A Review Essay on Marti Kheel’s Nature Ethics and Its Implications for a More Integrative Approach to Transpersonal Psychology
A Review Essay on Marti Kheel’s Nature Ethics and Its Implications for a More Integrative Approach to Transpersonal Psychology
Introduction
In Nature Ethics: An Ecofeminist Perspective (2008), ecofeminist Marti Kheel critically analyzes the contributions of four holistic environmental philosophers. Kheel argues that in basing their moral recognition of the value of other than human beings and the natural world on abstract constructs (e.g. species, ecosystems, or the transpersonal Self) these scholars have held masculinist orientations that neglect to adequately care for individual beings. This review essay will focus on Kheel’s criticisms of Warwick Fox’s (1995) Toward a Transpersonal Ecology and concepts from the field of transpersonal psychology more generally. Drawing from feminism, animal advocacy, environmental ethics, and holistic philosophy, Kheel suggests an approach to an ecofeminist holist philosophy, which “never transcends or denies our capacity for empathy and care, our most important human connection with the natural world” (p.251). Kheel emphasizes the importance of empathy and care for specific individual human and other than human beings, which entails enactment through concrete actions. In the following paragraphs brief overviews of Fox’s transpersonal ecology and transpersonal psychology will first be presented. These will be followed by a summarization of Kheel’s criticisms, which will be followed by a discussion of these in the context of ongoing debates and dialogues between proponents of the deep ecology movement and ecofeminist and transpersonal scholars, including a call to address the ecological crisis.
Fox’s Transpersonal Ecology
In the prologue to Toward a Transpersonal Ecology (1995), Fox stated his hope the book will inspire in readers further interest in gaining an ecocentric, i.e. nature-centered worldview and the lifestyles and political actions that might flow from such an orientation. Fox introduced the term
Introduction
In Nature Ethics: An Ecofeminist Perspective (2008), ecofeminist Marti Kheel critically analyzes the contributions of four holistic environmental philosophers. Kheel argues that in basing their moral recognition of the value of other than human beings and the natural world on abstract constructs (e.g. species, ecosystems, or the transpersonal Self) these scholars have held masculinist orientations that neglect to adequately care for individual beings. This review essay will focus on Kheel’s criticisms of Warwick Fox’s (1995) Toward a Transpersonal Ecology and concepts from the field of transpersonal psychology more generally. Drawing from feminism, animal advocacy, environmental ethics, and holistic philosophy, Kheel suggests an approach to an ecofeminist holist philosophy, which “never transcends or denies our capacity for empathy and care, our most important human connection with the natural world” (p.251). Kheel emphasizes the importance of empathy and care for specific individual human and other than human beings, which entails enactment through concrete actions. In the following paragraphs brief overviews of Fox’s transpersonal ecology and transpersonal psychology will first be presented. These will be followed by a summarization of Kheel’s criticisms, which will be followed by a discussion of these in the context of ongoing debates and dialogues between proponents of the deep ecology movement and ecofeminist and transpersonal scholars, including a call to address the ecological crisis.
Fox’s Transpersonal Ecology
In the prologue to Toward a Transpersonal Ecology (1995), Fox stated his hope the book will inspire in readers further interest in gaining an ecocentric, i.e. nature-centered worldview and the lifestyles and political actions that might flow from such an orientation. Fox introduced the term
References: Albanese, Catherine L. (1990). Nature religion in America: From the Algonkian Indians to the new age. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. DiZerega, Gus. (1996). A critique of Ken Wilber’s account of deep ecology and nature religions. Trumpeter, 13. Retrieved from http://trumpeter.athabascau.ca/index.php/trumpet/article/ view/268/1317 Dunlap, Riley E., Van Liere, Kent D., Mertig, Angela Fadiman, J., Grob, C., Bravo, G., Agar, A., & Walsh, R. (2003). Psychedelic research revisited. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 35, 111-125. Ferrer, Jorge N Finger, M. (1994). From knowledge to action? Exploring the relationships between environmental experiences, learning and behavior. Journal of Social Issues, 50, 141-160. Fox, Warwick. (1995). Toward a transpersonal ecology. New York, NY: State University of New York Press. Hartelius, Glenn, Caplan, Mariana, & Rardin, Mary Anne. (2007). Transpersonal psychology: Defining the past, divining the future. The Humanistic Psychologist, 35, 1–26. Kaplan, Stephen. (2000). Human nature and environmentally responsible behavior. Journal of Social Issues, 56, 491-508. Kheel, Marti (2008). Nature ethics. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Metzner, Ralph. (1991). Psychologizing deep ecology: A review essay. ReVision, 13, 147-153. Metzner, Ralph. (1999). Green psychology: Transforming our relationship to the earth. Rochester, Vermont: Park Street Press. Macy, Joanna. (1990). The greening of the self. In All Hunt Badiner (Ed.), Dharma Gaia. Berkeley: Parallax Press. Maslow, Abraham. (1975). The farther reaches of human nature. New York, NY: Viking Press. Naess, Arne (1973). The shallow and the deep, long-range ecology movement: A summary. Inquiry 16, 95–100. Naess, Arne (1990). Ecology, community and lifestyle (David Rothenberg, Trans.). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Peterson, A. L. (2007). Talking the walk: A practice-based environmental ethic as grounds for hope. In L. Kearns and C. Keller (Eds.), Ecospirit: Religions and philosophies for the Earth (pp. 45-62). New York, NY: Fordham University Press. Plumwood, Val (2002). Environmental culture: the ecological crisis of reason. New York, NY: Routledge. Rothberg, Donald. (2008). Connecting inner and outer transformation. In Jorge N. Ferrer and Jacob H. Sherman (Eds.), The participatory turn: Spirituality, mysticism, religious studies (pp. 349-370). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Ruffing, Janet K. (2001). Mysticism & social transformation. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. Schroll, Mark A. (2007). Wrestling with Arne Naess: A chronicle of ecopsychology 's origins. The Trumpeter: Journal of Ecosophy, 23(1), 28-57. Schroll, Mark A. (2012). Personal communication. Schultz, P. Wesley. (2000). Empathizing with nature: The effects of perspective taking on concern for environmental issues. Journal of Social Issues, 56, 391-406. Spretnak, Charlene. (1994). Radical nonduality in ecofeminist philosophy. In K. J. Warren (Ed.), Ecofeminism: Women, culture, nature (pp. 425-436). Bloomington and Indianapolis, IN: Indiana University Press. Stavely, Homer & McNamara, Patrick (1992). Warwick Fox’s “transpersonal ecology”: A critique and alternative approach. The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 24, 201-211. Sutich, Anthony Sutich, Anthony. (1969). The emergence of the transpersonal orientation: A personal account. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 8, 5-19. Tarnas, Richard. (2008) Foreward. In Revisioning transpersonal theory: A participatory vision of human spirituality. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Walsh, Roger N. & Vaughan, Frances. (Eds.). (1993). Paths beyond ego. New York, NY: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Putnam. Warren, Karen. (2000). Ecofeminist philosophy. Oxford, UK: Rowman & Littlefield. Wilber, Ken. (1995). Sex, ecology, spirituality: The spirit of evolution. Boston, MA: Shambhala. Wright, Peggy A. (1995). Bringing women’s voices to transpersonal theory. ReVision, 17(3), 3-10. Retrieved from: http://www.revisionpublishing.org Wright, Peggy (1998) Zimmerman, Michael E. (1994). Contesting earth’s future. Berkeley: University of California Press.