Important Points on Internationalism on the Eve of World War II

Chapter 28 Outline: International Conflicts, 1914-1999
Confidence and Internationalism on the Eve of WWI:
Imperialists believed that western leadership was bringing new enlightenment to the inferior peoples of the rest of the world
1864: German convention; established the Red Cross, an international agency for humanitarian service in wartime
Western socialists formed an international movement, based on the idea that working peoples should unite across national boundaries
International movement had two weaknesses
Based heavily on western dominance; arose at same time as nationalism; Olympics became international forum for fierce athletic competition between rival nations
World Court established at the Hague in 1899; most set rules were ignored in the great world war 15 years later (no use of gas, no use of weapons from balloons)
The Onset of WWI:
Two rival alliances had formed in Europe (Germany, Italy, and Austria-Hungary vs. Britain, France, Russia)
By 1900, most of the world had been carved up
The two alliance systems focused on the leading European trouble spot, the Balkans
Nations tended to use military growth as a distraction from social tensions
Small nations in Balkans fought two wars in 1912-1913
July 1914: Archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated by a Serbian nationalist; Last straw for Austria-Hungary
Russia refused Austria bully Serbia; France vowed to support Russia; Germany declares war on both Russia and France on August 1; Britain joins on the 4th
Patterns of War in Europe:
Two major fronts were established in Europe
Western front: German vs. French and British defenders
Eastern front: German and weak Austrians vs. Russia
Italy joins war wooed by promises of land gains after war in 1915
Italian front develops: Italians vs. Austrians
German submarines wrecked havoc; the single most important cause of America’s entry to WWI
1916: stagnation on the Western front turns to a nightmare: Germans lose 850000, French 700000, British 410000
Fighting spread to Balkans; Austria crushed Serbia and other small states in line that hoped for independence
War led to unprecedented growth of government
Governments leaned heavily on public opinion; newspapers and media provided propaganda
Mata Hari (1876-1917) was accused of spying and executed by the French in WWI; claimed she spied for the French in German occupied Belgium
The War Outside Europe:
Inevitable that the war would spill over into other areas and that some of its most important effects were felt outside Europe
British dominions were drawn into the war early on as loyal members of the empire; soldiers brought in from dominions to the fronts
WWI brought US into world power politics and made it a major player
American businesspeople profited from the war by selling goods to the various combatants and taking advantage of Europeans’ distraction to gain new ground in other world markets
US was converted from debtor to creditor nation for first time in history
1917: US joins war, brought new wave of idealism, choosing to see its unaccustomed role as fighting for international al justice and democracy
Combatants in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East:
Minor skirmishes of war fought around German colonies in Africa; involved Africans as colonial troops
Experience in European warfare made Africans increasingly aware of European standards and the contradiction between fierce nationalist pride in Europe and the subjection of their own peoples
Japan entered war on side of Britain, honoring its alliance with them
China declared war on Germany in 1917; hoping not to be ignored by the Europeans
WWI advanced an already aggressive Japanese policy
Large numbers of Indian troops fought for Britain; nationalists supported the movement, hoping to gain independence after war; promised little self government after war
Ottoman Empire joined war on Germany’s side; weakened the already feeble empire
British promised support for Jewish settlers in Israel in the Balfour Declaration of 1917
Ottoman empire split apart with Germany’s defeat
War brought substantial decrease in Europe’s world power
US and Japan won new prestige
The War’s end:
March 1917; Russia suffers a major revolution, topples tsarist government
October 1917: Lenin and the communists came to power in Russia
New leadership signed the Brest-Litvosk Treaty with Germans, giving the Germans substantial territories in western Russia in turn for peace
Germans had to commit more troops to the newly gained ground; reduced the abilities of a thoroughly war torn nation to keep pushing to the west
Series of last ditch German offensives in 1918 failed, leaving Germany with no reserves
Counteroffensive and collapse of Habsburgs in Italy and Balkans weakened the German efforts even more
Military generals put a new civilian government in place to avoid direct blame of their forces
New government led by socialists had no choice but to sue for peace in November 1918
New Section FIX THIS BEFORE PRINT:
Diplomats met in Versailles to debate the fate of much of the world
Most of the world (Russia, Japan, Germany) were not represented
Japan’s demands were highly ignored; Italy was unhappy with the received land
US president Woodrow Wilson proposed the League of Nations; meant to deal with future disputes and to make war unnecessary
Domestic public opinion prevented the US from taking a consistently active role
America did not join the League; political isolationism contributed to French and British fears for the future
Austro-Hungarian empire completely collapsed: new nations were created: Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Yugoslavia
Poland revived as Germany lost land
Impositions to Germany created huge discontent in Germany; vowed to avenge France
Russia was also reduced due to the creation of small states in E. Europe
The War’s Devastations and Dislocations:
France and Serbia lost more than 1/10 of their total populations
Loss of men decreased birth rates
Inflation soared in many countries after the war; people with fixed savings were nearly wiped out
Little outright loss of colonies
1920s were peak of Western imperialism
Germany’s African colonies were taken over by Britain and France; held as mandates
1923: new Turkish nation was created under the lead of Mustafa Kemal (Ataturk)
Rest of ottoman empire held as mandates of the League of Nations
Britain took Iraq and Palestine; France took Lebanon and Syria
Middle East became politically fragmented
American and Japanese business peoples captured many European markets; complicated Europe’s immediate postwar recovery
War gave birth to new international organization
League of Nations proved to be little more than a discussion group as really diplomacy continued on the nation to nation basis
The Great Depression: Causes of Economic Instability:
Impact of WWI on European economy led to rocky years into the early 1920s
War induced inflation caused major problems: prices soared daily
Forceful government action finally resolved the crisis in 1923, but only by a massive devaluation of the mark in Germany
Britain recouperated slowly due to dependence on an export market that was now open to wider competition
Farmers experienced chronic overproduction of food and resulted in low prices
Most of the dependent areas in the world economy were suffering badly
Production often exceeded demand, which drove prices and earning s down not only in Africa but also in Latin America
Colonies and dependent areas were unable to buy many industrial exports which weakened the demand for western products
Nationalistic selfishness predominated
Protectionism simply reduced market opportunities and made a bad situation worse; Italy turned to fascism
Collapse and Crisis:
New York stock market crashes in 1929
Stock values tumbled as investors quickly lost confidence in issues that had been pushed ridiculously high
Many US banks failed, dragging their depositors along with them
Throughout the industrial West; investment funds dried up as creditors went bankrupt or tried to call in their loans
Industrial production began to fall, beginning in industries that produced capital goods and later consumer goods
Falling production lead to falling employment and lower wages
Up to one third of all blue collar workers in the West lost their jobs
Depression fed itself, growing steadily worse from 1929-1933
Worldwide Impact:
Soviet Union was busy building an industrial society under communist control; promoted socialism in one country
Depression was prevented in the 1930s
For most of the rest of the world, the depression worsened an already bleak economic picture
Nations that produced foods and raw material s saw their prices and earnings drop even more than before
Japan as a new industrial country on the rise was hit hard
Japan’s purchases of silk exports collapsed, leading to severe unemployment
Value of Japanese exports plummeted by 50 percent in 1929-1931
Depression was accompanied by several agricultural failures and bad harvests in many region s
For Japan, depression increased suspicion of the West and helped promote new expansionism
In West, depression lead to new welfare programs
World War II:
War broke out formally in 1939 but was lead onto by series of events prior in the 1930s
Deliberate strides towards military expansion by Japan and Germany brought the clouds of War to Asia, the Pacific, Europe, and the Mediterranean
Feeble responses from the other powerful states in Europe and North America resulted in nationalistic and idealogical divisions, including western suspicion of the communist regime in the soviet Union
New Authoritarian Regimes:
Japanese voters continued to prefer more moderate parties, but leadership fell increasingly into militaristic hands
Chinese nationalist forces seemed to be gaining ground in their effort to unify their chaotic nation after the 1911 revolution
Japan marched into Manchuria in 1931; condemned by the League of Nations; Japan simply withdrew from the League
The National Socialist Party (Nazi) led by Adolf Hitler began to pick up strength after nearly fading away in the mid 1920s
Nazis promised to reverse the humiliation of the Versailles treaty and gain military glory and new territory for Germany
Hitler took power legally in 1933; abolished the parliamentary regime and built a totalitarian state
Hitler expanded armament production, creating new jobs, and built up the army and separate Nazi forces
Essence of the state was authority, and the function of the state was war
Hitler galvanized the authoritarian fascist state in Italy led by Benito Mussolini
The Steps Toward War:
Hitler suspended reparation payments, renouncing this part of the Versailles settlement
Withdrew from the League of Nations
Announced German rearmament in 1935 and brought military forces into the Rhineland in 1936
1935: Mussolini attacked Ethiopia; League of Nations condemned his action, but no one took action
Italy won a new colony in Africa
1936: Civil War in Spain; authoritarians (nationalists) vs. republicans (leftists)
By 1939, the republican forces had been defeated in Spain
1938; Hitler declared a long sought union (Anschluss) with Austria
Munich Conference convinced French and British leaders that Hitler might be satisfied with acquiescence
British prime minister Neville Chamberlain proclaimed that his “appeasement” had won peace
Hitler took all of Czech. By March 1939
Hitler attacked Poland on September 1, 1939 not necessarily expecting war, but clearly prepared to risk it
War had already broken out in China
Japanese leaders wanted to defeat the Chinese to prevent future trouble; stalemate resulted until 1945
A Tripartite Pact was signed by Germany, Japan, and Italy in September 1940; Japan and Germany never collaborated closely, due to japans refusal to participate in Germany’s ultimate war with the Soviet Union
France and Britain continued to feel the deliberating effects of WWI and were not eager for another conflict
US was eager to maintain its policy of isolationism in order to not complicate the delicate process of building a new set of government programs to fight the depression
Western effort was too little and too late to prevent war
The Course of the War: Japan’s Advance and Retreat:
Only in 1942 and 1943 did the tide begin to change
Japan used the outbreak of war in Europe as an occasion to turn its attention to other parts of Asia; seized Indochina from the French
Their desire for an Asian empire put them on a collision course with the US who were unwilling to allow Japan to became a major force in the Far East
Negotiations with the US broke down
The Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941 and seized American possessions in the eastern Pacific, including the Philippines
Only toward the middle of 1942 did the US begin to gain ground
Philippines regained in 1944
Massive air raids began an onslaught on Japan itself
Germany Overreaches:
Germany at first seemed unstoppable
Blitzkrieg: “lightning war”: rapid movement of troops, tanks, and mechanized carriers
Using Blitzkrieg, Germany crushed Poland; pushed into Denmark and Norway
France fell surprisingly quickly; unprepared for war and reliant on an outdated defensive strategy
Only Britain stood apart; able to withstand Hitler’s air offensive and win the contest for its skies known as the Battle of Britain
Solid new leadership under Winston Churchill
1940; Germany controlled the bulk of the European continent
Conquered territories in North Africa were forced to supply materials, troops, and slave labor to the German war machine
Balance of war began to shift in 1941; Hitler turned toward Russia after being blockaded from invading Britain
Weather came in the aid of the Russians
Germans were caught off guard by a harsh winter
American involvement began to make itself felt in 1942 when American and British forces challenged the Germans in north Africa
Same year, the Russians pushed back an intensive German siege of Stalingrad; Red armies began a gradual push westward that would take them past their own borders and by 1945 deep into Germany
British and American forces moved into the Italian peninsula; ousted Mussolini
Allies invaded France in 1944; pushed the Germans back with the aid of French forces
April 30, Hitler committed suicide in his Berlin bunker; German military commanders surrendered the next month
War in pacific ended a few months later
Japan’s collapse was precipitated by American use of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki; helped secure the second unconditional surrender of an Axis power
Ushered in a period of US occupation
Human Costs:
In Nanking, as many as 300000 were killed after the city had fallen to the Japanese
Holocaust: Hitler’s decision to eliminate Jews throughout Europe resulted in 6 million deaths in the gas chambers; other groups like gypsies and various political dissidents were also brutalized
American officials wanted to force Japan to surrender without costly invasion and they also hurried to prevent soviet advance in Asia
Bombings of Hiroshima killed more than 78000 and Nagasaki killed tens of thousands
Harry Truman: “the greatest thing in history”
At least 35 million people were killed in the war, 20 million in the Soviet Union alone
The Settlements of WWII:
Key result of allied discussions was agreement on the United Nations; featured better representation than did the League of Nations
Permanent seats on the Security Council: US, Britain, France, China, Russia
Primary mission providing a forum for negotiating disputes
Organization played a vital role in various international police and relief operations
Role accelerated as cold war ended in the 1980s
All agreed Hitler’s regime must go and that Germany must surrender unconditionally
Growing tension between the Soviet Union and the US
Meeting at Teheran in 1943: Russians pressed western powers to open a new front in France; led to Normandy 1944
Yalta Conference, 1945; FDR pushed for help from Soviets in Japan in exchange for Manchuria; arranged to divide Germany into four occupation zones
Postdam Conference divided Germany pending a final peace treaty; Austria gained independence in 1956
Japan occupied by US; stripped from Korea; China regained most of its former territory
Indian and African troops had fought for Britain during the war
Nations newly created in the Balkans quickly fell under soviet domination with communist governments forced upon them
Two great movements were ushered in: decolonization (created new nations in Asia, Africa, and West Indies from 1946-1970) and confrontation between the two great powers that emerged from the war, US and Soviet Union (cold war)
The Cold War and Decolonization, 1945-1989:
Winston Churchill coined the phrase iron curtain to describe the division between free and repressed societies in Europe
1947; US proclaims Marshall Plan: program of substantial loans that was designed to aid Western nations in rebuilding from the war’s devastation
In soviet eyes, plan was vehicle for US economic dominance
Germany was focal point of cold war for the early years
1947; West moved to promote German economic growth by creating a stable currency, soviets responded by blockading the city of Berlin
US responded with a massive airlift to keep the city supplied; crisis ended in 1948, when East and West Germany began to take shape
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) formed in 1949 in a defensive alliance against possible Soviet aggression
In response, soviet Russia organized the Warsaw Pact among its eastern European satellites
1949; soviets developed their own atomic bomb; from this point on, US and Soviet Russia built even more fearsome nuclear arsenals
North Korea’s invasion of South was ultimately backed by Soviet aid; US opposition was billed as a battle against international communism
Tensions between the tow superpowers seemed to threaten nuclear confrontation; soviets began to install missiles on Western hemisphere soil in Cuba
US military response brought regional war in Vietnam; US forced to retreat
Cold war was also a battle of ideas
Battle of ideas affected the societies involved
Peak of intensity passed after the 1950s
From 1946-1970s, almost all former western colonies won independence
China and Vietnam also experienced sweeping revolutions
Many new nations proclaimed nonalignment in the cold war; seeked and gained workable diplomatic relations with both the US and Russia
Economic interactions increased between most nations
Multinational companies began production operations in various parts of the world often influencing individual governments in unprecedented ways
International pollution problems were a final fruit of the increasingly global character of the world economy
Ronald Reagan increased military spending; Soviets were hard pressed to respond
Mikhail Gorbachev openly acknowledged soviet economic crisis in 1985
Gorbachev was obliged to recognize full independence of satellite states in eastern Europe by 1989
Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, signaling the end of the cold war
Period III: The 1990s and Beyond:
US had no full rival as military superpower
Alliance systems that had marked western and world history began to close down
Regional conflicts demanded new attention in the aftermath of changes in eastern Europe
Tensions involving Iraq; conflict between India and Pakistan; fighting in former Yugoslavia; massive killings in central Africa
US and often United Nations played roles in forming alliances that tried to reduce hostilities
Reassertions of regional identities also accompanied the end of the cold war
Revival of Islam continued to generate tensions within the middle east, affecting even well established secular states like Turkey
New emphasis was placed on regional but supranational trade blocs, designed to support economic growth by generating wider markets and labor supplies
EU expanded its membership and proposed further growth
North American free trade agreement joined the US, Mexico, and Canada
Most major societies in all regions moved toward more common commercial policies
Countries reduced state run enterprises in favor of greater competition and freer market forces
Fewer policy disparities than at any previous point in the 20th century
Interest in democratic political processes spread to many different societies
Developments reflected the steady growth in the importance of international economic contacts in the post cold war era
No single framework had emerged in the international arena, with superpower rivalry a thing of the past