Analysis - summary

Books 1-4
Book I Summary:
The narrator calls upon the Muse to help him tell the story of Odysseus. We pick up ten years after the fall of Troy in the Trojan War (the subject of The Iliad). In trying to return home, Odysseus and his shipmates had numerous adventures, but now Odysseus has been left alone on the island of Ogygia for the last eight years, captive of the beautiful goddess Kalypso. We are told that Poseidon, god of the sea, will make Odysseus' journey home to Ithaka even more difficult (he is angry that Odysseus has blinded his son, the Kyklops Polyphemos), and trouble awaits the conquering hero back in Ithaka, too.
In the hall of Zeus on Mount Olympos, all the gods but Poseidon gather and listen as Zeus reflects upon the moral failings of mortal men. He brings up the example of Aigisthos, who killed Agamemnon and stole his wife, though the gods warned him that Agamemnon's son, Orestes, would someday retaliate - which he justly did. Athena speaks on behalf of Odysseus, pleading with Zeus to free him from Kalypso's grasp. He agrees, and the god Hermes will be sent to Kalypso to ask her to free Odysseus.
In disguise as an old friend of Odysseus', Athena travels to his manor in Ithaka, now overrun with noisy, lustful suitors intent on marrying Odysseus' wife, Penelope. Odysseus' son, Telemakhos, unhappy among the suitors, greets Athena warmly as a stranger and invites her to their feast. As the suitors devour Odysseus' oxen, Telemakhos says he believes his father - whom he does not know at all - is dead. Athena introduces herself as Odysseus' old friend Mentes and predicts that he will be home soon. He does not hold out any hope, however, and he and his mother remain helpless against the arrogant suitors. Athena instructs him to call an assembly of the islanders and order the suitors away; then he must sail away to find news of his father at Pylos and Sparta. After this, he must kill the suitors, as Orestes did. Inspired, Telemakhos thanks her for her advice, and she leaves.
The beautiful Penelope joins the suitors and asks the minstrel to stop singing the song of the homecoming of the Akhaians (Greeks) after the Trojan War, as it reminds her of her husband's absence. But Telemakhos reminds her that many others did not return from the war. She returns to her room and weeps for Odysseus. Telemakhos tells the suitors that at daybreak he will call an assembly and banish them from his estate. Two of the suitors ask about the identity of the man Telemakhos was speaking to; though he knows the visitor was immortal, Telemakhos tells them it was a family friend.
Analysis:
The story of The Odyssey starts quickly, or "in medias res" ("in the middle of things"), relating in brief exposition the background before jumping into the present narrative.Homer's contemporary audience would have already been familiar with the story of The Iliad, whose events precede The Odyssey, so there is no need to waste time reminding them of it. Remember that the poem was delivered orally, so an audience member could not skip through the opening pages at his leisure.
More importantly, Homer kick-starts the narrative engine, and already in Book I we see various plot machinations at work and an emphasis placed on internal stories, which often have a thematic impact on the major story. For instance, the story of Agamemnon parallels that of Odysseus. Odysseus, too, has a wife besieged by suitors and a son who, logically, dislikes them. But Agamemnon's story turned negative: the suitor killed him and married his wife, though his son, Orestes, avenged his death. The story, then, raises questions for The Odyssey: will Penelope remain faithful or marry the suitors? will the suitors kill Odysseus, or will he murder them? and will Telemakhos challenge and kill the suitors, as Athena has instructed, or meekly let them run riot in his father's house?
This last question is especially pertinent to the opening books, as we see Telemakhos mature from a callow, helpless youth into a stronger, more confident man. Just as Odysseus' story is about returning home to his old identity, Telemakhos' is about forging a new one; as Athena tells him, "you are a child no longer" (344).
Themes prevalent in the rest of the poem show up here. Athena enters the manor in disguise, and the cunning Odysseus, especially, uses disguises or false identities throughout The Odyssey to achieve his goals. And though Penelope is presented as a faithful wife, women in The Odyssey, such as Kalypso, are often fearsome and predatory, their wiles typically enhanced by their stunning beauty.
Book II Summary:
At daybreak, Telemakhos calls an assembly of the suitors and other islanders. He tells them of the suitors' disgraceful behavior and angrily tries to shame them into leaving. But Antinoos puts the blame on Penelope, who has been teasing and deceiving the suitors for years, as when she promised to marry after she wove a shroud for her dead husband's father, Laertes. The cunning Penelope unwove each day's progress at night for three years (her trick was eventually discovered, and she had to finish the shroud). Antinoos, one of the suitors, gives Telemakhos a choice: evict his mother, or make her marry one of them. Telemakhos rejects his offer, telling the suitors to leave and begging aid from Zeus.
Zeus quickly sends down two eagles to attack the suitors - an omen of death - but the suitors deny the sign and insist things will remain as they are; they have been waiting too long for the prize of Penelope. Telemakhos changes his tack, requesting a ship and crew for him to find news of his father at Pylos and Sparta; if he finds out he is dead, he will allow his mother to remarry. Before the assembly breaks, it is decreed that Odysseus' old friends, Mentor and Halitherses, will help him obtain the ship and crew.
Telemakhos calls upon the god who helped him yesterday. Athena returns to him in the form of Mentor, praises his abilities derived from his father, and assures him that his voyage will be successful. She promises to find him a ship and crew and help him sail, and tells him to get provisions ready at home. There, Antinoos tries to make amends and offers to help him get a ship and crew, but Telemakhos coldly rejects him. The suitorsmock him while he readies himself for the trip, careful not to let his mother know about his plans.
Meanwhile, Athena walks around town disguised as Telemakhos, inviting men to meet up at nightfall at a ship she has borrowed. At night, Athena makes the suitors fall asleep and, in the form of Mentor, informs Telemakhos of the arrival of his crew. She leads him to his ship, his crew packs up their provisions, and they disembark with Athena on board. They drink to the gods, especially Athena.
Analysis:
This brief book continues Telemakhos' development from youth to man. Inspired by Athena, especially her favorable comparisons between him and his father, he stands up against the suitors in his assembly. Though they do not heed his - or Zeus' - warnings, he has at least given them something to think about, and there will clearly be a reckoning once he returns.
To drum home the point of his maturation, Homer frequently refers to Telemakhos as his father's son, as in "Odysseus' true son" (2) or the "son of Odysseus" (36). He has assumed the forceful identity and leadership of his father, as Athena maintains, and is no longer a mere child.
In fact, this tag of "son of Odysseus" nearly becomes what is known as the "Homeric epithet" for Telemakhos. Homer frequently precedes someone's name with the same short phrase, such as "grey-eyed daughter of Zeus" for Athena.
Note that the Homeric epithet is different from Homer's unparalleled use of simile, the most famous and recurring example being a variation on (in the opening of Book II, for example) "When primal Dawn spread on the eastern sky / her fingers of pink light" (1-2). Aside from the beautiful language and rhythm, evident even in translation, Homer personifies Dawn ("her fingers") and adds breathing vitality even to forces of nature - unsurprising for a story that often pivots around natural (or supernatural) disaster.
We see more use of disguise in Athena's multiple visits, and Penelope is also identified as being cunning. Though this should be a compliment, the suitors try to cast Penelope's cunning as deception, reinforcing the theme of women as predatory.
Book III Summary:
Telemakhos and his crew arrive at Pylos, where a sacrifice to Poseidon of dozens of bulls is taking place. Athena encourages the shy Telemakhos to seek out old Nestor. He and his men are invited to feast and pay tribute to Poseidon. Athena prays to Poseidon for the success of their mission. After they eat, Telemakhos tells Nestor, who fought alongside and was a great friend to Odysseus during the Trojan War, that he is seeking information about his father. Nestor does not know what befell Odysseus; after Ilion (Troy) fell, Athena provoked a fight between the brothers Menelaos and Agamemnon and divided the Akhaians into two camps; those under command of the former left, while the latter stayed. Odysseus left, but he and his crew soon returned to please Agamemnon. Nestor and his crew made it back home, as did a few other groups, but many did not.
Telemakhos laments his situation with the suitors, and Nestor suggests Odysseus may return, or perhaps Athena will help him, as she used to do with his father. Telemakhos does not believe the gods will aid him, and even if they did it would be to no avail; Athena disagrees. Telemakhos asks Nestor how Aigisthos managed to kill Agamemnon. Nestor says that while Agamemnon and Menelaos were away fighting, Aigisthos eventually won over Agamemnon's queen, Klytaimnestra. He ruled over Agamemnon's kingdom as a tyrant for seven years before Orestes killed him and Klytaimnestra.
Nestor warns Telemakhos not to make the same mistake and stay away from home too long. He urges him to find Menelaos for more news, and offers to provide him with horses, a chariot, and his sons for company. Athena praises this idea, then disappears as a seahawk. The men are stunned, and the proof that the gods are on Telemakhos' side inspires Nestor, who pledges a sacrifice to Athena. In the morning, he and his sons make the sacrifice of a golden-horned heifer, and his son, Peisistratos, accompanies Telemakhos in a chariot. They arrive at Pherai at night, then Lakedaimon the next day, and continue to their final destination of Sparta.
Analysis:
The ancient Greeks' reverence for the gods is abundantly evident here - not one, but two sacrifices are made to Poseidon and Athena, respectively. Fortunately for historians, Homer details the actions and reactions of the ritual sacrifice of the heifer. The Fitzgerald translation cleverly suggests, through internal rhyme, the cause-and-effect of the sacrifice after the heifer's neck is cut: "The heifer's spirit failed. / Then all the women gave a wail of joy" (438-9). The conjunction of "failed" and "wail" reveals the deep emotional nature of the sacrifice; as the animal is brutally killed for the gods, the humans temporarily feel god-like ecstasy.
Sacrifices also are pivotal to the plot of The Odyssey, for punishment awaits he who does not pay proper respect to the gods; we already know that Poseidon has wreaked havoc on Odysseus for blinding his son, Polyphemos. Athena reminds Telemakhos of the power of the gods, and it is impossible to underestimate the influence of the gods in Greek culture and mythology: the Greeks believed everything was fated by the gods, so it is vital to be on their good side.
But the ancient Greeks - and most modern ones, too - are equally hospitable to mortal strangers. Telemakhos is kindly taken in and provided for by Nestor's family, and such hospitality from hosts, and gratefulness from guests, is demonstrated throughout The Odyssey. Of course, the inverted image of such hospitality is taking place in Telemakhos' home; while he gives everything to the suitors, they repay him with sneers and murderous plans.
Indeed, the suitors remain on Telemakhos' mind, which is clearly why he asks about Orestes and his mission of vengeance. Telemakhos is slowly picking up the knowledge and courage necessary to tackle his enemies.
Book IV Summary:
Telemakhos and Peisistratos arrive at Menelaos' opulent mansion in Lakedaimon. Menelaos welcomes them to the double wedding feast taking place for both his son and daughter. After the travelers are bathed and fed, Menelaos tells them of his grief for his mates who died at Troy - especially Odysseus. Helen, wife of Menelaos, emerges from her chamber and says their visitor must be Telemakhos. Peisistratos confirms this, and says that Nestor sent them for help from Menelaos. Menelaos gives a moving speech about his feelings for Odysseus, inspiring tears in them all; Peisistratos is particularly affected, remembering his brother Antilokhos who died at Troy. Helen puts a magical libation in the wine bowl that prevents the drinker from crying that day. She encourages everyone to cheer up, and tells a story about Odysseus' disguising himself as a beggar during the war. Menelaos recounts the famous anecdote of how Odysseus hid himself and his men inside a wooden horse to invade Troy. Everyone retires to bed.
The next morning, Telemakhos tells Menelaos about his problems with the suitors and asks if he has news of Odysseus. The king is indignant at the behavior of the suitors and hopes Odysseus can mete out their punishment. He tells of how, on his return from Troy, his men were stranded on an island without any wind. They managed to capture Proteus, the Ancient of the Sea. Proteus told them that if they made a sacrifice to the gods, they could continue home. He also told him about Agamemnon's murder, and that Odysseus is a prisoner on Kalypso's island.
Telemakhos and Peisistratos return to Pylos to sail for Ithaka. Meanwhile, in Ithaka, the suitors find out about Telemakhos' journey to Pylos and plan to ambush him on his way home. Penelope learns of their plans and Telemakhos' journey, and grieves. She calls for help from Athena, who visits her in a dream as Penelope's sister. She assures Penelope she will protect Telemakhos, though she cannot tell her anything about Odysseus.
Analysis:
A formal device used throughout The Odyssey, the story-within-a-story, grows even more complicated in this book. At one point we receive a story-within-a-story-within-a-story as Homer tells us a story about Menelaos' story about Proteus' story. The Russian-doll authorship is, firstly, an innovative way to repeat expositional information the audience already knows but another character does not; we have already heard about Agamemnon's murder at the hands of Aigisthos, and we know about Odysseus' imprisonment on Kalypso's island. Second, The Odyssey gains what literary criticism refers to as "intertextuality"; it becomes connected to other stories with which the Greek audience was quite familiar, and assumes a life of its own. But couching the information in multiple layers also keeps the story fresh, and points to the overall importance of storytelling in Greek culture - Telemakhos tells Menelaos he could listen to his fascinating tales forever.
Even more important to Greek culture is the custom of hospitality, or "xenia" (Zeus was the god of xenia). As others have done before, Menelaos takes in his visitors without even questioning them, and his generosity outdoes the hospitality of Nestor in Book III. Once again, we are meant to focus on the differences of hospitality between Telemakhos and the suitors. While Telemakhos is always grateful to his hosts, the suitors abuse his hospitality, and now plan to kill him.
The repeated mention of Orestes' murder of his father's usurper is another reminder that Telemakhos is in a similar situation. While he was ill equipped to confront the suitors at the beginning of the poem, his own mini-odyssey to Pylos and beyond has transformed him. As he has learned about his unknown father's courage, it seems to have rubbed off on him.
His father was more than merely courageous, we keep learning. Odysseus' cleverness is illustrated in two stories, and both revolve around the idea of costumes or disguise (the Trojan Horse can be considered a kind of costume). Moreover, the story of his disguise as a beggar foreshadows the end of the story.
Books 5-8
Book V Summary:
Athena pleads to the gods and Zeus at Mount Olympos on behalf of the imprisonedOdysseus and Telemakhos, who is in danger of being ambushed. Zeus tells her to protect Telemakhos, and sends Hermes to order Kalypso to release her prisoner - although Odysseus must first sail alone on a raft to Skheria, where he will receive lavish gifts from the Phaiakians before returning home in a proper ship.
Hermes races to Kalypso's beautiful island. He gives the goddess Zeus' command. She reluctantly agrees, but not before pointing out that male gods are allowed to take mortal lovers while female ones are not, and informs the weeping Odysseus of the new plans. He is suspicious of her sudden help and does not think a raft will be sufficient for the ocean, but she assures him there is no subterfuge. They have dinner, and Kalypso tries to convince him that she is better than his mortal wife. Odysseus flatters her but insists he longs for home. They sleep together, as they do every night.
With Kalypso's help, Odysseus makes his raft over the next four days and, after receiving some gifts and a magical breeze, he leaves on the fifth day. He sails for 17 more days until he nears Skheria, but Poseidonsees him and realizes the gods have freed him. He conjures a mighty storm, and Odysseus believes he will drown as he is tossed around and thrown underwater. The goddess Ino rescues him with her veil. Odysseus thinks it may be another trick, but after his raft breaks apart, he takes her veil and swims.
Athena calms the storm, and Odysseus swims for two days until he nears shore. But sharp rocks surround it, and he fears dying on them in the rough surf. Athena instructs him to grab hold of an oncoming rock-ledge; he does, tearing the skin on his hands. After he is pulled underwater, he finds a calm river and finally collapses on land. Knowing the river area will be too cold at night, he finds a bed of leaves in a nearby forest - though he may be easy prey for wild animals - and goes to sleep.
Analysis:
Seduction and infidelity take prominence in the beginning of the book, as Kalypso makes a last-ditch attempt to convince Odysseus to stay with her. However, "the strategist Odysseus" (223) makes a careful reply, flattering the goddess while simply saying that he "long[s] for home, long[s] for the sight of home" (229), and not mentioning his wife.
Interestingly, though Odysseus knows he will finally return home soon, he still sleeps with Kalypso. Homer does not invite us to view his infidelity with any disdain: "and they retired, this pair, to the inner cave / to revel and rest softly, side by side" (235-6). Only Kalypso makes the point that the male gods are allowed to take mortal lovers while female goddesses are not - and it seems this double standard persists in the practice of mortal infidelity in ancient Greece (and, often, in the modern world). It is somehow acceptable for Odysseus to sleep with another woman, but Penelope comes across as a morally dubious tease for allowing the suitors to remain in her house (her only justification, that she does not have the power to drive them out, feels weak). Though Homer allows this unfair treatment to remain in his poem, he at least calls our attention to it through Kalypso's speech.
Nevertheless, Odysseus regains our sympathy through Poseidon's violent storm-attack. Though he occasionally believes he will die, he proves himself a courageous warrior of immense endurance. His bravery also compensates for our introduction to him - weeping alone. Loneliness, and the need for others and home, is the prevailing theme of The Odyssey, and this is why Homer chooses to portray his hero in such an emasculated manner.
But Odysseus is not only a brave and strong sailor; he is foremost, as we already stated, a strategist. He considers the possibility of trickery twice in this section when offered help - with Kalypso and Ino (that both are female may have something to do with his suspicions) - and weighs other decisions under duress (how to navigate the rocks and where to sleep). His decision-making ability defines his identity and makes him, ultimately, a great leader.
Book VI Summary:
At night, Athena visits the Phaiakian princess, Nausikaa, in a dream and urges her to wash her clothing. When Nausiakaa wakens, she takes a mule-cart and her maids, and they wash her clothing in pools by a river. They spread the wet clothing along the beach, then wash themselves and play a game in the nude. Odysseus, naked himself, wakes up when he hears them. He approaches them, but his dirty, wild appearance frightens all of them away but Nausikaa. He asks if she is mortal or a goddess, and praises her surpassing beauty. He asks for her help in directing him to town and providing him clothing. She gladly agrees, and directs her maids to tend to him. Odysseus is modest, however, and wants to bathe in privacy. He cleans up, with Athena making him even more handsome, and the maids give him food and drink.
Nausikaa directs him to walk behind her cart with her maids on the way to town, but warns him that if people in town see him with her, they will gossip that he is her future husband. Therefore, she asks him to hide behind some trees near the city wall when they enter, then to ask direction later to the palace of Alkinoos. There he will find her mother, whom he should ask for help; if she likes him, she will have him home soon. They head to town and pass Athena's grove, where Odysseus prays for to Athena for hospitality from the Phaiakians.
Analysis:
Once again, Odysseus proves himself a shrewd judge of character and decision-maker. After he scares off Nausikaa's retainers with his frightful, naked appearance, he must decide whether to embrace Nausikaa's knees in supplication, a traditional gesture, or use "honeyed speech" (155) to win her over. As he frequently does, he uses words, nearly 40 lines' worth, to extol her beauty and question if she is a goddess and, most importantly: "I stand in awe so great / I cannot take your knees" (180-181). Of course, the real reason he does not do this, at least at the beginning, is because in his present state "he might anger the girl, touching her knees" (159). Words are not only a substitute for action here, but the only alternative.
The scene with Nausikaa and her maids reverses other typical associations we have with femininity in The Odyssey. For one, they are active, fairly independent girls, traveling on their own to wash clothing (even Nausikaa, a princess, seems to help out with her own washing) and play a boisterous game with a ball. That the naked Odysseus frightens the maids is understandable, but Nausikaa's lack of fear is a commendable show of independence.
Indeed, the prevalent nudity in this book twists another motif in the poem. For once, femininity is not used for seduction; in fact, it is Odysseus who somewhat seduces Nausikaa, first with his honeyed words, then with his cleaned-up good looks. Nausikaa even comments that she wishes her "husband could be as fine as he" (259) and worries that the townspeople will think she has found a husband in Odysseus, perhaps some wishful thinking on her part.
Odysseus does not bear any resentment toward Athena for remaining "so aloof / while the Earthshaker wrecked and battered me" (345-346). Though Athena did not interfere for the most part with Poseidon's abuse of Odysseus during his recent sea voyage, Odysseus still recognizes he needs her help and prays to her.
Book VII Summary:
After he waits for Nausikaa to go to her father's palace, Odysseus makes his way alone and encounters Athena in the form of a little girl. He asks her for directions to the palace, and she leads him there while shrouding him in mist so no one can see him. She tells him Alkinoos and his revered queen Arete are at supper. He enters the lush, ornate palace and finds the king and queen. He embraces Arete's knees and asks her for passage to his home. Alkinoos leads Odysseus to the table, where he is fed. Alkinoos says they will make a sacrifice in the morning, then think of how to send Odysseus home. He also wonders if Odysseus is a god; Odysseus assures him he is not, and that he has suffered great pains.
Later at night, alone with Alkinoos and Odysseus, Arete recognizes Odysseus' clothing as her own creation and asks him who he is and who gave him his clothing. He relates his story from Kalypso's island until Nausikaa's help earlier that day. Alkinoos says Nausikaa should have taken him home with her directly, but Odysseus says it was his idea to follow her separately. Taken with Odysseus, Alkinoos vows to help him get home.
Analysis:
Odysseus again uses his wit in taking responsibility for Nausikaa's plan of their going to the palace separately. He so adeptly and humbly sidesteps the subtext behind their separate routes - that Nausikaa, somewhat hopefully, perhaps, thought people might think they were betrothed - that Alkinoos even offers him Nausikaa as his wife should he stay.
Odysseus also wisely chooses this time to embrace Arete's knees; previously he did not do so with Nausikaa for fear of frightening her. He understands proper decorum and, as always, he mixes his actions with noble, moving words.
But he is also a man of appetite, scarfing down food and justifying it with an unusually terse sentence: "Belly must be filled" (237). However, this comes in the midst of a longer speech that explains his suffering and need to eat. Still, we see that Odysseus is a man of passion, but his lust for life has long been dimmed without any cause for celebration.
Book VIII Summary:
In the morning, Athena, in the form of a crier, calls the townspeople to assemble to meet a stranger. The crowd gathers and sees Odysseus cast in a godly light by Athena. Alkinoos asks them to provide a ship and crew for their anonymous guest, and then prepare for a festival celebrating the stranger. His instructions are followed, and at a feast for Odysseus, the blind bard Demodokos sings a song about the battle between Odysseus and Akhilleus at Troy. Odysseus furtively cries at the memories it stirs, and Alkinoos notices, stops the music, and starts up the pentathlon trials.
Various games are played, and Prince Laodamas asks Odysseus to join. With so much on his mind, Odysseus is reluctant to play, and one of the athletes, Seareach, accuses Odysseus of having no athletic talent. Odysseus takes up the challenge and throws a discus farther than anyone else. Inspired by his throw and by the disguised Athena's praise of it, Odysseus dares anyone to best him in any athletic contest, especially archery. He silences the crowd, and Alkinoos praises his prowess and suggests a dance performance. Demodokos sings about a tryst between Ares and Aphrodite, which ended when the cuckolded Hephaistos forged chains and snared them when they went to bed together. He then invited the other gods to witness the adulterers caught in the act.
Odysseus enjoys the story, and is impressed by the following dance Alkinoos' sons perform. Alkinoos gives Odysseus a great bounty of clothing and gold, and Seareach, by way of apology, gives him a fine silver-and-ivory broadsword. On Alkinoos' orders, maids bathe him. When he returns to the main hall, Princess Nausikaa asks him to remember her; he tells her he owes her his life. During the feast, Odysseus praises Demodokos' song about the Akhaians, and asks him to sing about the wooden horse Odysseus used to invade Troy. He does, and Odysseus again weeps and only Alkinoos notices. Alkinoos stops the music, questions why the stranger has cried despite all the gifts he has received, and asks him for his name and his full story.
Analysis:
The various songs-within-the-poem cast light on identity and themes in this book, as interior texts frequently do throughout The Odyssey. The slow revelation of Odysseus' identity emerges through the first and last songs as he betrays his intimate familiarity with the fate of those who died at Troy. The middle song about Ares and Aphrodite is yet another tale of adultery and comeuppance (the one previously used was about Orestes), and should have great relevance for Odysseus, who has been unfaithful to his wife and whose wife is perilously close to being unfaithful to him. However, for once he is not strategically aware of the ramifications, and he finds only "sweet pleasure in the tale" (395).
We see Odysseus in a rare moment of rage when Seareach wounds his pride. The Greeks viewed excessive pride, or hubris, as a major personality defect, and it constitutes one of the main themes of The Iliad. Hubris is not as prominent in The Odyssey, although we see it pop up occasionally - Poseidon's grudge against Odysseus seems somewhat hubristic, even. But more importantly, Odysseus demonstrates some hubristic tendencies, especially later on when, as a leader, he has occasional slips in judgment.
Within Odysseus' riled up speech to Seareach and the others, he mentions how great an archer he is. His mention of this skill foreshadows his confrontation with the suitors near the end of poem and creates a satisfying ending.
The legend that Homer was blind - generally discredited now - may have its roots in the appearance in this book of the blind bard Demodokos. Homer - and, apparently, those who believe Homer was blind - takes the idea that lack of visual sight leads to increased mental insight.
Books 9-12
Book IX Summary:
Odysseus reveals his name and homeland to Alkinoos, and says Kalypso held him against his will prior to his arrival. He traces his route after Troy. After his crew plundered Ismaros, a coastal town of the Kikones, they fought the army of the Kikones. They lost many men by the time his twelve ships sailed away, and suffered a great storm the next few days at sea. On their tenth day, they reach the island of the Lotos Eaters, a peaceful people who eat the sweet, pleasure-producing plant, the Lotos. Three of Odysseus' men eat the Lotos and wish to remain there, but Odysseus forces them back on to the ship and sails off again.
They next reach the land of the Kyklopes, a race of lawless, hermit-like, one-eyed giants. The next day, Odysseus' men feast on the plentiful goats on the deserted, fertile island across from the mainland of the Kyklopes. The day after, Odysseus and his crew cross to the mainland to meet the Kyklopes. They spot a huge brute of a man in a field, and Odysseus brings a goatskin full of sweet liquor as a gift. They reach his cave - he is still in the pasture - and Odysseus' men want to steal his cheeses and livestock. Odysseus refuses, wanting to meet the owner. They wait for him, then hide when he comes in and does his chores.
The Kyklops, named Polyphemos, notices them and asks who they are, and Odysseus introduces themselves and asks for any help he can provide, warning him not to offend Zeus, the god of hospitality. Polyphemos ridicules this idea; he does not care about the gods. Instead, he asks where Odysseus' ship is; the crafty leader lies and says it was wrecked and that they are the only survivors. Polyphemos grabs two of Odysseus' men, beats them dead, and eats them whole while the other men watch, powerless. Polyphemos then goes to sleep in his doorway, preventing Odysseus from killing him, as they would not be able to move aside his huge dead body to escape.
In the morning, Polyphemos eats some more men, then leaves and blocks the cave's entrance with a large stone. Odysseus hatches a plan to defeat Polyphemos. He chops a six-foot section out of the Polyphemos' large club, then hews it to make a sharp, pointed end, and finally holds it in the fire to toughen it. At night, Polyphemos returns and eats two more men. Odysseus offers him some of his wine; Polyphemos asks for more and for his name, promising him a gift. Odysseus says his name is "Nohbdy," and Polyphemos says his gift will be eating him next. But Polyphemos falls asleep, drunk, and Odysseus and four men reheat their spike in the fire and ram it in Polyphemos' one eye. They blind him and he howls for his fellow Kyklopes, who come to the outside of his cave and ask him if a man has tricked him. "Nohbdy," says Polyphemos, has ruined him. The other Kyklopes believe he means "nobody" has ruined him, and they leave him, telling him to pray to his father, Poseidon.
Polyphemos opens the cave door, hoping to catch anyone who tries to escape. Odysseus comes up with another idea. He ties the rams in the cave together and creates a sling under each ram in which the men can ride. They stay in their ram-carriages until morning, when Polyphemos lets the rams pass through the entrance. Odysseus' ram, the leader, goes last, and Polyphemos asks why it is not in its customary leading position. Once they are in the clear, the men drop out of their slings and drive the rams to their ship. Safely on the sea again, Odysseus shouts insults Polyphemos. Polyphemos breaks off a hilltop and throws it near the ship, tossing it off balance with a giant wave. Despite the pleas of his crew not to give away their position by again taunting Polyphemos, Odysseus gives the Kyklops the name and homeland of the man who blinded him. Polyphemos says he was once given a prophecy that someone named Odysseus, presumably a giant, would blind him; now he asks Odysseus to come back, as he will treat him well and pray for him to his father, Poseidon.
Odysseus rejects his offer, and Polyphemos prays to Poseidon that Odysseus lose his companions and never return home. Immediately, Poseidon sends a huge stone that nearly hits the ship. The crew rushes to meet its waiting fleet, and the men make a sacrificial offering of the rams to Zeus. However, Zeus has destruction and death in mind for the unwitting men. They feast that day, and the next morning they continue their journey home.
Analysis:
Nearly halfway through the story we get the full "backstory" (the background story) about why Poseidon has a grudge against Odysseus. But the Polyphemos episode is important beyond serving as a plot point; we learn much about Odysseus as a leader - both his strengths and his flaws.
As we saw in Book VIII, in which Odysseus angrily reacted to an athletic challenge, he is prone to rash decisions. First, he makes the mistake of wanting to meet Polyphemos even as his men warn him against it. This action we can chalk up to Odysseus' faith in the goodwill of men (and even Kyklopes). But he makes a far more egregious error when he taunts Polyphemos not once but twice. This second mistake is what creates his problem with Poseidon, as he foolishly reveals his name and invites the wrath of the god of earthquake - and subsequently dooms his shipmates.
But for every lapse in judgment on his part, Odysseus devises an equally ingenious plan to escape trouble. Prior to the Polyphemos episode, he wisely steers his crew away from the land of the hedonistic, drug-addled Lotos Eaters, knowing that succumbing to temptation there will prevent them from the more authentic pleasures of home. With Polyphemos, he comes up with three brilliant ideas: crafting a spike to blind Polyphemos in his one vulnerable spot; calling himself "Nohbdy" so that the other Kyklopes will not know who blinded Polyphemos; and fashioning the slings under the rams for escape. In each instance, a man of lesser tactical ability would have gone for the simpler solution (killing Polyphemos when he was sleeping by the doorway; revealing his name right away; trying to run by Polyphemos) with destructive consequences.
Homer's recounting of Polyphemos' blinding is startling in its descriptive and poetic powers. The imagery is vivid and specific: "Šwe bored that great eye socket / while blood ran out around the red hot bar. / Eyelid and lash were seared; the pierced ball / hissed broiling, and the roots popped" (420-423). Note that this entire chapter is in Odysseus' narrative voice as he recounts his tale to Alkinoos, and is the most we have heard him speak so far. He (and Homer, of course) uses several occupational similes while describing the blinding: "I leaned on it / turning it as a shipwright turns a drill / in planking, having men below to swing / the two-handled strap" (416-419) and "In a smithy / one sees a white-hot axehead or an adze / plunged and wrung in a cold tub, screeching steamŠ / just so that eyeball hissed around the spike" (425-427, 429). Both similes remind us of the nearly mechanical work the men are engaged in - creating a weapon, hardening it through fire, and blinding Polyphemos - and of the collaborative effort required to mount such a task: only together, as a virtual shipwright and his workers, can they defeat the powerful Kyklops.
Book X Summary:
Odysseus continues his story for Alkinoos. After the encounter with Polyphemos, Odysseus and his crew reach the island of the wind god Aiolos. Aiolos hosts them for a month, and then provides Odysseus with a bag containing storm winds to help them sail. They sail off with his westerly wind at their backs, and after ten days come within sight of Ithaka. But while Odysseus sleeps, his crew, mistakenly believing Aiolos' bag is full of silver and gold, greedily open it. All the winds rush out and the ship is sent off course in a hurricane.
They are sent back to Aiolos' island, and Odysseus explains to him what happened. Aiolos believes Odysseus' journey is cursed by the gods and refuses to help him further. Odysseus and his crew sail on without any wind and reach Lamos, land of the giant Laistrygonians. The king, Antiphates, and the queen eat one of Odysseus' envoys, and the crew barely escapes as the other Laistrygonians shoot boulders at the retreating ship.
The men arrive at the island of the goddess Kirke. Odysseus kills a buck and boosts his crew's morale with a great feast. He tells his crew that he saw smoke rising from the forest, but his men, thinking back on the their last few encounters with strangers, are afraid to meet any new ones. But Odysseus, after a random selection, sends half of the weeping men under command of Eurylokhos off to investigate.
Outside Kirke's house lie subdued and spellbound wolves and mountain lions. Inside, Kirke sings while weaving on her loom. All the men - except for Eurylokhos, who suspects deceit - are reassured by this gentle behavior and enter. Kirke fixes them a feast and adds something to their drinks; once they drink it, they are turned into pigs. She shuts them in a pigsty while Eurylokhos runs back to alert the crew.
Odysseus goes alone to her house despite Eurylokhos' protestations. The god Hermes stops him on his way and gives him a plant that will preserve him against Kirke's own pig-poison. Then Odysseus should threaten her with death, at which point Kirke will offer to sleep with him. Odysseus must accept, as it will break her spell over his crew.
Odysseus visits Kirke, and the plant works its magic against her poison. He goes through with Hermes' plan, and by his fortitude she takes him to be the great Odysseus. As Hermes predicted, she asks him to sleep with her; he first makes her promise not to use any more enchantments. They retire to her opulent bedchamber, but Odysseus is concerned about his companions. Kirke turns them back into men, now looking better than ever. She tells Odysseus to have his men bring their ships and gear ashore and come back with everyone. He does, and they all return but the still suspicious Eurylokhos.
The men are bathed by Kirke's maids and given a dinner. Kirke invites Odysseus to stay with her on her island. The men end up staying for a year in the paradise until they finally remind Odysseus of their mission. Odysseus asks Kirke to help them sail home, but she says he must go to Hades, the land of Death, and speak to the blind seer Teiresias. She gives the dejected Odysseus detailed instructions for sailing to Hades and preparing rites to summon Teiresias. Odysseus tells his crew it is time to leave, but the youngest, Elpenor, having drunkenly slept on the roof, falls and kills himself.
Analysis:
Temptation hurts the men three times in this book. First, the crew greedily opens the bag of winds, even disloyally suspecting Odysseus of keeping his treasure from them. Next, the men foolhardily accept Kirke's hospitality and drinks. Finally, everyone, Odysseus most of all, gladly spends a year basking in the luxury of Kirke's domain, thoughts of home far from their minds. Indeed, despite his usual levelheaded decision-making, Odysseus' great character flaw is his occasional rash, emotional behavior - witness his unwise taunting of Polyphemos in Book IX, or, as Eurylokhos notes, his choice merely to see Polyphemos.
Kirke, in some ways, is a double of the goddess Kalypso. Whereas Kalypso critiqued the gender double standard among gods, arguing against the unfairness of a system in which male gods can take mortal lovers as they please while goddesses cannot - and, by extension, it seems, applying this critique to Greek society - Kirke turns the tables on the usual male/female power dynamic. She exploits the weakness and desperation of the men, turning them into the pigs she most likely thinks they resemble in behavior.
Interestingly, Kirke is first paired up with another woman in the poem - Penelope. She is first shown weaving at her loom, the activity Penelope uses to ward off her suitors. Since Kirke is another of the poem's examples of a symbolically castrating woman, and since Penelope has raised some doubts about the sincerity of her fidelity, further parallels are drawn with Penelope emerging as the lesser woman. Penelope, too, has a household of men who have turned her place into a sty, but she is not strong enough to shoo them away as Kirke can do.
Perhaps it is Kirke's strength, not to mention her divine beauty, which attracts Odysseus. As with Kalypso, he does not seem to have any misgivings about committing an act of infidelity with her. Rather than think guiltily about his wife at home, he instead worries about the well-being of his shipmates.
Book XI Summary:
Odysseus and his crew sail to the region of the Men of Winter and, per Kirke's instructions, make a ritual sacrifice for Teiresias. While waiting for Teiresias, Odysseus cuts down the other phantoms that emerge, including Elpenor, who had fallen from Kirke's roof. Odysseus promises him a proper sailor's burial back on Kirke's island. He also sees his dead mother, Antikleia. Finally, Teiresias appears and warns him that Poseidon seeks vengeance for the blinding of his son, Polyphemos. He warns Odysseus not to touch the flocks of Helios when he lands on Thrinakia, predicting doom for his crew if they do. He further predicts that Odysseus will make it alone to his house and slay Penelope's destructive suitors. Then he will take an oar to a place where men do not know of the sea, and when someone asks him about the "fan" on his shoulder, he should make a sacrifice to Poseidon; the sacrifice will ensure a rich life for him thereafter.
Teiresias leaves, and Odysseus allows Antikleia to sip the blood he has prepared and thus talk. He briefly tells her about the purpose of his journey, then asks what killed her, and then asks after the rest of his family. She relates Penelope's and Telemakhos' lives, and says his father stays at home, pining for his son's return. She was like this, too, and her loneliness and longing for Odysseus is what killed her. Odysseus tries to hug her, but his hands pass through the air. After they finish talking, more shadows come and tell their stories to Odysseus.
Odysseus stops his story. The Phaiakian king, Alkinoos, asks him to spend another day with them so they can furnish him with gifts, then asks if he met any of his fellow warriors among the shadows. Odysseus relates how he saw Agamemnon, who tells him how Aigisthos and his wife Klytaimnestra killed him, and warns him about the wickedness of women; he should return home secretly, without warning to his wife. Odysseus talks with other shadows, including Akhilleus, about whose son, Neoptolemos, he tells him. He sees Tantalos, tortured by food and drink always just out of reach, and Sisyphos, perpetually pushing a boulder up a hill. The shadows mass in the thousands and frighten away Odysseus, who sails away with his crew.
Analysis:
It is appropriate that the cause of death for Odysseus' mother is loneliness and longing - the central emotions in a poem about a relentless search for home and its attendant isolation. This book also casts light on four other defining themes in the poem: fidelity, obeisance to the gods, temptation, and endurance.
We finally hear directly from Agamemnon after hearing his story so many times through other retellings. The story of his death at the hands of his wife and her lover has continually reinforced Odysseus' parallel story, and Agamemnon explicitly spells out the story's underlying message: "The day of faithful wives is gone forever" (535).
Odysseus is also reminded not to touch the oxen of Helios and to make a sacrifice to Poseidon once he is safely installed in Ithaka - in other words, to pay his due respects to the gods. The temptation of raiding the oxen will prove too great for his crew, and temptation is, indeed, the continuing blind spot of both Odysseus and his sailors. The punishment of Tantalos epitomizes temptation; his temptation is all the worse since it can never be satisfied.
Sisyphos, too, recalls an important and also unrewarding character trait for Odysseus: persistence. Forever pushing a heavy boulder up a hill, Sisphyos slogs along much like Odysseus does in his seemingly never-ending journey home.
Book XII Summary:
Odysseus and his crew sail back to Kirke's island, where they make a funeral pyre for Elpenor. Kirke gives them a feast, and at night warns Odysseus of the dangers his ship will face tomorrow. The next day, the crew follows her instructions, plugging their ears so the song of the Seirenes will not tempt them away from their course; Odysseus listens to it but has his men lash him to the mast. Next, the men must sail between Skylla, a six-headed sea monster that devours sailors, and the treacherous whirlpools of Kharybdis. Odysseus does not tell them of the imminent death, as they would panic. Indeed, Skylla seizes and eats six men.
The crew passes by the dangers and reaches the island of Helios, the Sun. Odysseus passes on Teiresias' and Kirke's counsel not to eat the oxen or even land on the island. Tired and hungry, they want to sleep on the island, but Odysseus makes them promise not to touch the oxen. They moor, eat, and mourn their dead mates.
Winds prevent them from leaving for a month, and their store of food thins. While Odysseus prays to the gods in isolation one day, Eurylokhos incites the others to sacrifice the oxen. Odysseus returns and sees what has happened, and quickly Lord Helios asks Zeus to punish them. After the crew feasts for six days, they set sail. Zeus whips up a storm for punishment and shoots a thunderbolt at the ship, wrecking it. The men fall in the water, and Odysseus grabs on to floating pieces of the ship. He drifts back to Kharybdis, from which he barely escapes. With protection from above, he squeaks by Skylla and drifts to Kalypso's island. Odysseus reminds his audience that he has already told them of this.
Analysis:
Temptation again takes center stage in this book. Odysseus' crew falls victim to temptation, sacrificing and feasting on the oxen of Helios, and earning the wrath of the gods in return.
Odysseus, too, is tempted by the song of the Seirenes. However, by lashing himself to the mast, he exercises self-control when he knows he would otherwise have none. In this regard, he indulges in a fantasy of temptation: he can enjoy the beauty of the Seirenes' song without any attendant punishment. This unscathed brand of temptation is similar to his infidelities, in that he is able to sleep with other women under the guise of his mission's necessity.
The opposite of temptation, one might argue, is fear; instead of looking forward to melting temptingly in guilty pleasures, the fearful person has anxiety about future punishments. Odysseus wisely withholds information about Skylla from his crew, who have shown themselves to be vulnerable to both temptation and fear. Were he to tell them about Skylla, they might have panicked and lost more than six men.
Yet Odysseus is far from heartless, and he mourns the men's deaths along with his surviving mates. His crew has slowly been losing men here and there (and, finally, everyone but Odysseus at the end of this book) and a certain indifference to death seems to have been built up, but Odysseus refers to the sight of Skylla eating his men as "far the worst I ever suffered" (334).
Books 13-16
Book XIII Summary:
Odysseus stops telling his story, and the next day Alkinoos and others give him gifts. Odysseus thanks Alkinoos for his hospitality, and after some fanfare Alkinoos' men set sail while Odysseus sleeps peacefully on board. The Phaiakians arrive at Ithaka the next day, unload Odysseus and his gear, and return home.
Poseidon appeals to Zeus, angry that Odysseus has had such a placid return home. He receives permission from Zeus to turn the Phaiakian ship into stone near their harbor for punishment. Alkinoos observes this, which fulfills a prophecy (from Book VIII) and leads his men in a sacrifice to Poseidon; the Phaiakians resolve never again to give strangers conveyance.
Odysseus awakens, thinking he is in a strange land. Athena comes to him in the form of a shepherd and informs him he is in Ithaka. Odysseus makes up a story about how he came to Ithaka. Athena turns into a woman and good-naturedly tells him she knows he is lying, and then reveals her identity. She warns him not to let anyone know of his return, and helps him plan death for the suitors. He will reunite with his old swineherd, while she will recall Telemakhos from Lakedaimon. She transforms him into a decrepit old man for safety, and they part ways.
Analysis:
This episode marks a change in the Greek attitude toward hospitality. While the Phaiakians are gracious as ever in helping Odysseus, the fulfillment of the prophecy and sinking of their ship forces them to stop helping travelers. Zeus wearily permits the destruction of the ship only because Poseidon feels he has been wronged by the other gods; ensuring harmony among the gods, it seems, is more important than maintaining hospitality at all costs among the mortals.
Odysseus' penchant for quick-witted lying is rendered almost comical when Athena calls him on his made-up story. However, as she points out, he will need this skill to defeat the suitors and, in fact, she physically transforms him for his return - the most literal form of disguise we see Odysseus take in the poem.
Odysseus is upset that Athena has let Telemakhos journey for him when she could have merely told him what happened, but she points out that she sent him off "to make his name" (528). We have not heard from him in a long time, but we may assume that his mini-odyssey is complete, and he is now ready to rejoin his father and help him drive off the suitors.
Book XIV Summary:
At his forest hut, Odysseus, disguised as a beggar, meets his old swineherd, Eumaios. Eumaios gives him dinner and tells him about the suitors and his dead lord, Odysseus. Odysseus promises him that his lord will return and seek vengeance against the suitors. Eumaios, who hates the suitors and misses Odysseus dearly, tells him that the suitors are going to ambush Telemakhos upon his return. When pressed for his background, Odysseus spins a yarn about growing up on Krete, fighting in the Trojan War, gaining his fortune in Egypt, and being enslaved and made the beggar he is now. During his adventures he heard that Odysseus was still alive, though Eumaios is skeptical. Odysseus sleeps in the hut while Eumaios faithfully tends to his lord's herd.
Analysis:
Odysseus displays his gifts for disguise (albeit aided by Athena) and improvisation (read: lying) in his encounter with Eumaios. Just as he did in the famous Trojan horse story, Odysseus must secretly "invade" a city - this time his own - under wraps, and he must maintain this air of secrecy no matter what. His ability to weave spontaneous stories is exceptional, and this story even has some parallels to his own. He speaks of the greed of his crew, and we have seen evidence of greed in his men when they opened the bag of winds and sacrificed the oxen of Helios, and the story of his enslavement is not far off from what the suitors are attempting to do.
Odysseus' lying to Eumaios may seem somewhat unnecessary, but he must test the loyalty of his old swineherd if he is to execute the suitors as planned. He can trust few people, but Eumaios' overwhelming loyalty - he forgoes sleep to take care of Odysseus' herd, and he even treats the "beggar" as if he were, indeed, his lord - proves that he will be a strong ally.
Homer reminds us of Telemakhos' return and the impending ambush by the suitors, creating suspense in this otherwise transitional episode.
Book XV Summary:
Athena finds Telemakhos in Lakedaimon and urges him to return home lest his mother marry one of the suitors, Eurymakhos. She also warns him of the looming ambush, and tells him to find Eumaios and have him deliver the message to Penelope that he has returned. Telemakhos receives permission from Menelaos to leave and, his cart laden with gifts from his hosts, rides off with Peisistratos, Nestor's son, but not before an eagle flies off with a goose in its clutches. Helen interprets this as a sign that Odysseus will soon return to seek vengeance on the suitors.
Back at Pylos, Telemakhos prepares to sail home with his crew. Theoklymenos, the son of a prophet and a fugitive for a murder he committed in his homeland, asks for and receives a place on Telemakhos' ship. They sail through the night, wind-aided by Athena.
Back in Ithaka, Odysseus tries to get Eumaios to invite him to stay longer by announcing he will leave in the morning and look for work with the suitors. Eumaios refuses, insisting he stay until Telemakhos returns. Odysseus asks about his parents, and Eumaios tells him about the death of Odysseus' mother and the loneliness of his father, Laertes. Eumaios then relates his life story: abducted by pirates, Laertes purchased him, and Odysseus' mother raised him as if he were her own son.
The men talk into the night; meanwhile, Telemakhos lands, having safely avoided the ambush. Nearby, a hawk picks up a dove, and Theoklymenos sees this as a sign that Telemakhos' family will stay in power forever. Telemakhos sends his guest home with a shipmate and goes off on his own to meet Eumaios.
Analysis:
Two omens foretell positive things for Odysseus, and it is interesting that Homer does the analytical work for the audience, having the characters interpret the symbols. Clearly, literary interpretation has changed dramatically since Homer's time, yet Homer - and the Greeks - still sought out symbolic meaning in both nature and in their literature. The symbolic depiction of Odysseus as a bird of prey fits with his persona: while not a cold-blooded killer, Odysseus acts swiftly and with keen foresight.
Odysseus's testing of Eumaios continues to showcase the swineherd's loyalty. He is amassing a small contingent to help him vanquish the suitors, and Homer stretches out the suspense by ending the episode with Telemakhos about to reunite with his father.
Telemakhos has completed his mini-odyssey, growing up from a powerless boy at the beginning of the poem to an independent young man ready to fight alongside his father. He also extends the hospitality he has received throughout his journey to Theoklymenos, whose virtue is summed up by Homer's calling him a "noble passenger" (614).
Book XVI Summary:
Telemakhos arrives at Eumaios' hut. The swineherd embraces him as if he were his own son and introduces him to his "beggar" companion, Odysseus. Telemakhos is reluctant to place Odysseus under his protection as requested, as he has his hands full with the suitors; he can only give him some staples and send him where he wishes. Odysseus tries to rally him to fight the suitors, but Telemakhos insists that he is powerless against them. He asks Eumaios to tell Penelope and Laertes that he has returned safely, but not to let the suitors know.
Athena appears to Odysseus as a tall woman and instructs him to disclose his true identity to his son. She makes him youthful and attractive again. Telemakhos sees his new appearance and believes him to be a god, but Odysseus reveals he is his father and explains that Athena changed his form. Telemakhos hugs him and both men cry. Odysseus recounts how the Phaiakians gave him safe passage to Ithaka, and says they need to plan to kill the suitors. Telemakhos does not think they can defeat the suitors, who number over one hundred, even with the help of Athena and Zeus.
Odysseus hatches a plan: tomorrow Telemakhos will return to the manor, and Odysseus, disguised as a beggar, will join him later with Eumaios. Odysseus will endure whatever abuses the suitors heap on him. Then Athena will give Odysseus the word, and he shall signal to Telemakhos to stow away all their weapons but two sets of arms for them to use later. He warns him not to let anyone, even Eumaios or Penelope, know about his identity, as a test of loyalty.
Meanwhile, a messenger from Telemakhos' ship loudly informs Penelope that her son has returned; Eumaios whispers the same message to her. The suitors hear the messenger and do not understand how Telemakhos escaped their ambush. They decide they must kill him before he tells the Akhaians about their murderous plans, and they will redouble their courtship of Penelope. One of the suitors, Amphinomos, argues that they should consult the gods to see if murdering Telemakhos is the correct action; the others agree and they break up the meeting. Penelope, who has already heard that the suitors plan to kill her son, tells them to cease their plotting. The suitor Eurymakhos denies it, and Penelope goes off to sleep.
Eumaios returns to his hut and tells Telemakhos and the "beggar" that the messenger already gave word to Penelope about her son's return. The men go to sleep.
Analysis:
When father and son reunite in Eumaios' hut, the audience is in a privileged position, in that we know who Odysseus is while neither Eumaios nor Telemakhos does. This privileged position continues once Odysseus reveals himself to Telemakhos, since they will continue to obscure his identity as they try to overtake the suitors. Only three "characters," then, know who Odysseus truly is: Odysseus himself, Telemakhos, and the audience. If his nobility of character and the suitors' despicability were not enough already, we are now irrevocably on Odysseus' side, in on his plot.
One of the many ironies in this episode - among them Odysseus' beggarly disguise and his residing in a lowly hut - is that the element of surprise has changed hands. The suitors believed they would surely ambush Telemakhos, though, as they surmise, heavenly help prevented it. Odysseus and Telemakhos are now planning their own ambush by hiding the weapons in the house and disguising Odysseus as a common beggar. Homer starts the engine of the rising climactic act exactly two-thirds of the way through the poem (the plan is conceived in Book XVI out of a total of XXIV books; the final act thus commences in Book XVII). We can now see that he has divided the poem into three distinct acts. The first eight episodes provide exposition and begin the various subplots; the next section of eight episodes begins with Odysseus' taunting Polyphemos in Book IX and raising the hackles of Poseidon, thus starting the central conflict of Odysseus against Poseidon.
Lest we think that Odysseus' keen planning will easily subdue the suitors, we are reminded of their great numbers and also of their intelligence. They rationally decide to consult with the gods over their planned murder of Telemakhos, and they lie to Penelope about said plans. Whether or not she believes them is unclear, though her confrontation is at least her first show of strength we have seen.
Homer's simile in describing the tearful reunion of Odysseus and Telemakhos - "cries burst from both as keen and fluttering / as those of the great taloned hawk" (257-8) - recalls the symbolic association Odysseus had with a hawk in Book XV.
Books 17-20
Book XVII Summary:
Telemakhos excuses himself from Eumaios to see his mother, and instructs him to leadOdysseus to town so he can beg. At the manor, Penelope tearfully embraces her son and asks what news he learned. Telemakhos instead tells her to make a sacrifice to the gods to help them with their revenge. He meets up with the fugitive Theoklymenos in town and brings him home, where they receive baths. After, Telemakhos tells his mother what he learned about Odysseus on his journey, although he lies and says Odysseus is still captive on Kalypso's island. Theoklymenos, however, divines that Odysseus is now on the island somewhere, but Penelope is not ready to believe him. The suitors soon come in for dinner.
Meanwhile, Odysseus and Eumaios head to town. They run into the hotheaded goatherd Melanthios, who taunts Odysseus' beggarly appearance and kicks him. Odysseus restrains himself and soldiers on, but Eumaios curses him. At his manor, Odysseus' old dog, a puppy when he left, recognizes his master, though he is too decrepit to move; he dies soon after. Odysseus enters after Eumaios to beg amongst the suitors. They give him bread, but Antinoos soon turns against him. Telemakhos defends the beggar and calls Antinoos selfish. The others give Odysseus food, and he praises Antinoos' appearance and starts a story about how he was once rich, too. Antinoos interrupts him, orders him out, and hits his shoulder with his stool. Odysseus is unfazed by the blow and calls on the gods to kill Antinoos. The other suitors scold Antinoos for hitting the beggar in case he is a god in disguise, but he shrugs it off.
In her room, Penelope hears the blow and wishes ill will upon Antinoos. She asks Eumaios to send the beggar to her room, but Odysseus says that it is too risky right now with the suitors, and that he will visit her at night. Before he returns to his hut, Eumaios warns Telemakhos to be on his guard against the suitors.
Analysis:
Odysseus wisely resists the temptation to fight back against both Melanthios and Antinoos. Temptation, to borrow a Homeric phrase, has been his Achilles' heel throughout The Odyssey, as exemplified by his taunting Polyphemos and earning the wrath of Poseidon. Now, with so much at stake, he has learned from his past mistakes and bears the unjust blows of the suitors, knowing his revenge will have to be plotted carefully, not executed rashly.
He also resists the temptation to see Penelope. His given reason is that the suitors may try to attack him if he sees the queen, but more likely he wants Penelope alone so he can test her loyalty.
Telemakhos' mini-odyssey has clearly matured him. Not only is he more confident now in his stand against the suitors, accusing Antinoos of selfishness, but he has picked up his father's gift for improvisation - he tells necessary lies both to Eumaios and his mother.
The suitors are further defined and complicated. Antinoos is emerging as the most dreaded suitor, acting out of selfish arrogance and immorality; even the other suitors are offended by his treatment of the beggar Odysseus (although mostly because they fear he may be a god in disguise, a partially correct guess).
The loyalty Odysseus seeks in others and finds particularly in Eumaios is given symbolic weight in his old dog, whose utter loyalty has kept him alive only to see his master once more.
Book XVIII Summary:
An actual beggar, Iros, enters the palace and violently orders Odysseus to leave. Odysseus tries to calm him down, but Iros challenges him to a fight. Antinoos overhears the squabble and gathers the suitors to watch, promising a goat stomach and unlimited access to meals at the palace from now on to the victor. After ensuring that none of the suitors will strike him when he is not looking, Odysseus' strong body, with aid fromAthena, intimidates Iros. Odysseus makes short work of him and takes him outside. The suitors congratulate Odysseus and reward him with food. Odysseus warns them that the lord of the house will return soon and win his revenge through blood. The suitor Amphinomos, knowing he will die, tries to leave, but Athena makes sure he stays.
Athena influences Penelope to make an appearance before the suitors, first beautifying her through her powers. Penelope comes downstairs and privately rebukes Telemakhos for allowing such abuse of the stranger. He tells her he had no option with the suitors and informs her of the beggar's one-sided fight with Iros. She laments Odysseus' absence and recalls his directions when he departed for Troy to remarry once Telemakhos has grown up, but she finds the suitors despicable. Odysseus happily hears this, as does Antinoos, who insists that they will not leave until she marries one of them. The suitors bring her gifts, and she returns upstairs with them.
The suitors revel the rest of the night, and Odysseus tells the housemaids to attend to Penelope; he will look after the suitors. One of them, Melantho, who was raised by Penelope but does little to return her affection, insults Odysseus. He threatens retribution from Telemakhos for her remarks, and she and the others leave. Eurymakhos hurls a number of jokes at Odysseus' expense. Odysseus again foretells the lord of the manor's vengeful return. Eurymakhos throws his stool, but Odysseus ducks. The suitors believe they are wasting their efforts on this beggar, and Telemakhos gently encourages them to retire for the evening. This irritates them, but Amphinomos directs them to have one more drink before bed.
Analysis:
Just as the suitors have been individuated - Antinoos is Machiavellian in his pursuit of Penelope, Eurymakhos is hotheaded, and Amphinomos is the most rational - Melantho distinguishes herself among Penelope's maids. Like her brother Melanthios, the disloyal goatherd, she fails to repay her employer's good graces and insults Odysseus.
Oddly, while Odysseus tests the loyalty of others, it seems Athena is testing his mettle. Homer briefly tells us that she is behind some of the suitors' taunts: "for Athena wished / Odysseys mortified still more" (428-429). Perhaps she recognizes that Odysseus has created trouble for himself in the past through rash vengeance; if he is deserving of her help, he will have to correct his behavior and diligently plan the suitors' downfall.
Telemakhos, for one, is calm and wise in his plotting. To avoid further conflicts that night, he tries to send the suitors to bed while deferring to their authority: "Why not go home to bed? - / I mean when you are moved to. No one jumps / at my command" (498-499). When Amphinomos tells the others to do so, he insists that Telemakhos take care of the beggar, since Odysseus came "to Telemakhos' door, not ours" (512-513). The irony is heavy; if it is Telemakhos' door, then he should be able to escort the suitors out of it.
Telemakhos will have his revenge, however, as we learn he will spear Amphinomos. Homer's obvious foreshadowing here does not reveal everything, though, so the conclusion of the poem is left in doubt.
Book XIX Summary:
Odysseus and Telemakhos stow away the weapons as planned. Telemakhos goes to bed while Odysseus meets Penelope and her maids. Melantho again disparages his beggarly appearance, and Odysseus again reminds her he was once powerful, and warns her of Odysseus' return. Penelope also reprimands Melantho.
Penelope questions Odysseus about his origins, but he says it is too painful to discuss. She discloses her unpleasant situation with the suitors and feels she has no strength left to resist remarriage. She presses again for his background, and Odysseus tells his story about Krete and says he once hosted Odysseus at Knossos for twelve days before he shipped out again. Penelope cries at the story, then asks for some proof - a description of what Odysseus looked like and who was with him. He provides a somewhat accurate description of Odysseus' clothing, including a cloak and tunic Penelope gave him, and some of his company. Penelope cries again and is won over. She promises to treat him as her guest, though she grieves for Odysseus, who she believes must be dead. Odysseus swears to her Odysseus is alive and preparing to return home, and recalls many of the actual details of his journey.
Penelope still believes in her heart that Odysseus is dead. She instructs her maids to tend to her guest and treat him well during his stay. Odysseus rejects the luxuries she wants to bestow upon him, however, as he claims he is used to austerity. Still, he will let one maid - Eurykleia - clean his feet. Both Penelope and the old nurse are reminded of Odysseus when they see the beggar's body; Odysseus says others have remarked on the similarity before. While Eurykleia bathes him, she recognizes an old hunting wound on Odysseus' thigh and exclaims that the beggar is Odysseus. But Athena diverts Penelope's attention so she does not hear the revelation, and Odysseus pulls Eurykleia close and tells her not to give him away, lest he kill her. She vows loyalty and silence.
Penelope asks Odysseus to interpret a dream she has had about an eagle who preys on geese near her house, then talks to her and says the geese were the suitors and he is Odysseus. Odysseus tells her he believes the dream is accurate, but Penelope is skeptical. She reveals a contest she has planned for tomorrow: she will marry the suitor who can take Odysseus' bow and shoot an arrow through twelve axe heads that are lined up. Odysseus insists that her true husband will show up for the event. Penelope goes upstairs to weep over Odysseus and sleep.
Analysis:
The body, according to this episode, is the true, immutable marker of identity. Despite his disguise, Odysseus' form is still recognizable to those close to him, from both his physique and the wound that carries with it some historical meaning for him and Eurykleia. His "resemblance" to Odysseus, then, keeps this section of the poem suspenseful, as Odysseus is constantly worried that someone may discover him.
Ever the improviser, here Odysseus blends fact and fiction in describing his background to Penelope. While he lies about his own circumstances, he provides a truthful retelling of much of Odysseus' adventures. Her loyalty is proven by her constant weeping over her husband, but she is on the verge on abandoning hope and giving in to the determined suitors.
Melantho's disloyalty continues, but Odysseus shows he will not spare anyone who gets in his way when he threatens death for the faithful Eurykleia. Of course, he will certainly not spare the suitors, who again receive an ominous prophecy in the form of Penelope's dream. Once again, Odysseus is a bird of prey and they are fat, helpless birds who feed off Penelope's manor.
Book XX Summary:
As Odysseus lies awake on the ground, he restrains himself from killing the suitors, who cavort with women in their own beds. He asks Athena, who appears near him, how he alone can defeat them; she assures him that he will be fine with her protection, and sends him to sleep. Upstairs, Penelope is also sleepless and prays to Artemis to make her die. Her cries wake Odysseus, who prays to Zeus to give him a sign that he helped bring him home. Zeus sends down a peal of thunder, and one of Odysseus' maids takes it as a sign from Zeus and asks that this be the suitors' last day. Odysseus is encouraged.
Telemakhos wakens and the house springs to life. Outside, Melanthios again belittles Odysseus, who resists fighting back. The cattle foreman, Philoitios, extends a warm welcome to the beggar and says his appearance reminds him of his lord Odysseus. The suitors make excessive demands on his cattle and he is agonizing over whether to relocate, but Odysseus promises that his lord will return and vanquish the suitors. Meanwhile, the suitors plot to kill Telemakhos, but the passing of an eagle with a rockdove in its grip causes Amphinomos to abort the plan.
A feast ensures, and Telemakhos seats his father and demands that the suitors leave him alone. Antinoos recommends to the other suitors that they endure Telemakhos' "hectoring." Yet Athena allows the abuse of Odysseus to resume, and one, Ktesippos, throws a cow's foot at him and misses. Telemakhos threatens him and the rest of the suitors with strong words. They agree not to touch the beggar anymore, but insist that Odysseus is dead and it is time for Penelope to choose a husband. Telemakhos says he cannot force his mother to marry when she does not want to; the suitors laugh uproariously. The prophet Theoklymenos sees the animal blood streaming from their mouths as signs of death for them, but they laugh it off.
Analysis:
Telemakhos's resolve strengthens considerably in this scene. After he first reprimands them the suitors, they bite "their lips / at the ring in the young man's voice" (293-4). Interestingly, in the Robert Fitzgerald translation, Antinoos calls this Telemakhos' "hectoring" (297). The verb "hector" derives from the Greek hero Hector, who is slain by Achilles in The Iliad. Although the boastful Hector meets an untimely end, Ftizgerald's choice of words highlights Telemakhos' approach to heroism.
The sign of an eagle appears once again and throws the suitors off their plot, yet they dismiss Theoklymenos' deathly prediction. Supernatural signs, it seems, hold more weight for the suitors than do oracular claims.
In fact, the supernatural controls nearly everything in the world of The Odyssey. Not only does Athena vow to protect Odysseus against the suitors, she even determines the suitors' taunting of Odysseus and their laughter at the end of the episode. It is becoming clear that she creates these extra problems for Odysseus both to test his patience - which is becoming monk-like as he nears his goal - and to ensure that the suitors get their just desserts. After all, they have occasionally acted as somewhat honorable men, so for the audience to appreciate their inevitable destruction, the suitors must also exhibit despicable behavior.
Another telling word emerges when Odysseus reminds himself of his need for patience, recalling his encounter with the Kyklops: "Nobody, only guile, / got you out of that cave alive" (21-22). Ironically, it was the tricky and diligent "Nohbdy," the pseudonym with which Odysseus tagged himself, that got him out of the cave, though it was the rash and arrogant Odysseus who brought destruction upon his crew (by telling the Kyklops his real name).
Books 21-24
Book XXI Summary:
Penelope retrieves Odysseus' great bow from the storeroom and her maids bear axeheads into the main hall. Penelope explains the game: whoever can string her husband's bow and shoot an arrow through the twelve axeheads will marry her.Telemakhos gives it a try first; he is unable to string the bow three times, then is about to succeed on the fourth when Odysseus gives him a look and he stops. Other suitors fail to string the bow. Meanwhile, Odysseus follows Eumaios and Philoitios outside and reveals his true identity to them, using his scar as proof. After they swear loyalty to him, he instructs them to give him the bow and lock the door when the time comes.
Back in the hall, Eurymakhos fails with the bow, and Anitinoos suggests they postpone the contest, make a sacrifice tomorrow to Apollo, god of archers, and try again. Odysseus asks to try the bow, but Antinoos threatens him not to. Penelope insists the beggar be allowed the opportunity; if he succeeds, she will give him clothing and other gifts. Telemakhos sends her to her room, and then orders Eumaios to give Odysseus the bow. The door and courtyard gate are also locked. Odysseus examines the bow as the suitors mock him. He smoothly strings it as Zeus thunders, then shoots the arrow through the axeheads.
Analysis:
This brief episode marks the ascendance of Telemakhos and Odysseus. The son grows increasingly authoritative, sharply ordering Eumaios to defy the suitors and give Odysseus the bow, while Odysseus assumes his rightful place as man of the house by besting the suitors in the contest. Even Penelope regains some grandeur, decreeing that the beggar receive his chance in the contest.
The contest, centering on a weapon, presages the fighting that will soon take place.Homer makes this graphically clear when foretelling Antinoos' fate: "destined to be the first of all to savor / blood from a biting arrow at his throat, / a shaft drawn by the fingers of Odysseus" (108-110). Against the skillful Odysseus and Telemakhos, who proves his worth by nearly stringing the bow but holding back under the watchful eye of his father, the suitors seem to stand little chance.
Book XXII Summary:
After he has proven himself with the axeheads, Odysseus stands by the door and kills Antinoos with an arrow through the throat. The suitors look for weapons on the wall, but there are none. They promise death for Odysseus, but he reveals his identity and vows to exact vengeance. The suitors are intimidated, and Eurymakhos says that the dead Antinoos was their leader and coerced them into following him; if Odysseus spares the suitors, they will repay what they took from him. Odysseus angrily refuses, and Eurymakhos calls on the suitors to draw their swords and fight.
Eurymakhos attacks, but Odysseus cuts him down with an arrow in his chest. While Odysseus staves off the suitors with his bow, Telemakhos retrieves arms and armor from the room he stored them in and gives them to his father, Eumaios, and Philoitios. Melanthios steals away to the storeroom and returns with arms and armor for the suitors. Eumaios catches him in the act the second time around, and he and Philoitios tie him in a painful position to the rafters.
Athena appears in the main hall in the form of Mentor, though Odysseus knows it is she. The suitors threaten to kill Mentor if he joins the fight, but Athena, while on Odysseus' side, does not immediately join in the action; she wants Odysseus and Telemakhos to prove their worth first. The suitor Agelaos leads the plan: attack Odysseus alone. But Athena sends their spears awry, and Odysseus' team slaughters a number of the suitors while suffering only minor damage. Athena's shield appears in the hall, inspiring further dread in the suitors. One suitor, Leodes, supplicates himself at Odysseus' knees, excusing himself from the others' actions. Odysseus does not believe his claims and decapitates Leodes. Phemios, the minstrel, also begs mercy, and Telemakhos grants it to him and also to Medon, their herald.
With the suitors all dead, Odysseus asks Eurykleia, the old nurse, which of the women of his house were disloyal to him. Twelve were, she replies, and Odysseus has them clean the bloody room before they are hanged outside. The men amputate several of Melanthios' body parts. Odysseus orders the room to be purified with fire and brimstone, and weeps as all his loyal servants embrace him.
Analysis:
The prior individuation of the suitors makes for a more satisfying, if gruesome, climax. When Odysseus kills Ktesippos, the rich suitor who had thrown a cow's hoof at him earlier, he has some choice words for him, while the graphic amputation of Melanthios seems appropriate for that of a goatherd; just as Melanthios divided up Odysseus' stock for the suitors, so too does Odysseus divide up Melanthios' body, even pulling "off his genitals to feed the dogs" (529). His dismemberment also recalls the mutilation of the centaur Eurytion that Antinoos describes in Book XXI.
Other deaths are portrayed in an ironic light, as well. The description of Antinoos' death reminds us of his gluttonous ways: "one last kick upset the table / knocking the bread and meat to soak in dusty blood" (20-21). Eurymakhos' death, too, entangles him with Odysseus' food and drink one last time: "He lurched and fell aside, / pitching across his table. His cup, his bread and meat, were spilt and scattered far and wide" (90-92).
Most tellingly, Homer finally pays off the repeated oracular signs of Odysseus as a bird of prey with a simile comparing him and his allies to falcons: "After them the attackers wheeled, as terrible as falcons /from eyries in the mountains veering over and diving down / with talons wide unsheathed on flights of birds" (337-339).
Lest the audience find it unfair that Odysseus receives help from Athena, Homer has her aid Odysseus only at the end of the fight, after his skill and shrewd planning have already tipped the scales of the battle.
Odysseus, though showing no mercy to the two suitors who beg at his knees or to the disloyal women of the house, does forgive his minstrel and herald. His vendetta against the others, then, is somewhat palliated by his kind attitude to them, as well as by his tearful reunion with his servants.
Book XXIII Summary:
Eurykleia wakes Penelope and tells her about Odysseus' return and his victory over the suitors. Penelope believes she is wrong, that a god must have killed the suitors and that Odysseus is dead. She finally goes downstairs and observes Odysseus in silence and from a distance, unsure if it is really he. She wants to test him with "secret signs" only the two of them know. Odysseus consents, but first lays out a plan to deal with the aftermath of the massacre: to make sure no one finds out about the murders, they will pretend Penelope's wedding to one of the suitors is occurring in the palace to give them time to flee to the woods.
Telemakhos and the others set up a fake wedding celebration. Penelope maintains her neutral attitude toward Odysseus and asks Eurykleia to make up his bed outside her bedchamber. Odysseus is angry; no one can move the bed he made out of an olive tree. His intimate knowledge of the bed is proof that he is truly Odysseus, and Penelope embraces him and asks forgiveness for her suspicion. Odysseus weeps and holds his wife. He has one more trial, however, that Teiresias told him about: he must take an oar through the mainland and find men who do not know of the sea, until one asks what the oar is. Then he shall plant the oar there and make a sacrifice to Poseidon, return home, and make further sacrifices to all the gods. In bed, she tells him about the suitors, and he recounts his adventures.
In the morning, Odysseus tells Penelope that he must visit his father. He is afraid word will spread about yesterday's events, so he instructs her to take her maids to the upper floor and not have any contact with the outside. He leaves with Telemakhos and his herdsmen, hidden with Athena's help.
Analysis:
After the climactic battle in Book XXII, Homer maintains the tension in this episode on two fronts. First, Odysseus' reunion with Penelope is suspenseful; after dealing with so many impostors in the past, will she admit this is the true Odysseus, and once she does, how will the two react to each other?
Fittingly, Homer has the couple's bed serve as proof of Odysseus' identity. For a story so concerned with marital longing, the bed is the perfect symbol for their marriage: carved by Odysseus from a solid olive tree, it is a permanent, immovable, and intimate space solely for him and Penelope.
Once the bed clears the air of any suspicions, Homer writes a beautiful emotional payoff of the couple's reunion with elegant and meaningful simile-filled language:
Now from his breast into his eyes the ache of longing mounted, and he wept at last, his dear wife, clear and faithful, in his arms, longed for as the sunwarmed earth is longed for by a swimmer spent in rough water where his ship went down under Poseidon's blows, gale winds and tons of sea.
(259-265)
The comparison of Odysseus to a tempest-tossed swimmer is far from arbitrary; the passage nearly provides a synopsis of Odysseus' adventures preceding his arrival in Ithaka.
The second dramatic conflict Homer promises is Odysseus' final trial as prescribed by Teiresias. This mini-odyssey, coupled with Odysseus' need to escape the town and see his father, keeps the audience engaged for the final episode.
Book XXIV Summary:
Hermes leads the suitors - who squeal like bats - into Hades, where they encounter the ghosts of Achilles and Agamemnon. The suitor Amphimedon explains their fate to Agamemnon, who invidiously compares his deceitful, murderous wife Klytaimnestra to the faithful steadfastness of Penelope.
Meanwhile, Odysseus and his troop reach Laertes' dwelling. On his own, Odysseus finds his frail, elderly father tending to his vineyard. Odysseus comes up with a false identity and introduces himself, noting that he last saw Odysseus five years ago. Laertes' grief forces Odysseus to reveal himself, proving his identity via his scar and knowledge of the vineyard's trees. They embrace and join the others inside to eat, including the old servant Dolius, father of the treacherous Melantho and Melanthius. Odysseus tells his father about his victory over the suitors.
Back in town, the goddess Rumor bandies about word of the suitors' defeat. The townspeople take away the bodies and bury them, then convene. Half of them, led by Eupeithes, father of Antinoos, want vengeance for the deaths of their sons, while others realize that a god was on Odysseus' side and argue that their uninhibited sons deserved their fates. Eupeithes leads the former camp to Laertes' house, but Athena, disguised as Mentor, incites Laertes to hurl his spear at Eupeithes. Odysseus and his comrades begin killing the others, but Athena stops them and declares a truce between the warring parties.
Analysis:
The uneven final episode - with its tangential scene in Hades, the lack of conflict with Dolius, whose backstabbing son and daughter have been slain by Odysseus, and Odysseus' failure to carry out Teiresias' instructions to make a sacrifice to Poseidon - lends credence to the argument that much of the final part of The Odyssey has plural authorship.
Nevertheless, the episode does tie up many other loose ends and thematic threads. We are reminded once more of the theme of fidelity as Agamemnon contrasts Penelope and Klytaimnestra. Moreover, the father-son reunion between Odysseus and Telemakhos and the latter's maturation through battle is given a twist here - Odysseus reunites with his own father (again under a false identity at first, yet another motif), and it is Laertes who proves himself in a fight.
The tidy resolution underscores a final theme: the power of the gods. It is the gods who decide the fate of the humans, the gods who can declare war, and the gods who can make peace. The closest the Greeks came to the gods, one could argue, was through their writers - for they, too, had complete control over their characters, and none had it more so than Homer.
SUMMARY
The Odyssey Summary
Ten years after the fall of Troy, the victorious Greek hero Odysseus has still not returned to his native Ithaka. A band of rowdy suitors, believing Odysseus to be dead, has overrun his palace, courting his faithful‹though weakening‹wife, Penelope, and going through his stock of food. With permission from Zeus, the goddess Athena, Odysseus' greatest immortal ally, appears in disguise and urges Odysseus' son Telemakhos to seek news of his father at Pylos and Sparta. However, the suitors, led by Antinoos, plan to ambush him upon his return.
As Telemakhos tracks Odysseus' trail through stories from his old comrades-in-arms, Athena arranges for the release of Odysseus from the island of the beautiful goddess Kalypso, whose prisoner and lover he has been for the last eight years. Odysseus sets sail on a makeshift raft, but the sea god Poseidon, whose wrath Odysseus incurred earlier in his adventures by blinding Poseidon's son, the Kyklops Polyphemos, conjures up a storm. With Athena's help, Odysseus reaches the Phaiakians. Their princess, Nausikaa, who has a crush on the handsome warrior, opens the palace to the stranger. Odysseus withholds his identity for as long as he can until finally, at the Phaiakians' request, he tells the story of his adventures.
Odysseus relates how, following the Trojan War, his men suffered more losses at the hands of the Kikones, then were nearly tempted to stay on the island of the drug-addled Lotos Eaters. Next, the Kyklops Polyphemos devoured many of Odysseus' men before an ingenious plan of Odysseus' allowed the rest to escape‹but not before Odysseus revealed his name to Polyphemos and thus started his personal war with Poseidon. The wind god Ailos then provided Odysseus with a bag of winds to aid his return home, but the crew greedily opened the bag and sent the ship to the land of the giant, man-eating Laistrygonians, where they again barely escaped.
On their next stop, the goddess Kirke tricked Odysseus' men and turned them into pigs. With the help of the god Hermes, Odysseus defied her spell and metamorphosed the pigs back into men. They stayed on her island for a year in the lap of luxury, with Odysseus as her lover, before moving on and resisting the temptations of the seductive and dangerous Seirenes, navigating between the sea monster Skylla and the whirlpools of Kharybdis, and plumbing the depths of Hades to receive a prophecy from the blind seer Teiresias. Resting on the island of Helios, Odysseus' men disobeyed his orders not to touch the oxen. At sea, Zeus punished them and all but Odysseus died in a storm. It was then that Odysseus reached Kalypso's island.
Odysseus finishes his story, and the Phaiakians hospitably give him gifts and ferry him home on a ship. Athena disguises Odysseus as a beggar and instructs him to seek out his old swineherd, Eumaios; she will recall Telemakhos from his own travels. With Athena's help, Telemakhos avoids the suitors' ambush and reunites with his father, who reveals his identity only to his son and swineherd. He devises a plan to overthrow the suitors with their help.
In disguise as a beggar, Odysseus investigates his palace. The suitors and a few of his old servants generally treat him rudely as Odysseus sizes up the loyalty of Penelope and his other servants. Penelope, who notes the resemblance between the beggar and her presumably dead husband, proposes a contest: she will, at last, marry the suitor who can string Odysseus' great bow and shoot an arrow through a dozen axeheads.
Only Odysseus can pull off the feat. Bow in hand, he shoots and kills the suitor Antinoos and reveals his identity. With Telemakhos, Eumaios, and his goatherd Philoitios at his side, Odysseus leads the massacre of the suitors, aided only at the end by Athena. Odysseus lovingly reunites with Penelope, his knowledge of their bed that he built the proof that overcomes her skepticism that he is an impostor. Outside of town, Odysseus visits his ailing father, Laertes, but an army of the suitors' relatives quickly finds them. With the encouragement of a disguised Athena, Laertes strikes down the ringleader, Antinoos' father. Before the battle can progress any further, Athena, on command from Zeus, orders peace between the two sides.
ABOUT THE ODYSSEY
About The Odyssey
Most likely written between 750 and 650 B.C., The Odyssey is an epic poem about the wanderings of the Greek hero Odysseus following his victory in the Trojan War (which, if it did indeed take place, occurred in the 12th-century B.C. in Mycenaean Greece). Originally composed in the Ionic Greek dialect in dactylic hexameter (most English translations use iambic pentameter), The Odyssey, alongside the slightly earlier Iliad (a violent retelling of the Trojan War), ushered in a new age of Western literature. The Odyssey has been so influential that its primary theme‹the desire for home‹may be the most important one in modern narratives, used for stories as diverse as The Wizard of Oz and James Joyce's directly allusive Ulysses. The Odyssey is also notable for its exploration of its hero's sensitive interior life, a stark contrast to the nonstop action of The Iliad.
There has been fervent debate, especially since the 19th century, over the authorship of both poems. Some scholars maintain that they are the work of multiple writers, while others believe that both are the product of a blind bard named Homer. It is now generally agreed that a singer-poet named Homer from the city of Smyrna on the western coast of Asia Minor did exist around the time of the composition of both poems, though the rest is still disputable. One likely theory is that the illiterate Homer had memorized heroic stories that had been passed down through the ages and altered them slightly when he sang them to audiences and strummed a simple stringed instrument for musical accompaniment. Someone else then cobbled together Homer's various narratives and wrote down first The Iliad, then The Odyssey, most likely on a papyrus scroll. The stories were then copied, and undoubtedly evolved, over time, helping explain particularly the uneven final third of The Odyssey.
To buy them time between improvisations, the singer-poets repeated stories (such as that of Agamemnon's murder in The Odyssey) and used recurring epithets‹pithy tags attached to characters ("grey-eyed Athena," "swift-footed Achilles")‹and epic (or Homeric) similes, or repetitive poetic comparisons ("rosy-fingered Dawn," "the wine-dark sea"). It is important to remember that The Iliad and The Odyssey were originally oral entertainment, and that much of the pleasure for the ancient Greeks came not from the narratives‹with which they were familiar‹but from the sound of the poetry, which is still unmatched in the epic poetic tradition for its beauty and grandeur.
Character List
Odysseus
The epic hero of The Odyssey, Odysseus is a fascinating character full of contradictions. While he is intent on returning home to his faithful wife, Penelope, and his adult son he has barely seen, Telemakhos, Odysseus also willingly beds down with not one but two beautiful goddesses during his travels and expresses little remorse for his infidelities - though he rails against the suitors who are trying to capture his wife.
The contradictions extend to Odysseus' intellect. Blessed with great physical strength (which he amply demonstrates, despite his years, at several moments), he has an equally keen mind that bails him out of many dire straits. There is no better "improviser" or "strategist" in Greek mythology, though the label attached is often "cunning" or "deceiver"; indeed, many Greeks saw Odysseus' habit of lying as a vice and a weakness. His penchant for disguise complements his ability to make up plausible stories about his background. Although Odysseus' ingenuity comes across as his chief weapon, his Achilles' heel of sorts is the frequency with which he falls victim to temptation and makes grave tactical errors, none more so than when adding insult to injury to Polyphemos and revealing his true name. Still, Odysseus is aware of this flaw, and bids his men to tie him up when they pass by the Seirenes, the paragons of temptation. By the end of his journey, he has learned to resist temptation, willingly suffering abuse by the suitors to meet his eventual goal of destroying them.
Despite his occasional gaffe, Odysseus is a courageous and just leader who inspires admiration and respect from his shipmates and servants; the faithfulness of his dog and swineherd after so many years says as much. The near-constant protection he enjoys from the goddess Athena seems justifiable for a man who has endured so many hardships, and cast away so many luxuries, to reunite with his beloved family.
Telemakhos
Odysseus' son, Telemakhos, undergoes a miniature odyssey of his own. A callow 20-year-old afraid to challenge the suitors at the start of the poem, by the end, thanks in part to Athena's grooming, he is an assured, mature young man ready to take on the suitors.
During his short journey to learn about the father he does not know, Telemakhos is the beneficiary of "xenia," the Greek term for hospitality. He repays the favor to others who need help and is a respectful traveler. The respect extends to his father; Telemakhos most likely can string his father's bow during the contest, but he holds back under Odysseus' watchful gaze. Though he has not inherited his father's gift for cunning, The Odyssey ends with the promise that Telemakhos will one day make a fine ruler of Ithaka.
Penelope
The beautiful wife of Odysseus, Penelope has always given critics difficulty. Does she refrain from expelling the suitors only because she fears their retribution, as she claims, or does she in some ways enjoy the attention? Though she weeps for Odysseus nightly, she does not even force the suitors to act with proper decorum.
However, her faithfulness to her husband does remain steadfast, and she even shares his proclivity for trickery, promising to remarry once she has finished weaving a shroud for Laertes, but unraveling it each night (the suitors catch on after a few years). Penelope is also fiercely protective of Telemakhos, and speaks out against the suitors when she hears of their plans to murder him. After Odysseus' disguised arrival, Penelope's loyalty to her husband is more evident, as is her sadness over his presumed death.
Athena
Daughter of Zeus and goddess of wisdom and battle (and of the womanly arts, though this is barely touched upon), Athena is Odysseus' most powerful ally. Frequently appearing throughout The Odyssey in disguise, she offers instructions, encouragement, and magical protection to Odysseus and Telemakhos, whom she grooms in the ways of a prince. Yet she also tests Odysseus at times; when he is disguised as a beggar, she provokes the suitors to abuse him to see, ostensibly, if Odysseus will give in to temptation and fight back. She also does not intervene in the climactic battle until the end, once Odysseus has proven his mettle.
The suitors
Led by the manipulative Antinoos, the hotheaded Eurymakhos, and the rational, somewhat decent Amphinomos, the suitors, numbering over one hundred, ungratefully live off Odysseus' estate in their pursuit of the beautiful and wealthy Penelope. They revel nightly with Odysseus' food and his willing female servants and bully around Telemakhos, defying the sacred Greek value of "xenia" (hospitality). Homer's unsympathetic portrait of them ensures that the audience enjoys the suitors' extremely violent end.
Poseidon
God of the sea, Poseidon is Odysseus' central antagonist for the middle section of The Odyssey. Enraged over Odysseus' blinding of his Kyklops son Polyphemos, Poseidon is directly responsible for most of Odysseus' troubles at sea.
Servants of Odysseus
Odysseus' servants are split into two camps according to loyalty. His swineherd Eumaios and old nurse Eurkyleia epitomize the loyal servants while the siblings Melanthius and Melantho lead the backstabbing group that sides with the suitors.
Glossary of Terms
Agamemnon
King of Mycenae; Greek leader at Troy, murdered by his wife Klytaimnestra and her lover Aigisthos on his return home; brother of Menelaos.
Agelaos
One of the suitors of Penelope.
Aiaia
Kirke's island.
Aias
Greek hero at Troy, drowned on the return trip after defying the gods. Name also spelled Ajax.
Aigisthos
Klytaimnestra's lover; usurper of Agamemnon's throne at Mycenae.
Aiolos
King of the winds; gives Odysseus a bag of winds.
Akhaians
Homer's name for the Greeks (as opposed to the Trojans).
Akhilleus
The greatest Greek warrior at Troy.
Alkinoos
King of the Phaiakians, host to Odysseus; father of Nausikaa, husband of Arete.
Amphinomes
A suitor of Penelope.
Antinoos
Hotheaded ringleader of Penelope's suitors.
Arete
Queen of the Phaiakians.
Athena
Goddess of wisdom, battle, and the womanly arts; patron of Odysseus.
Elpenor
One of Odysseus' crew, falls off Kirke's roof and dies.
Erebos
The dark land of the dead.
Eumaios
Faithful swineherd of Odysseus.
Eupeithes
Father of Antinoos; killed by Laertes.
Eurykleia
Old and faithful nurse to Odysseus.
Eurylokhos
Second-in-command to Odysseus during his travels.
Eurymakhos
Rational suitor to Penelope.
Eurynome
Housekeeper to Penelope.
Hades
God of the underworld.
Halitherses
Old friend of Odysseus in Ithaka.
Helen
Wife of Menelaos; carried off to Troy by Paris, causing the Trojan War.
Helios
Sun god whose sacred cattle are eaten by Odysseus' crew.
Hera
Queen of the gods, wife of Zeus.
Hermes
Messenger of the gods.
Ilium
Another name for Troy.
Iros
Beggar to Penelope's suitors, stirs up a fight with Odysseus.
Ithaka
Island home of Odysseus.
Kalypso
Beautiful nymph who detains Odysseus eight years at island of Ogygia.
Kharybdis
A dangerous whirlpool Odysseus must sail by.
Kikones
People at Ismaros, raided by Odysseus after the Trojan War.
Kirke
Enchantress who turns men into swine; Odysseus and his men stay on her island for a year.
Klytaimnestra
Murderous wife of Agamemnon, lover of Aigisthos.
Ktesippos
One of Penelope's suitors; killed by the cowherd.
Kyklopes
One-eyed race of giants; Odysseus encounters the Kyklops Poseidon.
Laertes
Father of Odysseus.
Laistrygonians
Hostile giants who attack Odysseus and eat his men.
Medon
The crier, spared during the slaughter.
Melanthios
Disloyal goatherd to Odysseus.
Melantho
Disloyal maidservant to Odysseus.
Menelaos
Brother of Agamemnon, husband of Helen, host to Telemakhos.
Mentes
Old friend of Odysseus; one of Athena's disguises.
Mentor
Old friend of Odysseus; adviser to Telemakhos; frequent disguise of Athena.
Muses
The nine goddesses who inspire the arts.
Mycenae
Principal city of the Akhaians, home of Agamemnon.
Nausikaa
Phaiakian princess, daughter of Alkinoos; she rescues Odysseus and has a crush on him.
Neleus
Father of Nestor.
Nestor
Elderly king of Pylos, chief adviser of the Greeks at Troy.
Odysseus
Brilliant Greek warrior and hero of The Odyssey.
Ogygia
Island home of Kalypso.
Oidipous
King of Thebes who killed his father and married his mother.
Olympos
Mountain home of the gods.
Orestes
Killed Klytaimnestra and Aigisthos to avenge the murder of his father, Agamemnon; foil character to Telemakhos.
Patroklos
Akhilleus' best friend at Troy; his death inspired Akhilleus to fight.
Peiraios
Telemakhos' trusted crewman.
Peisistratos
Nestor's youngest son; he accompanies Telemakhos on part of his journey.
Penelope
Faithful wife of Odysseus, mother of Telemakhos.
Phaiakians
Inhabitants of the island of Skheria.
Phemios
Bard at the palace of Odysseus; spared in the slaughter.
Philoitios
Faithful cowherd to Odysseus.
Polyphemos
Kyklops son of Poseidon; blinded by Odysseus.
Poseidon
God of the sea; the immortal antagonist in The Odyssey, he is hostile toward Odysseus because Odysseus blinded his son, Polyphemos.
Proteus
"The Ancient of the Sea," he has the gift of prophecy and can change his shape.
Seirenes
Enchantresses who lure sailors to their deaths with their beautiful voices.
Skheria
Island home of Alkinoos, Arete, and Nausikaa.
Styx
River boundary between the land of the living and the land of the dead.
Teiresias
Blind prophet met by Odysseus in the land of the dead; he foretells Odysseus' future.
Telemakhos
Son of Odysseus and Penelope; secondary hero of The Odyssey.
Theoklymenos
Fugitive who accompanies Telemakhos home and interprets omens.
Zeus
King of the gods, brother of Poseidon, father of Athena; ruler on Mount Olympos.
Major Themes
Home, wandering, and fidelity
The title of The Odyssey has given us a word to describe a journey of epic proportions. Throughout his travels, Odysseus' central emotion is loneliness. We first encounter him as he pines away for home, alone on Kalypso's beach, and he is not above weeping when thinking of home at other points. He also endures great loss through the deaths of his brothers-in-arms from the Trojan War and his shipmates afterward. Loneliness pervades the emotions of other characters; Penelope is nearly in constant tears over her absent husband, Telemakhos has never known his legendary father, and Odysseus' mother explains that loneliness caused her death.
Yet tempering Odysseus' desire to return home is the temptation to enjoy the luxurious surroundings he sometimes finds himself in‹particularly when he is in the company of beautiful goddesses. He happily spends a year on Kirke's island as her lover and does not seem to complain too much about his eight years of imprisonment on Kalypso's island. In both cases, Odysseus expresses little remorse about being unfaithful to his wife‹although infidelity is what he fears Penelope may be succumbing to at home.
That Homer never reproaches Odysseus for his extracurricular romances but condemns the unfaithful women in the poem recalls Kalypso's angry statement about the double standard for immortals: male gods are allowed to take mortal lovers, while female goddesses are not. Likewise, men such as Odysseus have some freedom to "wander" sexually during their geographical wanderings‹so long as they are ultimately faithful to their home‹while Penelope and the other women in The Odyssey are chastised for their lack of chastity. Indeed, Odysseus does remain true to Penelope in his heart, and his desire to reunite with her drives his faithful journey. Fidelity is also central at the end of the poem, when Odysseus tests the loyalties of his servants and punishes those who have betrayed him.
Cunning and disguise
Odysseus' most prominent characteristic is his cunning; Homer's Greek audience generally admired the trait but occasionally disdained it for its dishonest connotations. Odysseus' skill at improvising false stories or devising plans is nearly incomparable in Western literature. His Trojan horse scheme (recounted here) and his multiple tricks against Polyphemos are shining examples of his ingenuity, especially when getting out of jams.
Both examples indirectly relate to another dominant motif in The Odyssey: disguise. (The soldiers "disguise" themselves in the body of the Trojan horse, while Odysseus and his men "disguise" themselves as rams to escape from Polyphemos.) Odysseus spends the last third of the poem disguised as a beggar, both to escape from harm until he can overthrow the suitors and to test others for loyalty. In addition, Athena appears frequently throughout the poem, often as the character Mentor, to provide aid to Odysseus or Telemakhos.
Women as predatory
It is little wonder Odysseus fears Penelope's lapse into infidelity‹women are usually depicted, if anything, as sexual aggressors in The Odyssey. Kirke exemplifies this characteristic among the goddesses, turning the foolish men she so easily seduces into the pigs she believes them to be, while Kalypso imprisons Odysseus as her virtual sex-slave. The Seirenes, too, try to destroy passing sailors with their beautiful voices. The suitors even accuse Penelope of teasing them, a debatable point. But no woman receives as negative a portrait as Agamemnon's wife Kyltaimnestra; the story of her cuckoldry and murder of her husband frequently recurs as a parallel to Odysseus' anxieties about Penelope.
Odysseus' character flaws
Though he is usually a smart, decisive leader, Odysseus is prone to errors, and his deepest flaw is falling prey to temptation. His biggest mistakes come in the episode with Polyphemos as he first foolishly investigates the Kyklops' lair (and ends up getting trapped there), and then cannot resist shouting his name to Polyphemos after escaping (thus incurring Poseidon's wrath). If Odysseus' character changes over the course of The Odyssey, though, it pivots around temptation. After his errors with Polyphemos, Odysseus has his crew tie him up so he can hear‹but not follow‹the dangerously seductive song of the Seirenes. Disguised as a beggar in Ithaka, he is even more active in resisting temptation, allowing the suitors to abuse him as he bides his time. Temptation hurts his crew, as well, in their encounters with Kirke, the bag of winds from Aiolos, and the oxen of Helios.
The power of the gods
The gods exercise absolute power over mortal actions in The Odyssey. To curry the gods' favor, mortals are constantly making sacrifices to them. Conversely, offending the gods creates immense problems, as demonstrated by the oxen of Helios episode and Poseidon's grudge against Odysseus for blinding his son Polyphemos.
Athena is the most visible god in the poem; only under her aegis can Odysseus survive his dangerous adventures, and she lobbies Zeus for his freedom and safety at other points. Her favoritism for him seems justified as a reward for his sacrifices and nobility of character; her distaste for the suitors is similarly understandable.
The power of the gods, who usually care more about their internal disputes than about mortal behavior, is cemented at the end of the poem as Zeus orders a cease-fire between Odysseus and the suitors. Ultimately, the gods decide what happens in the mortal world; lack of free will receives more depth in The Iliad, but is a prominent theme in nearly any ancient Greek text, particularly ones that concern themselves with the omnipotent gods.
Hospitality
The Odyssey nearly serves as a Greek guide to hospitality, or "xenia," which was such a dominant concept in Greece that Zeus was the god of hospitality. Telemakhos and Odysseus receive warm hospitality throughout their journeys from others, usually without even having to give their names. The flip side of the equation, of course, is the suitors, who abuse Telemakhos' hospitality in running through Odysseus' reserves. The other blight on hospitality comes at the end when the Phaiakians, after Poseidon turns into stone their ship that carried Odysseus to Ithaka, decide not to give strangers conveyance anymore.
Telemakhos' miniature odyssey: Paralleling Odysseus' greater journey, Telemakhos' journey at the beginning of the poem is as much a search for maturity as it is one for his father. Athena, who sparks his travels, also grooms him in the ways of a prince. Telemakhos matures from his initial weakness in the face of the suitors into the authoritative man of the house, and his place by his father's side in the climactic battle is well earned and represented.