▪ He also disapproved of France’s hard stand against Germany and wanted to limit the reparations on Germany. ▪ He also wrote the fourteen points, vague terms for peace that he proposed. ▪ Wilson’s Fourteen Points:
1) There should be no secret treaties.
2) There should be freedom of the seas in peacetime or wartime.
3) There should be free trade between countries.
4) There should be international disarmament.
5) Colonies should have a say in their own future.
6) German troops leave Russia.
7) There should be independence for Belgium.
8) France should regain Alsace-Lorraine.
9) The frontier between Italy and Austria to be adjusted.
10) There should be self-determination for the peoples of Eastern Europe.
11) Serbia should have access to the sea.
12) There should be self-determination for the peoples of Turkish Empire.
13) Poland should become an independent state with access to the sea.
14) A League of Nations should be established. Wilson’s objectives: ▪ Wilson’s Fourteen Points were intended to preserving the peace and status quo in Europe. ▪ He thought that Germany should keep most of its pre-war territory, with the exception of Alsace-Lorraine which would be ceded to France. ▪ Reparations – Germany should pay little or no reparations. All the belligerents carried some degree of responsibility for the outbreak of war. ▪ League of Nations – Europe should form a ‘League of Nations’, to preserve the peace. Wilson thought that Germany should eventually be allowed into the League.
Lloyd George: ▪ Lloyd George is seen as a councilor between Wilson and Clemenceau. He also wanted to protect British interests so he had to do a balancing act. ▪ He wanted the German economy to be repaired as Britain’s economy was closely linked with the International economy and Germany had been the powerhouse before the war. ▪ Had promised the British electorate revenge. ▪ He also saw the dangers in the territory provisions, seeing that a new war could be fought over them. He tried to moderate them with limited success. ▪ Wanted a balance of power in Western Europe so neither Germany nor France could dominate. ▪ Lloyd George’s objectives: ▪ Keeping faith with the British public which wanted to see Germany punished. ▪ The desire to soften harsh French demands. ▪ Re-establishment of European trade disrupted by the war. ▪ Destruction of German fleet. ▪ Prevention of any country, including France, from dominating Europe. ▪ Georges Clemenceau: ▪ France had suffered the most in WWI at the hands of the Germans and so wanted extreme reparations from them. Clemenceau’s aim was to do this. ▪ Because of this idea, he clashed with Wilson many times during the conference. He also wanted security by breaking the German army, limiting the number of troops they had. ▪ Determined to make Germany pay for destruction of the war. ▪ Severely Hated Germany ▪ Saw Germany invade France twice in his lifetime. ▪ He was a tough and ill-tempered man and fought hard to get what he wanted. ▪ Known as ‘the tiger’ because of his determination. Clemenceau’s objectives: As president of the conference proceedings Clemenceau was in a position to pursue his objectives: ▪ The disarmament of Germany. ▪ Guarantees for French security. ▪ The restoration of Alsace-Lorraine ▪ Reparations ▪ The creation of a separate buffer state to the west of Rhine to protect its border – free of German control.
Paris Peace Conference of 1919: ▪ January 1919. ▪ 32 countries sent representatives. ▪ Dominated by “Big Three”
a) Woodrow Wilson USA
b) Lloyd George Britain
c) Clemenceau France. ▪ 5 peace treaties signed that dealt with each enemy power (Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkish Empire). ▪ Germany and Russia not allowed to attend.
The Treaty of Versailles: ▪ Germany was not allowed to participate in the Paris negotiations at any time. ▪ Germany was forced to sign the Treaty of face invasion. ▪ Germany was forced to sing the Treaty of Versailles in the Hall of Mirrors at the palace of Versailles on 28th June 1919. ▪ The Treaty of Versailles aimed to weaken Germany territorially, economically and militarily. Treaty Terms: Overview: The terms of the Treaty, which Germany had no choice but to accept, were announced on May 7, 1919. Germany lost: ▪ 13% of its national territory. ▪ All of its overseas colonies (including Kamerun, German East Africa, German Southwest Africa, Togoland and German New Guinea). ▪ 12.5% of its population. ▪ 16% of its coalfields, and half its iron and steel industry.
The Territorial Provisions: ▪ Germany lost approximately 13% of its territory in Europe, which included 103,600 square kilometers of land 7 million people. ▪ Posen, part of West Prussia and part of Upper Silesia were handed to Poland, which now gave Poland a corridor to the sea. This meant that East Prussia was now separated from the rest of Germany. ▪ Eupen and Malmedy were given to Belgium. ▪ Germany was forbidden from ever uniting with Austria (Anschluss) under clause 80 of the Treaty. ▪ Alsace – Lorraine was returned to France. ▪ The Rhineland region was to be demilitarized. ▪ Forced Germany to live under Czech, Polish, French and Lithuanian rule. ▪ ALL colonies lost.
The Military Provisions: Treaty of Versailles attempted to break German Military power to prevent it from ever again launching another 1914-style invasion. ▪ The army was reduced to only 100,000 people. ▪ Not allowed any tanks or heavy artillery. ▪ Germany was denied an air force. ▪ Germany’s navy was greatly reduced. It was not allowed to have submarines; all ships over 16,256 tones were banned; only six battleships of 10160 tones were allowed; and there could be only six light cruisers, twelve destroyers and twelve torpedo boats. ▪ Naval base of Heligoland was to be destroyed.
The Economic Provisions: Treaty also sought to break Germany’s economic strength. ▪ Massive reparations were to be paid to the Allies for damage inflicted by Germany. ▪ Belgium and France received German machinery. ▪ Germany had to supply Allies with large amounts of coal.
The Colonial Provisions: ▪ Germany was forced to give up its colonial possessions – were given to other powers as mandates.
War Guilt: ▪ Clause of the Treaty that angered Germany the most was Clause 231, the war guilt clause, which blamed Germany for the war and all damage that the war had brought – was humiliating.
Reparations: ▪ Pre-Conference discussions agreed that Germany should pay for all damage to civilian property by their aggression, land, air or sea. ▪ Germany did not have capacity to pay the sum demanded. ▪ Businesses started to fear that their capital would be used to pay reparations – started to pull out of the economy. ▪ USA firmly opposed the idea that Germany should pay war costs. ▪ Quote: “It is my judgment, as certain as anything can be…that Germany cannot pay anything approaching this sum”. (Keynes, JM, ‘The Peace of Versailles’. Everybody’s Magazine, 43, September 1920, p.39). ▪ Germany was expected to pay 6,600 Million Pounds. (France receives 52%, Britain 22%, Italy 10%, Belgium 8% and others 8%). ▪ Ultimatum was sent to German Government; agree to terms and sign or Allied force will occupy the industrial Ruhr area. ▪ Failure to deliver load of timber to France gave French Government excuse to invade Ruhr. ▪ Quote: “At the end the French felt cheated; and the Germans felt robbed. Reparations had kept the passions of war alive…Reparations counted as a symbol. They created resentment, suspicion and international hostility”. (A.J.P. Taylor)
Historians views on The Treaty of Versailles:
▪ Ruth Henig said that Quote: “The Treaty of Versailles was not exceedingly harsh on Germany, either territorially or economically...It was the acknowledgement of defeat, as much as the treaty terms themselves, which they found so hard to accept. ▪ Harold Nicolson said that Quote: “We were very stupid men…we arrived determined that peace should be negotiated; and left the conference conscious that the treaties imposed upon our enemies were neither just nor wise”.
Outcome of the War: ▪ More than 10 Million had died on the battlefields, while civilian losses were estimated at 8 Million. ▪ Spanish influenza took another 6 million in Europe alone. ▪ Countless millions of me had been wounded, gassed or ended the war as amputees. ▪ Millions suffered the psychological effects of time in trenches for the rest of their lives. ▪ Europe was a starving continent. Nowhere was this felt more than in Germany, Allied blockade maintained in case Germany resumes fighting. ▪ End of World War 1 saw the collapse of the German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires.
➢ War on the Western Front:
✓ The Reasons for the stalemate on the Western Front:
Stalemate: Situation where neither side could make a successful breakthrough on the Western Front. The Schlieffen Plan; was the German strategic plan that was to be put into action if there was war against both France and Russia simultaneously. The Franco-Russian Alliance: alliance of 1893 stated that if either France or Russia were attacked by Germany, the other would assist it.
▪ When war broke out in August 1914, it was expected that the war would be over by Christmas. ▪ The reality of encirclement from the Entente powers forced Germany’s military planners to develop the Schlieffen plan. ▪ Under The Schlieffen Plan, Germany would seek to knockout France in a massive, lighting attack while just holding off the Russians in the east, and then, with France defeated, would deal with the Russians in what was likely to be a longer campaign. ▪ In 1911, the new German army commander, Moltke, decided to modify the plan. He decided that the German troops would not move through the Netherlands as German interests would be better served by keeping the Dutch neutral – Trade can continue during wartime. Also Moltke weakened the hammer-swing to strengthen the hinge. This would prove disastrous as for the plan to have any chance of success; the swing through Belgium had to be massive and rapid. ▪ Quote: “Moltkes substantial modification…probably doomed the German campaign in the west before it was ever launched”. (L.C.F Turner).
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The Failure of the Schlieffen Plan; ▪ The modifications made to the Schlieffen Plan by Moltke proved fatal. The bottleneck that occurred at Aachen and Liege allowed Belgian + French time to mobolise; British also sent troops to Belgium. ▪ Moltke lost his nerve and began to divert more troops away from the hammer-swing to the hinge, thus further weakening the thrust through Belgium. ▪ Belgian resistance proved far stouter than the Germans had anticipated. ▪ British forces fought the Germans at Mons, though defeated; they succeeded in further slowing the German advance. ▪ Moltke ordered his forces to swing round to the east of Paris, but the German advance was finally halted in September 1914 at the Battle of the Marne. ▪ Germany failed to knock out France and now faced a 2-front war. ▪ After the defeat at the Marne, the Germans retreated back to the River Aisne and dug in. From then on both sides attempted to out-flank each other by getting around each other’s end of trenches. This was known as ‘the Race to the Sea’. All they achieved was to create a line of trenches from the Swiss Alps, to the English Channel. ▪ Both sides were dug in and neither could break through the enemy’s lines, thus creating a Stalemate on the Western Front.
✓ The Nature of trench warfare and life in the trenches dealing with experiences of Allied and German soldiers:
▪ Trenches were first seen as temporary so they weren’t built well, especially the British and French ones, but as the war wore on, they became more complex. ▪ Both British and German trenches developed and stretched back for kilometers. There were often reinforcement and supply trenches behind the front lines, with communication trenches connecting them. There was barbed wire, observation posts and machine-gun nests on the front line. This made it almost impossible to break through the enemy lines. ▪ Trenches were often zigzagged to add more lines of fire at an attacker and to lessen the effect of a shell burst of grenade, and allowed parts of the trench to still be defended even if the enemy occupied another section. ▪ No-mans land was the area between two enemy trenches. It was as narrow as 50 metres or as wide as 8-10 kilometres. It was a hazardous area as going ‘over the top’ of one’s trench made one a target for sniper fire. Also, no-mans land was full of craters from explosives and was also sometimes riddled with mines. Soldiers feared being left behind to die in no-mans land. ▪ Life in the trenches was horrible; The distinctive odour produced by the combination of the decaying flesh of humans and horses, the latrines, rotting sandbags, mud and body odour made life in the trenches almost unbearable. ▪ Mud was a constant bane for soldiers in trenches due to the heavy rain that fell on France and Belgium. Combined with the clay of the trenches and the constant artillery bombardment, the battleground on the western Front turned into muddy quagmires. ▪ Sickness and disease plagued the soldiers. They suffered from Trench foot – a painful swelling of the feet caused by constant immersion in water. This would later lead to gangrene. They also suffered from diarrhea and dysentery due to poor hygiene. ▪ Lice and rats were constant pests; wasn’t a single soldier in the trench who didn’t have lice. Bites left red marks on skin and could cause the disease ‘trench fever’. Rats thrived on decomposing flesh and numbered in the millions. Were known as ‘trench rats’ or ‘corpse rats’ and were carriers of Weil’s disease. ▪ There were also psychological effects: shell shock; a psychological or emotional condition caused by prolonged experience of artillery barrages. Given little sympathy, affected many. ▪ The many new weapons brought into the war also made an impact on life in the trenches. Men would fear standing up over the trenches because of snipers, artillery would tear apart a man, and gas was also introduced later in the war. ▪ Whilst these soldiers were fighting the battles, the commanders of the armies stayed long behind their lines in their ‘Chateaus’ directing their armies into massive battles that gained little. ▪ Trench warfare on the Western Front was a war of attrition, costing the lives of millions of soldiers.
The Trench: ▪ At least 3 lines of trenches (Front line, support, reserve). ▪ These were linked to the rear by communications trenches – enabling soldiers + supplies to move to and from front line out of enemy sight. ▪ Barbed wire placed in front of trenches to slow enemy down. ▪ Parapret are a low protective wall along side the trenches – heightened with sandbags. ▪ Parados the back of the trench was also heightened to protect soldiers from enemy fire and prevent troops being silhouetted. ▪ Reinforcements consisted of sandbags, timber and corrugated iron. ▪ Duckboards a board that is laid over the sump to prevent the soldiers walking in the mud and water. ▪ British and French did not design their trenches for long-term occupation. ▪ German trenches were remarkably more comfortable, stable, and long-term. Up to 12m underground, running water, electricity, bunk beds. Quote: “A single square mile of British trench system contained 900 miles of barbed wire, 6 miles of sandbags, 1 million cubic feet of timber and 360,000 square feet of corrugated iron” (D Winter; The First of the Few: Fighter Pilots of the First World War, Viking Press, New York, 1982).
✓ Overview of strategies and tactics to break the stalemate including key battles: Verdun, The Somme, Passchendaele:
New Tactics:
▪ ‘Over The Top’ tactics were largely used by the Allies. They resulted in vast loss of life and very little gain. They followed a predictable pattern:
1) Artillery Bombardment – last for hours, even days. Aim of annihilating anyone in the enemy trench, cutting barbed wire, wiping out defensive artillery behind enemy lines.
2) At a pre-arranged time, bombardment would stop.
3) At ‘Zero’ hour a piercing whistle signaled the moment to go ‘over the top’.
4) Once in ‘no mans land’ organization decreased as enemy fire increased. Men were so loaded down with equipment they could only move slowly.
5) Once out in the open, the soldiers had to endure heavy machine gun fire, rifle bullets and artillery shells and were expose with no cover.
▪ The Creeping Barrage was a tactic used by the Allies (particularly Haig) in which infantry advances behind the cover of carefully targeted barrage. Disadvantages include soldiers being killed by ‘Friendly fire’ by misguided artillery. ▪ Storm troopers in 1918 the Germans used specially trained storm troopers, who advanced in small groups rather than massed attacks. Storm troopers used grenades, mortars and sometimes flame throwers to attack the enemy trenches from the flank.
Key Battles:
Both sides launched offensives to try and break the stalemate on the western front. ▪ Verdun: February-July 1916 ▪ In 1916 German commander Falkenhayn decided to attack the historical French fortress of Verdun, as its guns were moved elsewhere. He knew the French would defend it to the death because of its strategic position and its historical status as a great French fortress. So his strategy was to “bleed the French white”. ▪ General Petain refused to give up despite French losses. ▪ Quote; “They shall not pass” (General Petain). ▪ Almost the whole French army served at Verdun. Outcome; ▪ Town of Verdun was destroyed. ▪ German losses: 330,000 French losses: 350,000. ▪ Verdun had been held by the French, the Germans did not break the French resistance.
▪ The Somme: July-November 1916
▪ Relieve pressure on French at Verdun; designed to be a combined British + French attack, however, due to Verdun, it was largely a British battle. ▪ The Somme holds the record for the battle with the largest casualties ever. The British started the offensive off with a massive artillery bombardment of 1.6 million shells in one week. But the German dugouts were so deep and well structured that the German soldiers were safe. When the bombardment ended, the German soldiers simply went back to their positions. The British were told that the artillery would cause so many casualties that they could simply walk over no-mans land and take control of empty trenches. ▪ The attack was a huge failure. The German machine gunners mowed down the easy targets. By the end of the first day, there were 60, 000 British casualties. ▪ Although this happened, the offensive was ordered to continue, causing thousands of more casualties on both sides. The battle finally ended in November. Outcome: ▪ British losses: 420,000 French losses: 200,000 German losses: 650,000. ▪ British generals blamed inexperienced men rather than their poor planning. ▪ Haig clamed that his intentions all along had been one of attrition. ▪ Germany retreated to the Hindenburg line after the battle.
▪ Passchendaele (Third Battle of Ypres): July-December 1917 ▪ Also known as the third battle of Ypres. ▪ British again asked to take pressure off the French after the French had suffered massive losses at Verdun. ▪ Aimed to capture Belgian ports of Ostende and Zeebrugge, which were being used by German submarines. ▪ Haig also hoped for a further wearing down of the German army. ▪ A huge bombardment four and a half million shells combined with the worst rains in thirty years turned the battlefields in to a quagmire. ▪ Constant rain along with mud left the battlefield as a sea of mud, rendering tanks, horses, cannons, supplies and men to become bogged. Outcome: ▪ Allied losses: 300,000 German losses: 250,000 ▪ British gain of 10km ▪ Weapons: ▪ New and more deadly weapons were introduced during WWI to try and break the stalemate. These weapons were used with the already standard rifles. ▪ The machine-gun was used before WWI but never in its numbers. They were used mainly for defensive fighting. ▪ Heavy Artillery was used on a scale never seen before. These guns could launch shells up to 20km. They were used mainly to weaken the enemy lines before an infantry attack. ▪ Gas was used for the first time in WWI; it was more feared than actually fatal. ▪ The wind made it unreliable is it could blow back onto the soldiers at any time. ▪ Thousands of cylinders had to be carried up to the frontline and placed into position; gas shell was used to release the gas. ▪ Production of gas masks soon made gas useless. ▪ 3 types; chlorine, phosgene and mustard. ▪ NOT the breakthrough weapon hoped for. ▪ Tanks were also used for the first time in WWI. ▪ First used by British on the Somme. ▪ Were slow, had a fighting time of only eight hours, were easy targets for grenades and mortars and were easily bogged. ▪ Main uses were to flatten barbed wire, provide advancing troops support and shelter, and knock out enemy machine gun nests. ▪ Tank crews faced risk of carbon-monoxide poisoning, over heating, were noisy and deafening. ▪ NOT until 1918 that they played a decisive role.
✓ Changing attitudes of Allied and German Soldiers to the War over time: ▪ In 1914 there was tremendous enthusiasm for the war. This was the result of romantic notions of glory and adventure, patriotism, peer pressure, a desire to impress women, the chance for regular employment, government propaganda and ignorance about the nature of modern warfare. It was believed the war would be over by Christmas 1914. ▪ As the war progressed and the true nature of modern warfare began to be revealed, many of the troop’s attitudes changed due to the massive casualties, the futility of attrition warfare, and the conditions of the trenches and the callousness of the generals. ▪ For the British, the carnage at the Somme significantly impacted upon the troop’s morale. Recruitment figures dropped seriously low and in 1916, the government was forced to introduce conscription to maintain troop numbers. ▪ However, war-weariness and disillusionment in the British army never reached the levels that it did in other European armies, despite the futility, the callousness and the casualty lists. ▪ By late 1916, the Russian army was experiencing mass desertion, mutiny and frequent incidents of enlisted men murdering their officers. ▪ The Tsar’s government had lost all support by early 1917 and it collapsed. ▪ In Germany soldiers developed the same feelings of disillusionment and war-weariness as the Allies. They to shared their trenches with rats and knee-deep water. ▪ The Germans suffered greatly from the Allied blockade. Troop supplies were severely shortened and limited. Overtime the limited number of munitions and food resources were having a drastic impact on the German soldiers. This eventually led to major strikes in Kiel in 1917. ▪ The regime of the Kaiser collapsed in Germany before the war ended in 1918 and a republic was declared.
➢ The Home Fronts in Britain and Germany:
✓ Total War and its social and economic impact on civilians in Britain and Germany: ▪ Total war refers to the complete dedication of a nation’s resources and people to the war effort. Governments control the economy, censorship, propaganda, conscription, domestic security and many aspects of its people’s lives. ▪ Germany committed to total war from the beginning and so were very well organized, hence its success on the battlefield even with a naval blockade imposed on it. ▪ Germany set up a number of departments that had control over specific things during the war. The “War Raw Materials Department” controlled supplies and labour. The “Central Purchasing Company” bought goods from neutral countries. The “Imperial Grain Office” dealt with food and rationing. There were many other departments set up during the war, but eventually, the blockade took its toll on Germany, its economy was crippled and could not sustain more war. ▪ Karl Helferrich, the German Minister of Finance, in order to finance the war ordered more bank notes to be printed and went on a borrowing spree; resulted in inflation. ▪ The German governments also placed a variety of restrictions on the people in order to maximize efficiency. The German people suffered dramatically during the war. Discontent rose due to decreasing standards of living, power and fuel shortages. ▪ Great food shortages were creating anger and frustration in Germany which eventually ended in strikes and riots; Parts of Germany were facing starvation; the winter in 1916 was known as the ‘turnip winter’, it being one of the few items readily available. ▪ Shortages were met by using resources of occupied countries or by producing substitute or ersatz goods. ▪ Germany had the largest percentage of women working. ▪ Britain did not come to terms with total war as quickly as Germany did. ▪ Many women were working ‘male’ professions, such as in industry, police and some even joined the women’s branches of the armed forces; this was mainly through the effective use of British propaganda. ▪ On 8 August 1914, the Defence of the Realm Act (DORA) gave the British government power to regulate and control lives of its citizens. E.g. restricting British drinking habits and needing permission to buy binoculars. ▪ Food restrictions were also placed due to the German U-Boat campaign; rationing was introduced in 1916. ▪ In 1915, the Ministry of Munitions was set up to control and increase munitions manufacturing. Lloyd George, the minister of munitions, did this by settling industrial relations with the unions so there would be no strikes. ▪ To finance the war, Britain issued war savings certificates and sold war bonds. Tax was increased greatly, but still had to borrow from the United States.
✓ Recruitment, Conscription, Censorship and Propaganda in Britain and Germany:
▪ Recruitment is the enlisting of new soldiers for an army in order to replace losses or to build up existing forces. ▪ Conscription is the forced enlistment of men into the armed forces. ▪ Censorship is the restriction of information. It was designed to minimize bad news or keep it from the public entirely. ▪ Propaganda is the deliberate presentation of a one-sided view of an issue.
▪ Britain never had a large pre-war army. When the war broke out, recruitment agencies were set up. Many men signed up, enthusiastic about the war. By January 1915, 1.34 million men had joined. ▪ The army set high physical standards at first but as the casualties mounted up and the volunteers dried up, these were eventually forgotten. ▪ A number of propaganda posters were set up to try to get more men to volunteer. They targeted women to persuade men to enlist, so if they didn’t they were seen as cowards. They attempted to shame men into enlisting. ▪ Finally, with the volunteer system failing, conscription was introduced with the Second Military Service Act in 1916. Conscientious objectors were persecuted and treated badly – people who refuse to enlist in the army on moral grounds. ▪ British propaganda stated with the blaming of Germany for the war and encouraged men to enlist. Later, propaganda had more of an emphasis on the need to maintain national sacrifice and unity on the home front. ▪ Propaganda used stereotypes, calling Germans barbarians and telling stories about them. The title “Hun” or “the Boche” were used to call Germans. Propaganda also censored some information, talking up the victories, remaining silent about the defeats etc. Lies were often associated in propaganda. ▪ Cartoons in newspapers were an effective way to spread propaganda. The Church also supported the war and backed the governments. ▪ As the war dragged on and as the casualty lists continued to mount, it became important to limit the amount of information available to the civilian population (censorship). ▪ Censorship was intended to boost morale as it excluded the bad battle details, only providing positive aspects. ▪ Germany had less trouble getting men to fight. Although there were many volunteers early in the war, conscription was an accepted thing in German society. Germany had already had a huge army before the war. ▪ German propaganda differed from British mainly for this reason. Where Britain tried to get men to fight, Germany didn’t need to. They concentrated more on anti-British propaganda in its posters and society. Also, German propaganda tried to justify the actions of the German Government. The line it followed was to argue that Germanys invasion of Belgium and France, according to the Schlieffen Plan, was a defensive response to the aggression it was facing from Britain, France and Russia. This was defensive propaganda. German soldiers were portrayed as heroes, defending the fatherland etc. ▪ Quote; “The defense of the Fatherland, forced on us by the enemy challenge, will demand sacrifice of blood and treasure” (Kaiser Wilhelm ll). ▪ German censorship was very effective during the war. The German government withheld many of its information from the public, including German losses, peace movements etc. ▪ Censorship was used to maintain morale, governments censored unsavory battle details. ▪ Both the Allied and Germans believed that their country had been infiltrated by spies and this belief provided another justification for censorship.
✓ The variety of attitudes to the war and how they changed over time in Britain and Germany: ▪ When the war started, it was met with overwhelming enthusiasm and even relief in Britain. This was mainly due to the propaganda used by the British government. There was little resistance, in the form of a few socialists and pacifists. ▪ Larger opposition started in 1916 when the huge numbers of casualties began to show in Britain. People at home were becoming sick of the war, war-weariness set in as more demands were made on the workforce. Shortages of supplies and enemy raids on cities further increased resistance. ▪ There wasn’t much opposition to the war in Britain. There were only a small number of groups that opposed the war; most of them were the conscientious objectors, who the government dealt with. ▪ There were some strikes in Britain; Lloyd George knew that they weren’t protesting against the war but the pressures that it put on them. He fixed the problem by starting relations with the workers unions, and by raising wages and promising women the vote; he dealt with the problem ‘with kid gloves’. ▪ So Britain experienced little war dissent due to less economic strain than Russia or Germany, Lloyd George knew how to deal with dissent, and propaganda helped get the people’s support. Although there was little dissent, there was a change in attitude from the British people from enthusiasm to apathy during the war. ▪ Germany’s initial reaction to the war was much like Britain’s, one of enthusiasm. The little opposition to the war by peace-groups was silenced by the tight lid the German government had – due to the authoritarian government Germany had at the time. ▪ As the war wore on, the German people suffered more severely due to the blockade and failing economy. There were shortages in almost everything and what they had was very poor in quality. Unlike Britain, German authorities paid little attention to worker’s welfare; they lacked a Lloyed George figure. ▪ On the 1st of May 1916, there was a massive anti-war protest. There were thousands of strikes across Germany, in January 1918; over 1 million workers went on strike. ▪ In 1917, the political union of Germany began to crack. The Social Democratic Party was challenged when the Independent Social Democratic Party (USPD) was formed, breaking away. The split was mainly due to differing attitudes towards the war, the USPD opposed the war. ▪ By October 1918, Germany was on the fringe of revolution. The abdication of the Kaiser seemed inevitable.
✓ The Impact of the War on Women’s lives and experiences in Britain: ▪ Before the war, women in Britain were limited to work in childcare and domestic duties. During the war, women played a major part in almost all aspects of non-combat roles. ▪ Women in WWI worked on the battlefield as nurses, under bad conditions. Womens services were set up during the war, the Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC), the Women’s Royal Naval Service (WRENS) and the Women’s Royal Air Force (WRAP) were the main organizations set up. ▪ On the home front, millions of women went to work in the munitions factories. Conditions here were tough and they were called munitionettes or canaries for the yellowed skin they had due to the chemicals. ▪ Other women took on other jobs as men went off to fight. They became farmers, blacksmiths, grave-diggers, managers and ambulance drivers. But still some areas were off-limits to women. Women rarely worked in shipbuilding, accounting or architecture. ▪ The existence of lower female pay made women more attractive to employers seeking to reduce costs. However, it was feared that if unskilled women entered the factories, the status of skilled workers would be permanently damaged. ▪ The war certainly improved the position of women in society. They had gained greater self-respect, took them out of the confines of domesticity, made higher pay possible and finally the government was convinced to give them the vote. Women became recognized as an essential part of the nation’s economy and were perceived to be moving along the path towards gender equality. ▪ Even though the working rights of women took a giant leap towards equality, there was still a huge gap between them and men in terms of right and wages. ▪ Before the war, women in Britain were lobbying for the right to vote. But in December 1917, the British government passed a bill that allowed women suffrage. Women over 30 who were householders or the wives of householders could vote. This meant that women who were able to vote were middle-class, married and not young. Yet the majority of female workers were working-class, single and young. Thus the vote was hardly a reward for female war service. ▪ Quote; “Of all the changes wrought by the war, none has been greater than the change in the status and position of women” (Mary Macarthur 1918). ▪ After the war, women were encouraged to return to the home or to traditional female jobs. The Restoration of Pre-War Practices Act actually tried to take jobs from working-class women. ▪ Quote: “On the face of it, no one could have been less equipped for the job than these gently nurtured girls who walked straight out of Edwardian drawing-rooms into the horrors of the First World War” (L. Macdonald, The Roses of No Man’s Land).
➢ Turning Points
✓ Impacts of the entry of the USA and of Russian Withdrawal: ▪ The entry of the USA into WWI meant that the Allied would be refreshed with more supplies and men. The USA were to send 100 000 soldiers to Europe with 250 000 more coming each month after. ▪ The reasons for Americas entry were:
1) The German foreign minister, Zimmermann, sent a secret note to the German Minister in Mexico suggesting joint German – Mexican action against the United States.
2) Germany’s unrestricted submarine warfare campaign which was German policy of attacking all shipping heading towards Britain. Attacks on the ships led to the deaths of many Americans. The Lusitania incident which killed 124 Americans greatly angered the United States. ▪ Finally on the 6th of April, the United states decaled war on Germany. ▪ This also meant that if Germany wanted to achieve victory, they would’ve had to act quickly, before the United States arrived. ▪ The Russian Withdrawal from WWI made this move possible (Two revolutions in 1917 led to Russia’s formal withdrawal from the war in 1918 as the regime of Tsar Nicholas ΙΙ collapsed). It freed up 52 German divisions to be transferred to the Western Front.
The Treaty of Brest Litovsk, March 1918 ▪ Lenin knew that he must end the war, to hold on to government. Trotsky was sent to negotiate with Germans, they failed, and Germany was able to advance. Lenin was desperate to end the war, and was forced to a peace agreement under harsh terms. Germany and the Bolshevik regime agreed to peace terms in the Treaty of Brest Litovsk on 3 March 1918. Lenin accepted these terms as he believed there would be a socialist revolution soon, seeing the treaty torn up.
✓ Ludendorff’s Spring Offensive and the Allied Response: ▪ With Germany’s Western Front bolstered by the extra troop previously on the Eastern Front, Ludendorff launched his offensive (Operation Michael) on 21 March 1918 in an attempt to achieve victory before the Americans arrived. ▪ The Offensive was almost a success. The German armies got within shelling distance of Paris, but a determined effort by the Allied forces now all led by General Foch stopped the German advance on the Marne. ▪ On 18 July, Foch launched the Allied counter-attack and forced the retreat of the Germans. The Allies were now bolstered with fresh US troops. With the German’s out-manned, they were forced back almost to their border where the armistice was signed.
➢ Allied Victory
✓ Events leading to the Armistice, 1918: ▪ The British by the time of the Armistice had a far better equipped army than ever before. British factories were producing large numbers of better tanks, machine-guns, trench mortars and shells. ▪ Each British battalion, although lower in the number of men than before the war, were very well armed, more so than the Germans. In addition to the armament of the infantry, they were supported by tanks and aero planes. ▪ When the Allies began pushing the initial success of the Germans during the Spring Offensive back, the Army’s morale collapsed. The 65km advance in 7 days had exhausted the men, with their supply wagons far behind, traveling in the cratered and difficult terrain. ▪ To make matters worse, the Germans found out that the British were far better supplied than their propaganda told them. This led to mass desertions. ▪ The Army was also now made up of replacement units, mostly boys. They did not have the same patriotic thinking as their predecessors. Also there was an influenza epidemic spreading through the army and their eastern reinforcements talked of socialism and peace. The German Army was in tatters by August 1918. ▪ The Allies had pushed through the Hindenburg line and Luderndorff admitted to the Kaiser that they could not win the war. ▪ Luderndorff recommends that Germany adopt a democratic form of government in hopes of a lesser punishment. ▪ The Armistice was signed on 11 November 1918.
✓ Reasons for the Allied Victory and German collapse: ▪ The main reason for Allied Victory was that they simply outlasted the Germans. ▪ By 1918, the British naval blockade had severely damaged Germany. No blockade can be 100% effective, but the Allied blockade caused enormous hardship for the German economy. The lack of key imports put severe limits on the ability of the German economy to supply its armies and placed enormous strains on the home front. ▪ Britain on the other hand, had little shortages and their army was well supplied. By 1918, they army was far better equipped than the Germans. ▪ The entry of the USA spelt the doom for the Germans. The American impact on the war was enormous. Allied morale lifted while German morale fell. If the Germans wanted to win, they would’ve had to fight fresh and well-equipped troops, something that they could not do due to the state of their army. ▪ The German army had suffered immense casualties so by the end of the war, they had no reserves and were resorting to conscripting young boys and old men. Lloyd Georges work in the munitions Ministry was coming to fruition with Allied forces now bountifully supplied, whereas German industry was nearing a state of collapse. The German army was literally exhausted. ▪ German had no allies in Europe after Austria-Hungary pulled out of the war. ▪ By the end of the war, the German war-machine had simply run out of steam whilst the Allies were bolstered by the Americans and were better supplied. Reasons for Germany’s defeat were: ▪ Germany was forced to fight a two front war. ▪ Germany could never match the combined economic and military might of the Allies. ▪ The German economy could not keep its army supplied. ▪ The entry of the United States in April 1917 meant that Germany had to face the strength and wealth of the greatest power on earth. ▪ The Allied naval blockade ensured that the longer the war went on, the more difficulty Germany had supplying its army and feeding its people. ▪ Germany’s allies were liabilities. ▪ Strains on the German home front lowered morale.
✓ The roles and differing goals of Clemenceau, Lloyd George and Wilson in creating the Treaty of Versailles: ▪ The treaty of Versailles included delegates from almost a hundred countries, but the big decisions were made by President Wilson of the USA, Lloyd George of Britain and Georges Clemenceau of France. The location of the conference was badly chosen because as the host, Clemenceau dominated the conference. ▪ President Wilson: ▪ Had little understanding of the nature of European politics. ▪ Wilson saw himself as an idealist and wanted a fair peace settlement. ▪ He proposed the idea of the League of Nations to guarantee world peace and supported democracy in all nations. ▪ He also disapproved of France’s hard stand against Germany and wanted to limit the reparations on Germany. ▪ He also wrote the fourteen points, vague terms for peace that he proposed. ▪ Wilson’s Fourteen Points:
1) There should be no secret treaties.
2) There should be freedom of the seas in peacetime or wartime.
3) There should be free trade between countries.
4) There should be international disarmament.
5) Colonies should have a say in their own future.
6) German troops leave Russia.
7) There should be independence for Belgium.
8) France should regain Alsace-Lorraine.
9) The frontier between Italy and Austria to be adjusted.
10) There should be self-determination for the peoples of Eastern Europe.
11) Serbia should have access to the sea.
12) There should be self-determination for the peoples of Turkish Empire.
13) Poland should become an independent state with access to the sea.
14) A League of Nations should be established. Wilson’s objectives: ▪ Wilson’s Fourteen Points were intended to preserving the peace and status quo in Europe. ▪ He thought that Germany should keep most of its pre-war territory, with the exception of Alsace-Lorraine which would be ceded to France. ▪ Reparations – Germany should pay little or no reparations. All the belligerents carried some degree of responsibility for the outbreak of war. ▪ League of Nations – Europe should form a ‘League of Nations’, to preserve the peace. Wilson thought that Germany should eventually be allowed into the League.
Lloyd George: ▪ Lloyd George is seen as a councilor between Wilson and Clemenceau. He also wanted to protect British interests so he had to do a balancing act. ▪ He wanted the German economy to be repaired as Britain’s economy was closely linked with the International economy and Germany had been the powerhouse before the war. ▪ Had promised the British electorate revenge. ▪ He also saw the dangers in the territory provisions, seeing that a new war could be fought over them. He tried to moderate them with limited success. ▪ Wanted a balance of power in Western Europe so neither Germany nor France could dominate. ▪ Lloyd George’s objectives: ▪ Keeping faith with the British public which wanted to see Germany punished. ▪ The desire to soften harsh French demands. ▪ Re-establishment of European trade disrupted by the war. ▪ Destruction of German fleet. ▪ Prevention of any country, including France, from dominating Europe. ▪ Georges Clemenceau: ▪ France had suffered the most in WWI at the hands of the Germans and so wanted extreme reparations from them. Clemenceau’s aim was to do this. ▪ Because of this idea, he clashed with Wilson many times during the conference. He also wanted security by breaking the German army, limiting the number of troops they had. ▪ Determined to make Germany pay for destruction of the war. ▪ Severely Hated Germany ▪ Saw Germany invade France twice in his lifetime. ▪ He was a tough and ill-tempered man and fought hard to get what he wanted. ▪ Known as ‘the tiger’ because of his determination. Clemenceau’s objectives: As president of the conference proceedings Clemenceau was in a position to pursue his objectives: ▪ The disarmament of Germany. ▪ Guarantees for French security. ▪ The restoration of Alsace-Lorraine ▪ Reparations ▪ The creation of a separate buffer state to the west of Rhine to protect its border – free of German control.
Paris Peace Conference of 1919: ▪ January 1919. ▪ 32 countries sent representatives. ▪ Dominated by “Big Three”
a) Woodrow Wilson USA
b) Lloyd George Britain
c) Clemenceau France. ▪ 5 peace treaties signed that dealt with each enemy power (Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkish Empire). ▪ Germany and Russia not allowed to attend.
The Treaty of Versailles: ▪ Germany was not allowed to participate in the Paris negotiations at any time. ▪ Germany was forced to sign the Treaty of face invasion. ▪ Germany was forced to sing the Treaty of Versailles in the Hall of Mirrors at the palace of Versailles on 28th June 1919. ▪ The Treaty of Versailles aimed to weaken Germany territorially, economically and militarily. Treaty Terms: Overview: The terms of the Treaty, which Germany had no choice but to accept, were announced on May 7, 1919. Germany lost: ▪ 13% of its national territory. ▪ All of its overseas colonies (including Kamerun, German East Africa, German Southwest Africa, Togoland and German New Guinea). ▪ 12.5% of its population. ▪ 16% of its coalfields, and half its iron and steel industry.
The Territorial Provisions: ▪ Germany lost approximately 13% of its territory in Europe, which included 103,600 square kilometers of land 7 million people. ▪ Posen, part of West Prussia and part of Upper Silesia were handed to Poland, which now gave Poland a corridor to the sea. This meant that East Prussia was now separated from the rest of Germany. ▪ Eupen and Malmedy were given to Belgium. ▪ Germany was forbidden from ever uniting with Austria (Anschluss) under clause 80 of the Treaty. ▪ Alsace – Lorraine was returned to France. ▪ The Rhineland region was to be demilitarized. ▪ Forced Germany to live under Czech, Polish, French and Lithuanian rule. ▪ ALL colonies lost.
The Military Provisions: Treaty of Versailles attempted to break German Military power to prevent it from ever again launching another 1914-style invasion. ▪ The army was reduced to only 100,000 people. ▪ Not allowed any tanks or heavy artillery. ▪ Germany was denied an air force. ▪ Germany’s navy was greatly reduced. It was not allowed to have submarines; all ships over 16,256 tones were banned; only six battleships of 10160 tones were allowed; and there could be only six light cruisers, twelve destroyers and twelve torpedo boats. ▪ Naval base of Heligoland was to be destroyed.
The Economic Provisions: Treaty also sought to break Germany’s economic strength. ▪ Massive reparations were to be paid to the Allies for damage inflicted by Germany. ▪ Belgium and France received German machinery. ▪ Germany had to supply Allies with large amounts of coal.
The Colonial Provisions: ▪ Germany was forced to give up its colonial possessions – were given to other powers as mandates.
War Guilt: ▪ Clause of the Treaty that angered Germany the most was Clause 231, the war guilt clause, which blamed Germany for the war and all damage that the war had brought – was humiliating.
Reparations: ▪ Pre-Conference discussions agreed that Germany should pay for all damage to civilian property by their aggression, land, air or sea. ▪ Germany did not have capacity to pay the sum demanded. ▪ Businesses started to fear that their capital would be used to pay reparations – started to pull out of the economy. ▪ USA firmly opposed the idea that Germany should pay war costs. ▪ Quote: “It is my judgment, as certain as anything can be…that Germany cannot pay anything approaching this sum”. (Keynes, JM, ‘The Peace of Versailles’. Everybody’s Magazine, 43, September 1920, p.39). ▪ Germany was expected to pay 6,600 Million Pounds. (France receives 52%, Britain 22%, Italy 10%, Belgium 8% and others 8%). ▪ Ultimatum was sent to German Government; agree to terms and sign or Allied force will occupy the industrial Ruhr area. ▪ Failure to deliver load of timber to France gave French Government excuse to invade Ruhr. ▪ Quote: “At the end the French felt cheated; and the Germans felt robbed. Reparations had kept the passions of war alive…Reparations counted as a symbol. They created resentment, suspicion and international hostility”. (A.J.P. Taylor)
Historians views on The Treaty of Versailles:
▪ Ruth Henig said that Quote: “The Treaty of Versailles was not exceedingly harsh on Germany, either territorially or economically...It was the acknowledgement of defeat, as much as the treaty terms themselves, which they found so hard to accept. ▪ Harold Nicolson said that Quote: “We were very stupid men…we arrived determined that peace should be negotiated; and left the conference conscious that the treaties imposed upon our enemies were neither just nor wise”.
Outcome of the War: ▪ More than 10 Million had died on the battlefields, while civilian losses were estimated at 8 Million. ▪ Spanish influenza took another 6 million in Europe alone. ▪ Countless millions of me had been wounded, gassed or ended the war as amputees. ▪ Millions suffered the psychological effects of time in trenches for the rest of their lives. ▪ Europe was a starving continent. Nowhere was this felt more than in Germany, Allied blockade maintained in case Germany resumes fighting. ▪ End of World War 1 saw the collapse of the German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires.
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