Worksheets

Worksheet 1: Note Taking From a Journal Article
Article to be used here: http://ezproxy.lib.swin.edu.au/login?url=http://onlineres.swin.edu.au/1134781.pdf
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Name of Authors: Diane Reay, Jacqueline Davies, Miriam David, Stephen J Ball.
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Year of Publication: 2001
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Title of Article: “Choices of Degree or Degrees of Choice? Class, `Race' and the Higher Education Choice Process”
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Title of Journal: “Sociology” Volume Number: 35 Issue Number: 4
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Page Range: 855-874 1. From the abstract and introduction, what is this article about? (tell us in maximum 2 sentences in your own words) This article examines data collected from a group of people attending higher education and in particular focuses on the motivating factors behind their choice of degree. It investigates and highlights factors such as race and class by examining particular students, who, by tradition, would not usually have applied to university. By linking the data broadly to theories of meritocracy and habitus, the article aims to demonstrate that despite significant changes to the availability of higher education throughout our history, some groups remain significantly underrepresented. 2. In the historical background, what is the problem which has led to the authors asking these questions?
The authors of the article began their enquiry because of what they identified as an anomaly in the university entrance statistics recorded throughout the 20th century. The statistics showed an overall large increase in university entrance, coupled with a large increase in the attendance of women - eventually bringing it up to parity with men. However despite these two significant changes, the data showed no assimilation in classes, with the middleclass remaining overrepresented for the most part of the century.

3. In the methods section (called ‘The research study’), what are the authors investigating? How are they investigating this? The authors have studied an enormously diverse group of over 500 people from six different institutions in order to investigate the process of choosing higher education as well as the different influences on these choices. The investigation has a main focus on applicants from class backgrounds that, according to historical data, would not have attended university in the past. The investigation uses tools such as questionnaires (to all of the group), interviews (of a smaller cross-section of the group as well as some parents and teachers) and also focus groups. 4. From the section entitled ‘Not much of a choice’, there are several themed sections. These are the findings and discussion. What are the main themes in the findings identified by the authors? List and explain them in your own words. The main themes in the author’s findings are that various limitations and conditions exist, which affect in particular, the ethnic minority, the low socioeconomic class and to a lesser degree, the middle class students of the group. The authors refer to these as structural or material constraints. These are limitations are based on geography and A levels achieved, which in turn have a direct relationship to the constraint of time available for each student to study. Additionally, the authors demonstrate there is an element of psychological constraint, whereby the study group indicated that the need to feel comfortable at university also acts as a constraint. Structural Constraints Geography: the study found a very high level of localism within the lower socio economic groups including the ethnic minority. Whereas it was found that students from the ethnic minority and the working class were highly influenced by whether or not they could travel to the university from home easily and cheaply, students from privileged class backgrounds did not generally consider this to be a guiding factor. A Level grades & time available to study: it is indicated that the attainment of A level grades is directly related to whether the student needs to work and how many hours are spent working. It was noted that students from all ethnicities, lower and middle classes, as well as mature age students found it necessary to work for the duration of their degree. Only the students from the wealthier class generally did not work, or worked minimal hours, thus making it easier for these students to gain entry to university and succeed once there. Psychological Constraints The authors found the entire study group was affected by psychological constraints in one form or another. For each person, the limitation varied according to their sub group of class, race and sex. The study showed that students wanted to ‘fit in’ and for many, it was very important they went to a university where they felt comfortable. The students wanted to feel like they were in the ‘right place’ for them. Additionally it was noted there is a perception that some universities are better than others, adding to the student’s choice process. Further to this, is the consideration of whether or not the student could reasonably expect to be accepted to certain universities. 5. A theory is a concept applied to the findings (Theory means a proposition that attempts to explain trends, findings, or observations that are not specific to any one study). What theories do the authors draw on in the findings section?

In this section the theory of culture capitol is explored. Culture capitol is defined, as what’s important to a person and their economic status. It is developed, as the person grows, dependent on their environment and background. Bourdieu’s theory that people have a ‘sense of their place’, which thereby presents a situation of self-exclusion is discussed by the author, who suggests the students will exclude themselves from places they perceive they don’t belong. For example, for some, the university league table is not even relevant to their choice process because of self-exclusion, and instead they develop expectations according to what they perceive is appropriate and reasonable for them. He refers to this as falling under the theory of cultural reproduction.

In contrast to this, Bourdieu adds that in some cases, people from lower and middle classes will strive to aim higher in order to escape their lower status. It is in fact the stigma of being working class that drives them to achieve a higher status.

The article also discusses meritocracy; a theory which has been associated with higher education for some time, and assumes that the people who achieve the best grades, will achieve the sought after places in higher education however we now understand this to be misguided and this article highlights the very real social and structural barriers which hinder or stop some students with potentially the best marks, from achieving a place at university. 6. What are the main conclusions?

The main conclusions to be drawn from this study are that although the evolution of universities throughout our history has gone from being a place only the elite wealthy could attend, to being reasonably accessible to the masses, there still remains sizeable class inequality within the higher education system. One positive aspect of note is that the ethnic minority are now achieving university places in a greater proportion than their white counterparts. However the concern remains that these students have much greater limitations, obstacles and circumstances to consider when choosing their higher education path compared to the elite wealthy class. This demonstrates the overall point that despite the changing face of higher education, there is still a great disparity in equality.

7. Now create an overall summary: summarise the context, approach, methods and findings of the article in a brief paragraph / few sentences, i.e. summarise the article. This may draw on some of what you have written above.

The study environment consisted of data collected from a broad cross-section of students, family members of students as well as some teachers all within the setting of the higher education system around central London. The significance of the study is to investigate the processes for each individual when choosing a degree, focussing on specific issues of class, ethnicity, gender and age. The study measured quantitative data from the entire group, in the form of a questionnaire combined with qualitative data from a smaller cross-section of the group, in the form of interviews. The findings of the study indicate that despite universities evolving from being, traditionally, a platform for the upper middle class, into a modern day system of higher education accessible to the masses, the process of choice is largely different between classes and issues of race and class place the biggest limitations on the larger proportion of students leading to sustained underrepresentation and inequality in higher education.

8. How could the authors’ conclusions be useful in your first essay? Could they support / provide counter-arguments for any particular positions?

In my first essay I will discuss the challenges faced by rural low and working class socio-economic students applying for university. I will report on the various recent Australia-centric data, which demonstrates their under-representation in higher education. Additionally I will discuss reasons for the imbalance and theories put forward by other researchers, which appear to correlate with this data. The conclusion the author presents in this article, has parallels with my own arguments in that culture reproduction - both internal and external factors – including socialisation, the influence of geography and personal psychological limitations, play a huge role in determining if, when and where a rural, lower socio-economic student attends university.

Worksheet 2: Timeline, and Essay Plan or Mind Map. Part One: Create a timeline which includes: (1) each task you have to do between now and submitting (should be about eight tasks), (2) when you plan to start them, (3) how long you think they will take, (4) when you plan to finish them. Here is an example of a timeline, which you can use to get you thinking: http://onlineres.swin.edu.au.ezproxy.lib.swin.edu.au/1002213.pdf Please see over page for Timeline

Part Two: Create an essay plan, OR, a mind map.
Follow this link to a resource, which will help you to think about how you want to communicate your early essay ideas. P.183, in particular, has an example 'outline plan' (point 3 on the page) which you might like to follow, and a mind map (point 1 on the page). These are both ways of getting your formative ideas for your approach to the first essay on paper: http://onlineres.swin.edu.au.ezproxy.lib.swin.edu.au/1002210.pdf
OR
Follow this link to a site which has information about mind mapping and some examples, if you choose to show your ideas for your first essay in this way for Worksheet 2: http://www.jcu.edu.au/tldinfo/learningskills/mindmap/index.html Please see next page for essay plan and outline.

OUTLINE PLAN – Essay 1 – BASIC STEPS: | Notes: (see next page for detailed plan) | 1. Title | | 2. Introduction (100-150 wds) | | 3. Main argument: Paragraph 1: Topic sentence, explain, elaborate, present examples & evidence for Point #1 (social influence). Link to point 2. (150-250 wds)Paragraph 2: As above for Point #2 (habitus). Link to Point #3. (150-250 wds)Paragraph 3: As above for Point #3 (culture capital/reproduction). Link to Point #4 (150-250 wds)Paragraph 4: As above for Point #4 (psych constraints). Link to alternative theory #1. (150-250wds) | a. evidence for b. evidence against c. examples ofc. evaluation of evidenceReadings: 1.Reay et al, ‘Degrees of Choice..’2.Grenfel, ‘Bourdieu & Education’3.Dustmann, ‘Parental Background..’4.Coleman, ‘Equality of …’5.Yorke, ‘Improving the retention..’6.Cabrera, ‘Understanding the ..’7.Sewell, ‘SE status, intelligence..’(old)8.Ball, ‘Choice, pathways..’9.Aus govt, ‘Undergrad applications…’10.Abbott-Chapman, ‘Making the most of..’ | 4. Alternative theory #1 - State the theory of meritocracy, explain, elaborate, example & evidence. Why not convincing. Link to alternative theory #2. (150 wds) | a. example of applicationb. evidence forc. evidence againstd. why it’s not convincing | 5. Alternative theory #2 (?) - State the theory in 1 sentence, explain, elaborate, example & evidence. Why not convincing. Link to underlying issues. (150 wds) | a. evaluation of evidenceb. why it’s not convincing | 6. Conclusion – State my answer to the question. Summarise essay & explain how conclusion is reached. (100 wds) | | 7. Reference & bibliography - As per Swinburne Harvard. | Begin this as soon as reading begins. This should be ongoing from start. |
NOTES:
* Do not use sub-headings in the essay. * Times new Roman 12pt, 1.5 spacing (Reference list 1.0 space is ok). * Due 13 April. * Use statistics from the Australian Government report ‘Undergraduate Applications, Offers and Acceptances 2011’. * Use at least one empirical study (secondary source) which has addressed the phenomenon; * Use 5 or 6 academic references (to clarify what constitutes an academic source see Lessons 3 and 4).

OUTLINE PLAN – ESSAY 1 – IN DETAIL: 1. Title: ‘A study into the reasons for the continued underrepresentation of rural low and working class socio economic status (LWSES) in higher education in Australia” 2. Introduction: Set the scene – rural LSES (and definition of), modern Aus and historic Australian higher education. Follow this with outline of my argument points (be sure to answer the question) and brief theory that is: LSES struggle with higher ed due to psych & cultural constraints (ie, personal /emotional limitations & social influences) and work/life constraints (habitus/culture capital). Also discuss opposing theories (meritocracy/ external only is too broad) and state why they fall short.
(100-150 wds) 3. Main argument: Paragraph 1: Social influence – teachers/parents and even school influence choice of higher ed attendance. Your school aims low. Role models tell you to aim ‘safe’. Pressure from people who guide you to stay home or choose degree which can bring you home when finished (big limitations to this). Link to habitus. 4. Paragraph 2: Habitus (& geography). Link to personal /psych constraints. 5. Paragraph 3: Personal & psychological constraints – that is: the temptation to stay home because it’s more comfortable financially & socially, rather than attempt to leave home town to pursue higher ed in the city, which is often viewed as entering into unknown struggles – both financial and social. Link to culture capital. 6. Paragraph 4: Culture capital / reproduction. Link to alternative theory (meritocracy). 7. Alternative theory: Meritocracy. Example, evidence for, against, why it falls short. External only theory is too broad and does not account for other factors such as.. 8. Alternative theory #2: (?) To be confirmed, perhaps not applicable. 9. Conclusion: State my answer to the question. Summary of essay. How I reached the conclusion. 10. Reference list & bibliography.

Worksheet 3: Extracts for Summarising, Paraphrasing and Quoting Swinburne guide to Harvard citation and referencing style: http://www.swinburne.edu.au/lib/researchhelp/harvard_style.html 1. Paragraph for Summarising: Please summarise this extract from pages 453-454 of the ‘Declining Inequality’ article (http://ezproxy.lib.swin.edu.au/login?url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1468-4446.2003.00453.x/pdf ) in as few lines as possible, with correct citation: During the early postwar period, a major goal of educational reformers was to make education outcomes fairer, so that the circumstances of one’s birth would not determine the amount or type of education that one received. To those on the political left, such educational reform was the key to substantially reducing the reproduction of privilege and inequality. Although Socialists, Labourites and Social Democrats were divided about how to reduce existing inequalities, they generally agreed that ensuring ‘equality of opportunity’ through the education system would, given time, produce a fairer and more just society. Many of the postwar educational reforms in industrialized countries were based on a meritocratic ideology – success in the education system should be based on ability and effort, not social background and other social characteristics. Interestingly, the political right also largely supported educational reform. Few supported the aristocratic notion that only particular families could provide the necessary training and preparation for important social positions. Indeed, economic liberalism saw the reproduction of privilege as an extraordinary waste of human talent. Economic actors should be allowed to enter the free market on an equal footing. The reproduction of inequality meant that talented students from working-class backgrounds could not reach their full potential. Answer 1: Now, type your summary below, and include the appropriate in-text citation (Swinburne Harvard Style). In their article, Marks and McMillan (2003, vol. 54, pp. 453-454) stated that the postwar government in Australia began an initiative to make higher education more accessible to all students regardless of the class they were born into. This gained significant political support from both the left and right wing parties and brought Australia in line with reforms of other developing countries, many of which subscribed to the idea of meritocracy and the belief that equal opportunity would allow all students to reach their full potential. This was further supported by the policy of economic liberalism, which the Australian government adopted at that time.

2. Sections for Paraphrasing: Paraphrase, with correct citation, the following section from the ‘Declining Inequality’ article (http://ezproxy.lib.swin.edu.au/login?url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1468-4446.2003.00453.x/pdf ) to explain what the author/s think/s about ability and socioeconomic background / cultural capital. Taken from p. 467 of the article: Ability is an important influence on educational outcomes and thus indirectly influences occupational destinations. Its effects cannot be attributed to socio-economic background or other factors such as cultural capital. Its effects on educational outcomes tend to be stronger than that for socioeconomic background. However, among students with the same ability levels, students from higher socio-economic background have superior outcomes. Answer 2: Now, type your paraphrase below, and include the appropriate in-text citation (Swinburne Harvard Style). Marks and McMillan (2003, vol. 54, p. 467) suggest that despite low socioeconomic factors influencing the effect of education and eventual occupation, it is a student’s ability, which more strongly determines the end result. However, when students of differing backgrounds but equal ability levels are compared, it is students from high-income backgrounds who achieve the better standard of results. Paraphrase, with correct citation, the following section from page 321 of the ‘Speaking about Cultural Difference and School Disadvantage’ article (http://ezproxy.lib.swin.edu.au/login?url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/01425690120067953 ) to explain what the author found from their interview: Fofoa Safotu suggested that teachers’ ‘lack of understanding about Samoan students’ may have produced strongly insulated boundaries between the category, ‘Samoan student’, and other categories of students. In addition, she stated that discourses on aptitude might have been invoked in the construction of these boundaries, with Samoan students being positioned as ‘below average’. Answer 3: Now, type your paraphrase below, and include the appropriate in-text citation (Swinburne Harvard Style). Singh (2001, vol. 22, no. 3, p. 321) points to Fofoa Safotu’s suggestion that Samoan students are generally labelled by their teachers as underperforming and this, coupled with the teachers’ insensitivity toward these students, has created divisions between Samoan students and other students. 3. Line for Quoting: Please demonstrate how you would use this line from page 332 of the ‘Speaking about Cultural Difference and School Disadvantage’ article (http://ezproxy.lib.swin.edu.au/login?url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/01425690120067953) as a quotation in a sentence, with correct citation: Peone Avao and Deso Vailoa indicated that the arbitrary organisation of school knowledge (sequencing and pacing rules) was not designed to meet the needs of students who did not speak English at home, and spoke a form of ‘broken’ English in the school, namely the Samoan learner. Answer 4: Now, type your direct quote below, remembering to use action words to introduce the quote, and include the appropriate in-text citation (Swinburne Harvard Style). Demonstrating the lack of sensitivity to the needs of Samoan students, Singh (2001, vol. 22, no. 3, p. 332) draws on his data to state ‘the arbitrary organisation of school knowledge…was not designed to meet the needs of students who did not speak English at home’. 4. Referencing: Finally please write out the references for these articles, as you would in the Reference List section of an essay, according to the Swinburne Harvard Style Guide, linked in the folder for this assessment, available on the library website and many other places! Answer 5: Now, type your reference list entries below, following Swinburne Harvard Style conventions. Marks, G & McMillan, J 2003, ‘Declining inequality? The changing impact of socio-economic background and ability on education in Australia’, British Journal of Sociology, vol. 54, no. 4, pp. 453–471.

Singh, P 2001, ‘Speaking about Cultural Difference and School Disadvantage. An Interview study of 'Samoan' Paraprofessionals in Designated Disadvantaged Secondary Schools in Australia’, British Journal of Sociology of Education, vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 317-337.