Amerykanizacja I Lata 60

2. The historical and cultural background The following chapter provides theoretical background concerning the Post War Britain. It gives us some information about the political and cultural state of the country at that time. I started with a brief explanation of its international relations and economic situation. Then I described the effects of Americanisation and consumerism on British culture. Afterwards, I focused on the sixties, with education, sexual revolution and young generation being the key elements of the subsection.

2.1. The post-war influence of American culture

Every end foreshadows a new beginning. No sooner had the Second World War finished, than the post-war era started to change the countenance of the British nation. Such was the affluence of the post-war period, that it created a relative contentment in both political and social circles. However, after the re-lection of Conservatives Great Britain faced considerable challenges. (Davies and Sinfield 2000, 104)The paucity of competing with other countries became a source of anxiety and raised questions about its economic future. At the beginning of the sixties it was revealed that the export industry was in a poor condition. Coupled with difficulties concerning inflation, it contributed to an international opinion that Great Britain was a country characterised by a slow development. (Donnelly, 2005, 49-50) Many writers made attempts to identify the whys and wherefores of this stagnation and apathy. As it was described by Anthony Sampson:
“A loss of dynamic and purpose, and general bewilderment, are felt by many people, both at the top and the bottom in Britain today” (Ward 2001, 9) Expressing their discontent, writers blamed the ruling government and dominant elites for indifference. But politics and economy were not the only concerns. At the heart of British problems laid an Americanisation of its culture. (Donnelly 2005, 49).
The majority of artists claimed to be inspired by popular American celebrities, still, some people firmly distanced themselves from this tendency. On one hand, such fascinations with American-style allowed the middle-class to tear away from the capitalist system and forget about the hardship of everyday life. On the other, Americanisation reflected negative aspects of consumerism, simultaneously exposing the weaknesses of mass media. Intellectuals had no doubt that the minds of American followers were filled with pseudo-culture. The erroneous perception of widely understood popular culture led to mindless cultivation of American style, people blindly imitated overseas trends. (Davies and Sinfield 2000, 108-109). Raymond Williams, Welsh critic, clearly concerned about the current condition of British culture, expressed in harsh words his opinion involving the “the worst cultural products of our time”. (Donnelly 2005, 51). According to Williams, it required great mental effort to find anything truly popular in these products. From his point of view, present culture was ‘synthetic’ and strange to everyone. (Donelly 2005, 51) Moreover, he pointed out that it was not conducive to intellectual development and art. The academic critic indicated that at the time, British culture was characterized not only by ignorance but also by a lack of strong emotions, like hatred or frustration. Naming them a “bad work”, he emphasized the American origin of these attitudes. (Donnelly 2005, 50-52) Surely, Williams diagnosis, along with the criticism of decline in cultural performance, gained attention of many. It should come as no surprise that there was a strong need for some alternative form of culture. Something that would be able to combine the true spirit of art and innovation. Intelligentsia of the time favoured unconventional approach towards cultural purification. They were strongly convinced that in order for any changes to be introduced effectively, it was necessary to act radically. The idea was to cream off what is best in the art itself and present it to a wider audience in an effective manner. It was of great importance to promote culture in its purest form, devoid of American trivia, which as it was believed by intellectuals, became almost like an addiction for British working class. (Davies and Sinfield 2000, 105) Workers preferred to delight themselves with unsophisticated entertainment of all sorts:
“They watched ITV game shows like Double Your Money in their millions, they read the scandals and titillations of the popular newspapers and they flocked to the bingo halls each week”. (Donelly 2005, 52) One might have had an impression that Great Britain was self-pleased, almost ignorant country but in fact, it did not have any justified reasons for such attitude. It is worth pointing out that the British state of the early sixties was actually underdeveloped in many political and cultural spheres. When we look at the problem from different angles, we can easily notice that British nation was longing for renewal. However, there were various obstacles like indifference and indolence – qualities deeply rooted in British mentality, which could impede the process of cultural revolution.(Donelly 2005, 53) Despite many doubts, it was clear that the upcoming decade of “Swinging Sixties” was bound to bring forward significant changes concerning “material conditions, lifestyles, family relationships and personal freedoms for the vast majority of ordinary people”
(Marwick 1998, 15). Surely, the new was yet to come.
2.2. The “Swinging Sixties”

With the first colour television set and the first submarine launched, arrived the era of great sociological, cultural and political transformations. As far as society is concerned, people became more aware of class divisions, which had always played a great role in British history. There was a progressive decrease in the number of blue-collar workers and considerable increase in the number of white-collar workers. The first worked in manufacturing industry, the latter were employed as managers or other qualified professionals. By no means were casual workers paid sufficient salaries that will allow them to live with dignity. Poor wages and conventional class-consciousness caused growing discontent among causal workers. No longer did workers want to accept poor living conditions, class-ridden society and suspicious political negotiations. (Bourke 1994, 138-140) Despite many inner struggles, Britain tried to keep its cool blood, explaining them to public opinion in a euphemistic manner. For instance, failures such as Suez crisis were described as “little local difficulties”. (Donelly 2005, 23) No matter how hard British government tried to diminish the gravity of the problems, internal weaknesses were still discernible for other countries. (Donelly 2005, 23) The two-faced behaviour of British establishment could not escape the notice of adolescents whose population increased enormously in the verge of the sixties. Teenagers had enough of being fed with unfulfilled promises, like those of eradicating poverty. Instead, they wanted to witness true changes that would allow them to stand in opposition to capitalism, limited freedom of expression and obsolete customs. Neither were young Britons satisfied with education. Although universities flourished, attracting more than enough students, they did not manage to realize their expectations. Students complained mostly on unjust academic system and substandard accommodation. They felt helpless while facing the wall of educational conservatism and moderate habits, which had grown into the habit of academic officials. Students had marginal impact on activities undertaken by universities, which did not provide any opportunities for developing creative thinking, individual initiatives and exceptional abilities. Surely, there was no place for holding controversial opinions or drawing reproach from authorities for inactiveness. (Gordon, Aldrich and Dean 1991, 76-82)

Dearth of innovative programs discouraged students from improving their knowledge and exposed the weak sides of educational system. It was characterized by conservative approach and stringent rules, as a result it failed to prepare students for the demands of the labour market. It was due to the fact that educational services were inadequate and not adjusted to the individual needs. Educatees hoped for influencing decisions that directly affected their future and which will allow them to take the future into their own hands.
(Simon 1999, 20-24)

Left with no interesting alternatives and feeling forced to subject to strict rules, students were determined to act in radical fashion. They protested against limiting their freedom of expression and duplicity of activities undertaken by politicians, which could seriously endanger common interests of young people. Equally relevant to the issue were the Vietnam War and Apartheid in South Africa which caused strenuous objections raised by youngsters. These political fallacies did not manage to convince Britons who retained distrust of government. The policy aiming at violence and racial divisions did not receive any accolades from teenagers, not in the least, rebels organised many demonstrations, in order to manifest their anti-establishment, belligerent attitude. (Donelly 2005, 23-30) One of the loudest insurgencies took place in London in 1968 with around 100,000 participants. In view of these facts it became quite obvious that the decade of revolt started for good and there was no force on the globe which could possibly prevent it. (Cuncliffe and Barlett 2001, 268). Deceptions against political ideologies, as well as disillusionments with social modernisation, contributed to reevaluation of British society. Disagreements within the state authorities and fragile trust in establishment, became specific catalysts for cultural revolution, which inclined young people to pursuit their own ways of spontaneous expression.Swinging sixties inspired young generation to reject all rigidities, especially those characteristic of the previous decade. Never again did the teenagers want to be duty-bound or limited by any restrictions. They wish was to be entirely free, believing that control would be a hindrance to obtaining what they wanted. Even being mature and relatively independent they did not have to make a living but it was very common to engage in casual work. (Cuncliffe and Barlett 2001, 268-270)

Technological advancement along with post-war prosperity allowed to circumvent grave problems, for instance unemployment. An important aspect of social revolution was the fact that all requirements necessary for human existence were already fulfilled. An incidental benefit of the situation was that in rapidly developing countries, such as Great Britain, people did not have to worry about the vision of poverty. (Horn 2011, 186)

However, teenagers soon started to realize that in constant pursuit of profit, people forgot what the true values really were. British nation lost itself in consumerism, purchasing products in amounts that considerably exceeded fundamental needs. Increased productivity reduced costs of goods and eliminated problems caused by the scarcity of resources.
(Horn 2011, 187)

Low prices, as well as unlimited access to commodities encouraged people to purchase very often useless possessions. It was a shift away from traditional consumer behaviours and the beginning of new period marked by omnipresent consumption. It cannot be denied that the comfort of living significantly improved in the sixties. However, there was a growing concern over irrational wasting of money, followed by spiritual draught. Being swallowed by the machine of consumerism, people receded from healthy values, which so far had governed their lives. Unfortunately, it was an inexorable process that substituted the hitherto prevailing standards with consumerist pollution. Overwhelmed by new commercial reality, many British citizens lost true sense of being. (Johnson and Strange 2007, 163-164)
This sort of lifestyle was the embodiment of virtually everything that the younger generation stood against, mostly greed. They started to become resistant from the mainstream and very willing to break free from social blindness. Refusing to succumb to the ruling order and rejecting commonly accepted behaviours, teenagers started forming the counterculture that played a key role in the sixties. Adolescents and their parents represented different attitudes towards surrounding world, that is why the era of the sixties was marked by the clash of generations. (Bakckdate 2011). British children raised in the postwar prosperity had no idea about the hardships that were like daily bread for their parents. There was no use of instilling certain values, which for young people were of no relevance, simply because they grew up in other reality. Teenagers viewed the world from a completely different perspective, constantly looking for their place in life. (Horn 2011, 189-191)

It is important to add that the years of puberty were extremely, fraught and the largest number of conflicts emerged during this difficult time. In particular, the juvenile did not like the idea of being controlled by any authorities, including their parents. Youngsters associated institutions of school and church with conservatism, discipline and boredom. They perceived them as antonyms of liberation, believing that the main aim of school and church was to dictate certain system of moral values, which were not in tune with the spirit of the sixties. Undeterred in their search of ideals, teenagers wanted to establish their true identity in the light of social upheaval. Misunderstood by the older generation, they played truants or escaped from homes just to feel the flavour of freedom. It was an emergence of new generations surely. (Cuncliffe and Barlett 2001, 269)

Young Brits could easily afford to buy various luxuries and put aside the worries of everyday life. They lived their life to the full, visiting popular clubs and taking advantage from different sorts of stimulants, like drugs, alcohol or cigarettes – quite cheap and widely available at the time.(Cuncliffe and Barlett 2001, 268) It was more often the case that the weed was smoked, however, in surreptitious ways, as this soft drug was still illegal. Although the consequences of over dosages were already well-known, adolescents did not seem to pay too much attention to possible risks, adopting carefree or even contemptuous attitude. Young people were vulnerable to the impact of their peers, copying controversial behaviours and following negative trends, at the same time disobeying their parents. One should, nevertheless, keep in mind that despite rising in social revolts, teenagers still had much of respect for their parents.
But let us not forget that the crazy sixties were mainly a time of cultural development and youngsters most often spent their leisure time in the cinemas, especially drive-in cinemas, which became an extremely popular form of diversion. (Cuncliffe and Barlett 2001, 270-272) As they hardly got along with their parents, youngsters felt much more comfortable among people with similar worldview and equal expectations to the surrounding reality. Determination to distinguish oneself and an inner need to establish one’s identity, whether cultural, social or sexual, marked the emergence of many subcultures. It was a burst of youth energy, enthusiasm and euphoria. Unscathed by painful experience, untouched by war sufferings and hardships, they were ready to conquer the world. What I assume worth pointing out and what was rightly noticed by Theodore Roszak, is the fact that the counterculture of the sixties had nothing in common with negative aspects of war, on the contrary it was strongly connected with affluence and continually improving quality of life:
”It arose not out of misery but out of plenty” (Roszak 1983, 2)

Youthful subcultures, like mods who were especially in fond of everything modern and stylish, had multiple methods of expressing their self-image by means of vogue, style or deviant behaviour. The post-war generation was not charged with the common duty of each and everyone to contribute to family budget. Therefore, they could easily afford to buy fashionable clothes and little luxuries such as jewellery. By no means, it was a marvelous time for fashion boutiques, most famous of which were those in London (Owram 1996, 3) Also the fashion market with many young designers, was in its full bloom. Young rebels showed a tremendous interest in novel trends, spending enormous amounts of money on different sorts of clothes: from elegant to fancy, sometimes almost outrageous. Both-and, this attitude of exaggerated money spending very often resulted in numerous oddities, as it deviated from the norms of good taste and common sense. One of the members of mod subcultures declared with surprising frankness that he would "go without food to buy clothes" (Jobling and Crowley, 20). Actresses and singers, with Twiggy in the front, became role models for fashion followers and achieved the status of icons. Girls used relatively small amounts of make-up, along with false lashes, which were very popular at the time being
(Casburn 1999) Whereas some subcultures were perceived as snobbish, others were proud of their scruffiness, trying to distance themselves from impeccably perfect gusto of mods. Rockers – completely opposite formation, viewed vainglorious groups as lacking in male element, that is why they wanted to develop their own, more masculine style. It was characterized mainly by wearing leather jackets, obligatory emblazoned with metal details, as well as a great fondness for riding motorcycles (Perone 2008, 65). The provocative attitude of British subcultures inspired new directions in different spheres of life, including sex, which from now on was no longer considered a taboo. Youngsters of the sixties crossed the boundaries of aesthetics, morality and ethics. They used foul-mouthed language and every subculture had its own kind of slang, characteristic for each group. Teenagers constituted a surprising combination of shocking appearance and provocative behaviour. The more detached from the rest, the better. It was of great importance to establish one’s identity and stand out from the crowd of ordinary citizens. This young British generation became main protagonist of sexual revolution, which emerged from social unrest and dissatisfaction with prevailing standards of behaviour. What they certainly did not like in particular were three words: rules, norms and regulations. They preferred to sustain them with other key words: sex, drugs and rock and roll. Teenagers disregarded the “golden rule” established by the church that preached about the prohibition of sex before marriage. Notwithstanding, young Brits were no longer interested in anything that could possibly limit their freedom. (Owram 1996, 10-11) Certainly, the sixties broke down a plethora of taboos concerning sexuality. People were more aware of their needs and were able to concretise their desires – no longer did they have to be ashamed of their fantasies. Moreover, widely accessible erotic literature allowed to dispel many myths involving the topic of sex. Very soon, sex stores and night clubs sprang up like mushrooms. Its attendees enjoyed experimenting with sexual gadgets and various types of sexual intercourse. Not less popular were sex without commitment, making love with many partners or living together before changing marital status. (Escoffier 2006) Because of sexual liberation, golden sixties will be also remembered as the time of increased feministic activity. Although contraception became commonly available, there was an enormous number of abortions. Convinced of their independence, women started to fight for their rights and demanded equal treatment of sexes. Most importantly, they wanted to draw the attention of public opinion to such pressing problems as sexual abuse and discrimination, both at work and at home. They stood firmly against popular stereotype of a woman perceived only in terms of mother and wife. Once praised innocence and virginity, now were considered old-fashioned. (Cook 2005, 201-203)

At the time, females wanted to break with the image of well-mannered ladies, rather they preferred to take advantage from life and entertain themselves as much as possible. Short mini-skirts symbolized relieving oneself from parental control and became a symbol of sexual liberation. Unfortunately, this hedonistic approach resulted in growing number of teenage pregnancies and venereal diseases. As to parents, they could only spread their arms because the times when they had great impact on their children were clearly over. (Cook 2005, 220)

Still, sex was an inherent part of society and culture, which constantly complemented each other. What had been unthinkable, now became reality. It was mostly visible in popular culture, especially music. Album covers presented below clearly illustrate rapid development of sexual revolution.

Sexual revolution marked the end of obedience, courteous and conformist behaviour. So called “proper values” became replaced by sexual liberation, which together with passion allowed youngsters to reach the forbidden. Whatever the aim, they manifested loudly their individualism and their resistance to any restrictions. Now instead of listening to their parents, they listened to music.