confucius

I. With Book I, the text introduces two of the basic themes of the work: what qualities are desirable in a human being and how morality can be reflected in one's behavior. Different translations offer various interpretations of some of the language from the texts, but "virtue" is a recurring quality that is revisited many times. Some translations may introduce the term chun-tzu or junzi, translating as "prince" or "gentleman" respectively. In either case, the terms refer to a person of superior moral character, not necessarily a person of nobility. Some translations present this word as "scholar".
The text quickly shifts to matters involving government and family. On the topic of family, the text begins to grapple with the issue of filial piety, or xiào. Filial piety refers to the virtue of respect for one's parents or ancestors.
II. Book II turns its attention to matters of government. Chapters 1,2, and 3 deal with government issues and the importance of te, or character. Confucius compares the moral leader to one whose character is like the North star. Even as the ethical beliefs of those around such a person may shift, one possessing true character remains steadfast. Likewise, the text stresses the absence of evil or swerving thoughts as paramount in maintaining such character.
Chapter 3 echoes Chapter 1 in stating that a moral leader does not use punishment to rule but relies again on the strength of moral character. Simply, rule through force or fear will breed resentment, while governance through character will lead by example. These same ideas are echoed in Chapters 19 and 20.
Chapters 6, 7, and 8 return to the topic of filial piety. These chapters also serve to illustrate the rationality involved in matters of deference to one's parents or ancestors. There seems to be an effort to differentiate between a blind acceptance of a set of rules and a true understanding of the logic, or even necessity, of such cultural customs.
For example, in Chapter 7 Confucius addresses how a filial son can see to it that his parents have enough food to eat. While that behavior is commendable, the text states that even animals can be cared for to that extent. Without respect and vigilance, there is no difference. Chapter 8 also comments on this difference.
In differentiating between caring for one's parents and one's animals, intent becomes the contrasting element. A "filial son" has only one intention: to ensure that his parents are happy instead of simply having their base needs met. Filial piety is presented as being more than simply serving elders first or undertaking hard work on their behalf.
III. In Chapter 8, Tzu-Hsia inquires about the interpretation of a passage from the Book of Songs, specifically Song 86. The first two lines occur in Song 86, but the third line appears to have been added in The Analects. The discussion between Confucius and Tzu-Hsia indicates that the passage is an analogy for ritual and goodness. A firm groundwork is necessary in matters of tradition and ritual in order for goodness to flourish. Like many passages in the text, there are a number of interpretations of Chapter 8. Some scholars translate Confucius's reply as something akin to "In painting, the plain color is put on last to avoid its being soiled." The plain color is white and can be seen as an analogy to goodness.
Chapters 10, 11, and 12 deal directly with the topic of ancestral sacrifice, sometimes referred to as ti. It is clear that Confucius was not pleased with how this ritual was carried out in Lu, possibly because it too closely resembled Imperial ritual. In Chapter 11 the text hints toward the somewhat mystical or religious aspect of ancestor sacrifice and Confucius himself is quoted as saying he cannot explain it. Anyone who could, he continues, would be able to grasp all things as easily as placing his finger in his own hand. Chapter 12 continues to examine the manner in which ancestor sacrifice should be conducted.
In short, the act of paying tribute to one's ancestors also pays tribute not only to the concept of life after death but to all things unknown. Confucius states that ancestor sacrifice should be handled with the utmost attention, as if the ancestor in question is actually present. Without this presence of mind it is as if no tribute was paid. Once again, one's intent is demonstrated to be important. Compare and contrast this with the chapters in Book II discussing filial piety.
Some scholars believe that at this time Confucius was disillusioned with politics in Lu and was traveling to other kingdoms in search of a worthy ruler.
VI. Book VI continues with the discussion of the disciples and public figures. In particular, Confucius laments the passing of Yen Hui, a disciple who died and whom Confucius evidently held in high regard. To discuss the specifics of Confucian ideology, Book VI draws on specific examples, which are recounted by Confucius to illustrate when something was done correctly or incorrectly. The Analects presents much of Confucius's teachings in this manner. At other times, Confucius is merely quoted as plainly stating the attributes of a gentleman or observance of propriety.
Book VI continues in much the same vein, discussing public figures and disciples, as Book V did. Of the disciples that Confucius discusses in the text, he speaks highly of one in particular, Yen Hui. Confucius mourns the death of this disciple here. Later, however, Yen Hui is demonstrated as being alive.
Chapter 23 presents further commentary on this matter. Confucius describes a horn-gourd that is "neither horn nor gourd". Most scholars agree that this passage is a metaphor for the state of China, a country ruled by an Emperor who had no power and local sovereigns and lords whose rights had been taken by ministers. Some scholars interpret this passage literally and see it as a criticism of some improper use of vessels in a ritual setting. However, the majority seem to concur that Confucius is stating that one who does not truly rule should not be called a ruler, echoing the rectification of names doctrine presented later in the text.
VII. Book VII begins with an important passage in which Confucius states that he has not taught anything that he himself did not absorb from others before him, namely the Ancients, the ancient kings of China. In this regard, the gentleman is seen as a vessel that carries knowledge and transmits it to others and not as a wise sage who has developed an ideology on his own. Confucius mentions that in this behavior he may even have excelled "Old Peng". There is not consensus as to who Old Peng may be. Some scholars believe Confucius may have been referring to Peng-zu, a figure of Chinese legend. Nonetheless, Book VII presents a portrait of Confucius himself, either through his words or those of his disciples.
Confucius again addresses the issue of political strife in the kingdom of Lu in Chapter 5 when he mentions the Duke of Chou. This figure was of some importance to Confucius and it is apparent that Confucius held him in high regard. The Duke of Chou was famed for saving the dynasty through his wisdom. The passage likely reflects Confucius's regret that he has not seen one like the Duke of Chou rise to a position of power in a very long time.
VIII. Book VIII differs from some of the other books in that its content is a bit more miscellaneous. The passages touch on topics of ritual and propriety with regard to the characteristics of the gentleman. It seems to form a core text, largely culled from sayings by Master Tseng, a figure who likely became a leader in the Confucian community in Lu after Confucius's death. Some scholars see a relationship between this book and Book XVII, suggesting a common origin. Book IX is seen by some scholars as a variant of Book VII, perhaps put together by another school or sect of Confucian followers. Its content is much like that of Book VIII in that it covers a variety of topics common in Confucian thought.
IX. Chapter 5 states that Confucius was trapped or in danger in the state of K'uang. Some historical context is helpful here. K'uang was a border town that was held by various different parties at different times. Scholars believe that Confucius was mistaken for an adventurer or outlaw named Yang Huo, possibly because Confucius was driven by charioteer who had previously driven Yang Huo. Yang Huo is believed to have caused a disturbance in K'uang and thus Confucius faced detainment or maltreatment while there. While commenting on this matter, Confucius mentions King Wen of Chou, the founder of the Chou dynasty, who was imprisoned by King Chou of the Shang dynasty over fears of his growing power. Confucius argues that King Wen's imprisonment did not lead to the destruction of culture, since Heaven had decided that his culture should exist. Confucius directly ties himself to King Wen in this fashion to argue that he will survive this maltreatment and has nothing to fear because if Heaven did not have any desire to destroy King Wen's culture, it has no intention to destroy Confucius's way either. In this manner Confucius also ties himself to the Duke of Chou, who was King Wen's son. Consider also that some were concerned that Confucius may have been gathering too much power and support of his own. His comparison of himself to King Wen also signals his awareness of how a strong following could come to work against him.
Chapter 23 speaks to the importance of taking action in the name of goodness or the Tao. Confucius criticizes those who approve of an ideology or are stirred by its teachings, but do not apply them to their lives. For such individuals, he claims, nothing can be done. This topic is revisited in Chapter 28 when Confucius lists the characteristics of the gentleman. Goodness, wisdom, and courage are presented as the three methods of the true gentleman. Some scholars see this order as having some significance. Essentially, good would rank above wisdom and courage would be the least important of the three. Goodness, once again, is presented as the key characteristic, a foundation for other positive attributes to flow. However, this foundation is paramount. The assimilation of other positive characteristics would be of no use without goodness.
XI. Book XI focuses on comments made by the disciples themselves, revealing partially their relationships with Confucius. It is obvious that Confucius had strong feelings for some of them. Yen Hui, in particular, is revered in several passages in the book. These passages seem to cover the period of mourning Confucius was in following Yen Hui's untimely demise (Chapters 8 and 9). Book XI reveals disagreements and tension between Confucius and other disciples. Chapter 17, for example, finds Confucius stating that "Ch'ai is stupid, Shen is dull-witted, Shih is too formal; Yu, too free and easy." Likewise, in Chapter 14, Confucius tells the other disciples that Tzu-lu has no place studying the Way under him. He uses Tzu-lu's zithern, a stringed instrument, as a metaphor for Tzu-lu himself.
XII. Books XII and XIII focus on questions posed by the disciples for clarification on Confucian ideals. Most of the questions are related to topics of governance. While the topics of discussion can shift from passage to passage, these two books are fairly easy to follow and contain several passages that have aroused scholastic debate and research. The issue of "knights of the Way" is brought up several times in these two books. It is important to remember that a "knight" in this case was not meant to evoke the warrior of medieval times we are familiar with, but rather a scholarly figure who is devoted to the cultivation and spread of the Way. Like the former knight, the qualities of bravery and courage were seen as essential to Confucian knights as well.
In Chapter 7, the disciples' questions turn to government. Tzu-kung asks what is needed for a successful government. Confucius replies food, sufficient weapons, and the confidence of the people. Of these, Tzu-kung asks which is the most important, assuming that it would be food. Confucius responds that the confidence of the people is paramount, otherwise no such government can be successful. The role of government is therefore to first meet the approval of the people. Confucius believes that a government that is not seen as just or fair by its people cannot make amends by simply providing food and protection.
The disciples continue asking about government in Chapter 11. In this particular passage, Duke Ching of Ch'i agrees with Confucius's statement about knowing one's role and place in a societal hierarchy. However, there are other reasons for his agreement. Duke Ching spent the last years of his reign menaced by the Ch'en family, who were no longer content serving as ministers. In addition, his own sons argued amongst themselves over who would succeed their father. This relative instability is believed to have had great effect on Duke Ching. The last line of the passage indicates a fear of death on his part that was no doubt compounded by the squabbles over his kingdom.
XIII. Chapter 20 also touches on the topic of the knight of the Way. Chapter 20 is interesting because after Tzu-kung asks about the characteristics of a knight, he asks Confucius how those in government today compare. Confucius quotes a poem or song in talking about the knight before discussing what qualities are next best in an individual. When comparing the politicians of his time, he states that they are mere "thimble-fulls" by comparison.
Book XVII likewise lacks a central theme and is largely a collection of disjointed sayings and stories. It begins with a story that moves Confucius to seek political office. After receiving a suckling pig as a gift from Yang Huo, Confucius seeks to avoid an audience with this man. Instead, he travels to his home at a time when he believes Yang Huo will not be there to thank him for the gift. Regardless, he runs into Yang Huo on the way. Yang Huo poses a question to Confucius, asking if one who has such talents as Confucius does, but does not serve his country, can be called a good man. He reminds Confucius that time is passing quickly. Confucius responds that he will serve.