Love Designations in Modern English

Ministry of Education, Science, Youth and Sports of Ukraine
Kyiv National Linguistic University

Professor O. M. Morokhovsky Chair of English Lexicology and Stylistics

COURSE PAPER

LOVE DESIGNATIONS IN MODERN ENGLISH:

NOMINATIVE AND COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVES

ANASTASIA VARGAS

Group 403

Department of Germanic Philology

Research Adviser

Assist. Prof. DARIA YU. KUZNIETSOVA

PhD (Linguistics)

Kyiv 2011

INTRODUCTION

The modern stage of linguistics development is characterised by numerous attempts of linguists to reintepret traditional notions. Love is not an exception. This course paper is concerned with the study of the important aspects of contemporary lexicology, i.e., designations of emotional states. The research studies of domestic and foreign scientists such as R. Gwyn, Z. Kövecses, G. Lakoff, M. Johnson, N. V. Dorofeeva, A. A. Kamalova, Yu. A. Naumova and others focus on the different aspects of the study of love designations in Modern English.

The object of the research of this course paper is English language units which designate love.

The subject-matter of the research concerns their nominative and cognitive perspectives.

The aim of the research is to reveal cultural specificity of English love designations viewed from nominative and cognitive perspectives.

The aim of the research presupposes the solution of the following tasks:

– to outline different psychological approaches to the definition of notions emotion and feeling;

– to reveal the specificity of the opposition emotions vs feelings;

– to describe different approaches to the classifications of emotions;

– to determine nonverbal manifestations of emotions;

– to define means of designations of emotions;

– to provide general characteristics of the conceptual metaphor theory;

– to analyse different means of verbalisation of the emotion love in Modern English;

– to demonstrate metaphorical representation of the emotion love in Modern English.

The topicality of this research stems from the interest of modern linguistics in the comprehensive study of verbal means used to describe emotional states in all respects.

The theoretical significance of the research is determined by its value for further development of cognitive linguistics and theory of nomination.

The practical value of the research is that its main conclusions can be applied in the courses of lexicology (chapter ‘Semasiology’), in special courses on nonverbal semiotics and linguistics of emotions.

The methodology used in this course paper is conditioned by the aim, the object, the subject-matter and the tasks of the research and embraces the following methods:

– the descriptive method, applied for linguistic observation, generalisation and classification of the material under examination;

– the method of componential analysis used to describe semantic groups of English love designations;

– the method of semantic analysis, used to reveal the paradigmatic relationships between different love designations;

– elements of the quantative analysis of the data.

Structurally the course paper consists of the introduction, two chapters, a résumé, list of reference materials. The total number of pages is 38.

Chapter one provides a theoretical framework for the study of emotions, with a special focus on psychological and linguistic aspects, as well as their interreations.

Chapter two shows the practical application of the theoretical framework of this research. Different means of verbalisation of the emotion love have been analysed and metaphorical representation of the emotion love in Modern English has been studied.

The list of reference materials consists of 40 sources representing works by domestic and foreign scholars, including a list of lexicographic sources.

CHAPTER ONE

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE STUDY OF LOVE DESIGNATIONS IN MODERN ENGLISH

In this chapter the theoretical foundations for the study of love designations in modern English are provided. The theoretical framework is made up of two constituents: psychological and linguistic. In the psychological foundations the distinctions between emotions and feelings are drawn, the basic approaches to the classifications of feelings and emotions are considered and the nonverbal manifestations of emotions are highlighted. In the linguistic foundations designation of emotion is defined as an object of research of emotiology and the theoretical foundations for the study of conceptual metaphors are provided.

1 . Psychological Foundations for the Study of Emotions

This part provides psychological foundations for the study of emotions. The notions of emotion and feeling are opposed to each other thus stating that the notion emotion is narrower than that of feeling. Nonverbal manifestations are taken into consideration as the body language is an important part of any communicative process.

1. The Notions of Emotion and Feeling. The terms emotions and feelings are often used as absolute synonyms, and it is easy to get them mixed up and confused. Although related, there is a difference between emotions and feelings, and they each serve in their own unique way (Voris 2009). Different psychological sources offer various definitions for the word emotion. The most widespread definitions are listed below: – ‘Emotion is the complex psychophysiological experience of an individual 's state of mind as interacting with biochemical (internal) and environmental (external) influences. In humans, emotion fundamentally involves "physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience’ (Myers 2004: 500); – ‘Emotion is associated with mood, temperament, personality, disposition, and motivation. Motivations direct and energize behavior, while emotions provide the affective component to motivation, positive or negative’ (Gaulin and McBurney 2003: 121-142); – ‘Emotion is a complex experience of consciousness, bodily sensation, and behaviour that reflects the personal significance of a thing, an event, or a state of affairs (Solomon and Calhoun 1984: 3-5); – ‘Emotion is a complex of feelings and thought’ (Pettinelli 2008: 47). According to Carl Jung, objects draw and invoke emotions. This natural phenomenon is essential for human survival. When you encounter an unknown, you may have a range of sensations, such as: curiosity, fear, or even ambivalence. When you give that unknown a name, it becomes a significant symbol of meaning. It is through this process that emotions become attached to every object in the universe. When some object is given a name, it not only becomes a ‘thing’, it also becomes something of ‘meaning’. On a daily basis these emotions can be as subtle as ‘like’, ‘dislike’ or ‘ambivalence’. Even a state of ambivalence is nevertheless a state of meaning. Therefore, to put it simply: nothing is ever meaningless (Voris 2009). The word feeling has upwards of twenty different meanings, depending on which source to consult. Below are listed only few of them: – ‘Feeling is a conscious subjective experience of emotion’ (VandenBos 2006: 456); – ‘Feeling is unconscious thought’ (Pettinelli 2008: 4). Feelings can either refer to some experience as a result of outside stimuli reacting with one of five senses or someone’s sensibilities, attitude, or emotional perception (Voris 2009). Taking into consideration the above given definitions of the words emotion and feeling the following conclusion can be made: the notion of emotion contains in itself the notion of feeling. From this comes out the following idea that the phenomenon of feeling is narrower than that of emotion.

2. Emotions vs Feelings. As the objects in the world induce emotions within a person, they are collected in the subconscious and begin to accumulate. This is especially when the events are repeated. Ultimately they form a final emotional conclusion about life, how to live it, and more importantly, how to survive physically and mentally in a world of chaos. When this happens a feeling is born. In this way, emotions serve as a sort of “Feelings Factory” (Voris 2009). Once feelings are established, they often feed back into your emotions to produce the appropriate result to ensure survivability. This process can be obviously seen in the following example. The parents observe their child approaching an electrical outlet with a paper clip in hand. Their sustained feeling of love for their child, will generate the temporary emotion of fear, and they quickly act by yelling “No!” and swatting their child’s hand away from the outlet. Perhaps their child responds with surprise and anger, and defiantly attempts to insert the paperclip into the outlet again. Their sustained feeling of love for their child, may generate the temporary emotion of anger because their child is expressing stubbornness, and disrespect to their attempts at preserving their life (Voris 2009). Feelings are products of emotions and once feelings are established they often feed back into emotions. But unlike short term, intense emotions, feelings are: low-key, stable and sustained over time.

Table 1
Feelings vs Emotions
(compiled by John Voris PhD, a motivation analyst)
|Feelings |Emotions |
|Feelings tell us ‘how to live’. |Emotions tell us what we ‘like’ and ‘dislike’. |
|Feelings state: ‘There is a right and wrong way to be’. |Emotions state: ‘There are good and bad actions’. |
|Feelings state: ‘your emotions matter’. |Emotions state: ‘The external world matters’. |
|Feelings establish our long term attitude toward reality. |Emotions establish our initial attitude toward reality. |
|Feeling alert us to anticipated dangers and prepares us for action. |Emotion alert us to immediate dangers and prepares us for action |
|Feelings ensure long-term survival of self. (body and mind.) |Emotions ensure immediate survival of self. (body and mind.) |
|Feelings are Low-key but Sustainable. |Emotions are Intense but Temporary. |

So, why should one be concerned with the difference between emotions and feelings anyway? The reason is that the way the person behaves in this world, is the end result of one’s feelings and emotions. Learning the following differences that feelings are the products of emotions and feelings often feedback into emotions; emotions are temporary states while feelings are sustained and emotions are more of external nature while feelings are of inner can provide the person with a better understanding of not only oneself, but of the people around.

3. Approaches to classifications of feelings and emotions in Modern Psychology. Psychologists have yet to fully tackle the question “How many emotions are there in the world?” Part of the difficulty is because experiences are so complex and involve so many different factors, so distinguishing one emotion from another is a lot like drawing lines of sand in the desert. It can be hard to determine where one emotion ends or another begins. Even when analysing a commonsense emotion like happiness or anger, one knows from everyday experience that these emotions come in many different degrees, qualities, and intensities. In addition, experiences are often comprised of multiple emotions at once, which add another dimension of complexity to one’s emotional experience (Handel 2011). Despite how difficult these distinctions may be, many psychologists have attempted to classify emotions into different categories. Early philosophy of mind posited that all emotions could be categorised as either pleasant or painful (Fortenbaugh 2003: 80), but since then more in depth theories have been put forth. In this part let us analyse some of the main approaches to classifications of emotions that have been made over the past half century. 1. P. Ekman’s List of Basic Emotions (1972) Paul Ekman devised the list of basic emotions after doing research on many different cultures. He described a situation and asked individuals to choose a facial expression that best fit. He also showed photographs of different facial expressions and asked individuals to identify the emotion. Across all cultures studied, Ekman found six basic emotions: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness and surprise (Ekman 1969: 49-98). P. Ekman added other emotions to this list in the 1990s, but stated that not all of these can be encoded via facial expressions: amusement, contempt, contentment, embarrassment, excitement, guilt, pride in achievement, relief, satisfaction, sensory pleasure and shame (Ekman 1999: 47-57). 2. R. Plutchik’s Wheel of Emotions (1980) Robert Plutchik created a new conception of emotions in 1980. He called it the ‘wheel of emotions’ because it demonstrated how different emotions can blend into one another and create new emotions. R. Plutchik first suggested eight primary bipolar emotions: joy vs sadness; anger vs fear; trust vs disgust; and surprise vs anticipation. From there R. Plutchik identified more advanced emotions based on their differences in intensities (Plutchik 1980: 3-33). 3. W. Parrots’ Classification of Emotions (2001) A list of emotions which seems fairly complete and logical is a tree-structured list published by W. Gerrod Parrott in 2001 in his book Emotions in Social Psychology. Parrot states that there are aspects of emotions that are often dealt with separately, but can only be understood fully as a whole (Parrot 2001: 101-106). For example, both disappointment and shame are emotions that stem from the primary emotion of sadness (ibid: 26-37). There are basic and complex categories, where some basic emotions can be modified in some way to form complex emotions. In one model, the complex emotions could arise from cultural conditioning or association combined with the basic emotions (P. Ekman’s theory). Alternatively, analogous to the way primary colours combine, primary emotions could blend to form the full spectrum of human emotional experience (R. Plutchik’s wheel of emotions).

4. Nonverbal Manifestations of Emotions. Good communication is the foundation of successful relationships, both personally and professionally. But people communicate with much more than words. In fact, research shows that the majority of the messages people send are nonverbal. Nonverbal communication, or body language, includes facial expressions, gestures, eye contact, posture, and even the tone of voice. The ability to understand and use nonverbal communication is a powerful tool that will help a person to connect with others, express what one really means, navigate challenging situations, and build better relationships at home and work (Segal et al. 2011). Nonverbal communication, or body language, is a vital form of communication which is a natural, unconscious language that broadcasts true feelings and intentions in any given moment, and clues people in to the feelings and intentions of those around them. When people interact with each other, they continuously give and receive wordless signals. All of the nonverbal behaviors – the gestures people make, the way they sit, how fast or how loud they talk, how close they stand, how much eye contact they make – send strong messages. These messages don’t stop when a person stops speaking either. Even when someone is silent, one is still communicating nonverbally (ibid.). Often what people say and what they communicate through body language are two totally different things. When faced with these mixed signals, the listener has to choose whether to believe verbal or nonverbal message, and, in most cases, they are going to choose nonverbal. Nonverbal communication matters because the way a person listens, looks, moves, and reacts tells the other person whether or not one cares, if one is being truthful, and how well one is listening. When nonverbal signals match up with the words a person is saying, they increase trust, clarity, and rapport. When they do not, they generate tension, mistrust, and confusion. Nonverbal communication types are as follows (Cherry 2010: 118): 1) Facial expressions The human face is extremely expressive, able to express countless emotions without saying a word. And unlike some forms of nonverbal communication, facial expressions are universal. The facial expressions for happiness, sadness, anger, surprise, fear, and disgust are the same across cultures. 2) Body movements and posture Consider how one’s perceptions of people are affected by the way they sit, walk, stand up, or hold their head. The way person moves and carries himself communicates a wealth of information to the world. This type of nonverbal communication includes person’s posture, bearing, stance, and subtle movements. 3) Gestures Gestures are woven into the fabric of the daily lives. People wave, point, beckon, and use their hands when they are arguing or speaking animatedly — expressing theirselves with gestures often without thinking. However, the meaning of gestures can be very different across cultures and regions, so it is important to be careful to avoid misinterpretation. 4) Eye contact Since the visual sense is dominant for most people, eye contact is an especially important type of nonverbal communication. The way a person looks at someone can communicate many things, including interest, affection, hostility, or attraction. Eye contact is also important in maintaining the flow of conversation and for gauging the other person’s response. 5) Touch People communicate a great deal through touch. Different messages are given by the following: a firm handshake, a timid tap on the shoulder, a warm bear hug, a reassuring pat on the back, a patronizing pat on the head, or a controlling grip on your arm. 6) Space All people have a need for physical space, although that need differs depending on the culture, the situation, and the closeness of the relationship. One can use physical space to communicate many different nonverbal messages, including signals of intimacy, aggression, dominance, or affection. 7) Voice It’s not just what a person says, it is how he says it. When one people speak, other people ‘read’ their voices in addition to listening to their words. Things they pay attention to include their timing and pace, how loud they speak, their tone and inflection, and sounds that convey understanding, such as ‘ahh’ and ‘uh-huh’. The following vivid examples provided by Starker (2010: 22) show how basic emotions may be detected from nonverbal signs. But these are indicators and not certain guarantees. Contextual clues may also be used, in particular what is being said to the person or what else is happening around then. 1) Anger occurs when achievement of goals is frustrated. The nonverbal signs are neck and/or face is red or flushed, baring of teeth and snarling, clenched fists, leaning forward and invasion of body space, etc. 2) Fear occurs when basic needs are threatened. There are many levels of fear, from mild anxiety to blind terror. The many bodily changes caused by fear make it easy to detect. They are a 'cold sweat ', pale face, dry mouth, which may be indicated by licking lips, drinking water, rubbing throat, not looking at the other person, damp eyes, trembling lip, varying speech tone, speech errors, voice tremors, visible high pulse (noticeable on the neck or movement of crossed leg, sweating, etc. 3) Sadness is the opposite of happiness and indicates a depressive state. The cues of sadness are drooping of the body, trembling lip, flat speech tone, tears. 4) Embarrassment may be caused by guilt or transgression of values. The signs are neck and face is red or flushed, looking down or away from others, not looking them in the eye, grimacing, false smile, changing the topic or otherwise trying to cover up the embarrassment. 5) Surprise occurs when things occur that were not expected. The cues are raised eyebrows, widening of eyes, open mouth, sudden backward movement. 6) Happiness occurs when goals and needs are met. The signs are general relaxation of muscles, smiling (including eyes), open body language. Nonverbal skills include timing and pace of verbal communications, physical contact, gestures and posture of speaker, vocal tone, facial expressions and eye contact. Since many nonverbal communication skills are affected by emotion, it is important to understand how nonverbal expressions illustrate meaning. Using nonverbal communication is not limited to personal nonverbal responses but also includes interpreting the nonverbal responses of others. To improve this function of emotional intelligence, individuals must learn to recognize the manifestation of emotion in their own and others ' nonverbal responses (Myers 2004: 234). Unfortunately, many people send confusing or negative nonverbal signals without even knowing it. When this happens, both connection and trust are damaged. That is why it is important not only to pay attention to nonverbal sings as well as to verbal (Segal 2011).

1. Linguistic Foundations for The Study of Emotion

After having considered the psychological basis for the study of emotions, we turn to its linguistic foundations. In this chapter we state that the designation of emotion is an object of research of emotiology, i.e. the science which was formed as the result of the anthropocentric reorientation of the world. In the second part of the study of linguistic foundations of emotions we attempt to describe the central points of Conceptual Metaphor Theory which was developed by various researces (e.g. Lakoff, Gibbs, Kövecses, Evans and Green) in the field of cognitive linguistics.

1.2.1. Designation of emotion as an object of research of emotiology. Emerged in recent decades, a paradigm shift of the humanities to the anthropocentrism was marked by the formation at the junction of the existing sciences of new research areas aimed at studying man in the manifold relations with the outside world. One of the results of this anthropocentric reorientation was the formation of the emotiology that received a specific interpretation in linguistics as linguistics of emotion. Emotions are ‘psychological reactions which assess the nature of external factors’ exposure to a human, and thus serve as one of the main mechanisms of regulation of its activities, aimed at developing reality and meeting the actual needs (Наумова 1999: 427). Implementing generic and specific experience in responding to various situations, emotions can be generalized, stored and transmitted through a natural language (ФС 1999: 427), which can be regarded as an object of study of linguistics. In concordance with this, emotiology deals with ‘verbalisation, accumulation, structuralism and intergenerational transmission of knowledge of the emotions’ (Шаховский 2001: 13) recorded in the language. The study of this subject-matter is associated with certain difficulties, since emotions is the most difficult and controversial area of psychology: ‘whenever an attempt to ride the emotions again and again one has to wonder how hard it is to bring them under some general subject area ...’ (Дорфман 1997: 138). So, first of all, scientists distinguish broad and narrow understanding of emotions. In their broad understanding, emotions are associated with the problem of reflection of all living organisms in the external world. The narrow understanding of emotions presents these mental processes are considered as ‘a reaction to specific conditions, which manifests itself in feelings, actions, appearance, on its basis social relationships are built’ (Камалова 1998: 230-231). Diffuse boundaries of emotions and feelings do not allow them to create a comprehensive classification and thus is the basis for a holistic view in linguistics as a form of reflection of person 's relationship to objects and phenomena of the world, ways of assessing their personal significance for him (Шаховский 1987: 23-24). Until recently, the linguistic study of emotions was usually conducted in the following areas: a) means of the nomination, descriptions and expression of emotions b) the connections of emotivity with the categories assessment, expression and modality c) emotive potency and valence of a linguistic unit, d) actualisation of the context of emotions, and e ) correlation of nonverbal and verbal means of expressing emotions, e) stylistic differentiation of emotive means, g) lexicographic interpretation of emotions h) comparative study of emotions; s) applied aspects (Шаховский 1995: 49-52). In the emotiological research the ability of mental experiences to reflect ‘all the social (including cultural) conventions through contextual (including cultural) aspects was established’ (Шаховский 2001: 13), and detected the presence of the conceptual framework for emotions and related to its opportunity to present them through the language. It has allowed emotiologists to develop a new area of linguistic analysis – conceptology of emotions which is aimed at identifying the specificities of their development and materialisation in the language consciousness.

2. Conceptual Metaphor Theory. Conceptual Metaphor Theory, sometimes called Cognitive Metaphor Theory, was developed by researchers within the field of cognitive linguistics. It became widely known with the publication of Metaphors We Live By, by G. Lakoff and M. Johnson in 1980. Conceptual metaphor theory has since been developed and elaborated (Gibbs 1994, Kövecses 2002, 2005, Evans and Green 2006). Let us focus on its main postulates. The fundamental tenet of Conceptual Metaphor Theory is that metaphors operate at the level of thinking (Lakoff 1993: 205). Metaphors link two conceptual domains, the source domain and the target domain (Kövecses 2002: 15). The source domain consists of a set of literal entities, attributes, processes and relationships, linked semantically and apparently stored together in the mind (ibid: 16). These are expressed in language through related words and expressions, which can be seen as organized groups resembling those sometimes described as ‘lexical sets’ or ‘lexical fields’ by linguists. The target domain tends to be abstract, and takes its structure from the source domain, through the metaphorical link, or conceptual metaphor (ibid: 20). Target domains are therefore believed to have relationships between entities, attributes and processes which mirror those found in the source domain. At the level of language, entities, attributes and processes in the target domain are lexicalized using words and expressions from the source domain (ibid: 21). These words and expressions are sometimes called linguistic metaphors or metaphorical expressions to distinguish them from conceptual metaphors. For proponents of Conceptual Metaphor Theory, thought has primacy over language. The theory was not intended to account for language in use, which is merely the surface manifestation of more important phenomena. Nonetheless, patterns of word use are the main evidence presented for the theory. These linguistic data have tended to be generated intuitively, either by the researcher or by informants, but in recent years some researchers are beginning to analyse naturally occurring language data. Proponents of Conceptual Metaphor Theory argue that few or even no abstract notions can be talked about without metaphor: there is no direct way of perceiving them and we can only understand them through the filter of directly experienced, concrete notions. The conceptual metaphor LIFE IS A JOURNEY is cited widely in the literature (Lakoff 1993: 202–251). This is realised linguistically through expressions such as He has got a head start in life. He is without direction in life. I am where I want to be in life (ibid: 223). It is difficult to find linguistic expressions about the development of an individual’s life which are not also used to talk about literal journeys. Other metaphors are used to talk about different aspects of life, e.g. G. Lakoff gives the metaphor LIFE IS A BUSINESS (ibid: 227). It is hard to find expressions used to talk about the subject of life which are not metaphorical in some way. If it is true that abstract subjects are generally talked about using metaphor, and a mass of linguistic evidence has been gathered to support this contention, a close examination of the metaphors used can be an important key to the way people have mentally constructed abstract domains. Conceptual metaphor theorists claim that all metaphors both hide and highlight aspects of the target domain. For instance, the conceptual metaphor understanding is seizing, discussed by G. Lakoff and M. Turner (1989) suggests that an idea is a concrete object which can be metaphorically grasped and then held. This highlights a familiar aspect of understanding new ideas but hides the important point that sometimes understanding comes slowly, with some effort, and that ideas are reinterpreted by each individual. The poetic metaphors that had been analysed in research in literature and philosophy for many years were of minor importance for conceptual metaphor theorists. If conceptual metaphors help people to understand abstract subjects of such central importance as life and communication, then the metaphorical expressions that should form the focus of study are the conventional, frequent ones. These will provide clues to the conceptual structures that both reflect and shape the thought patterns of the community. In many cases, linguistic metaphors represent subconscious choices on the part of the speaker or writer, whose choice of language is partly constrained by the conceptual structures shared by members of his or her community. Metaphors can also help people to talk about difficult, emotionally intense or uncommon experiences, and thus, according to conceptual metaphor theory, to think about them. R. Gwyn (1999: 203–220) analysed the metaphors that seriously ill people used to talk about their experience, and drew conclusions about their thoughts and feelings on their basis. In other cases, speakers or writers may have deliberately chosen particular ways of expressing ideas metaphorically to convey an ideological or persuasive point. In particular, some analysts have used conceptual metaphor theory to try to identify the ideological stance underlying a text or corpus of texts. For instance, E. Sandikcioglu (2000: 199-320) studied metaphors from the magazines Time and Newsweek from around the period of the 1991 Gulf War, and argued that these demonstrated a racist agenda, in which the world is polarised into ‘the Orient vs. the West, Us vs. Them’ (ibid: 300). A. Santa (1999: 191-224) analysed metaphors in articles from the Los Angeles Times reporting on anti-immigrant legislation, and found that they constructed immigrants negatively, as animals, plants and commodities. The nation was metaphorically constructed as a house, and immigrants talked of as metaphorical threats such as floods or invasion. The conceptual metaphor approach is potentially very enlightening as a tool for identifying, underlying meaning, but it has pitfalls (Deignan 2005). Researchers need to be alert to the dangers of overgeneralising on limited linguistic evidence, and to the need to establish consistent procedures for identifying metaphors.

2. Research Methodology

The study of designations of love in Modern English involved a number of steps. First of all, it should be mentioned that the synchronic approach was used, because only the designations of love of Modern English were under study in this course paper. The main task at the first stage was to provide psychological foundations for the study of emotions. First of all, the problem of difference between the terms emotion and feeling was investigated to identify whether love is an emotion or a feeling. To complete this task, a thorough study of the scientific publications of modern psychologists, namely those of P. Ekman, R. Plutchik, W. Parrot, J. Voris and others was done. The psychological framework also includes the study of nonverbal manifestations of emotions as nonverbal communication is an integral part of any information exchange. The second part of the theoretical framework contains the linguistic data for the study of emotions in order to be able to define the designations of love as an object of the research. As in the second chapter the study of metaphorical representation of love was undertaken, it was necessary to provide the fundamentals of conceptual metaphor theory, defined from the scientific publications of R. Gibbs, G. Lakoff, M. Johnson, Z. Kövecses, V. Evans and R. Gwyn. The next step was the practical application of the theoretical material presented in the first chapter of the course paper. In the first part of the practical research the definitions of the noun love and verb to love were presented taken from different lexicographic sources of the English language (RCT, LDCE, MOD, OALDCE). After having carried out the semantic and componential analysis, it was stated that as a noun love has a wide range of meanings which differ in emotive shade. Then the lexical units with the lexical units with the component ‘love’ were subdivided into three groups. The first group consists of the lexical units with the meaning ‘to love, to attract, to have strong feelings’ e.g., to be lovey-dovey. The second group contains the lexical units with the meaning which does not correlate with the notion of love e.g., not for love or money. The third group includes the lexical units which do not posses the component love, but have the meaning ‘to love’ e.g., to have a crush. In the second part of the practical study we turned to the metaphorical representation of love in Modern English. Alongside with conventional metaphors we took creative or imaginative ones (Kövecses). We came to the conclusion that conventional mataphors are used to express feelings and emotions. Imaginative conceptual metaphors are created by people to help themselves understand what they feel and then to express it by means of language. In literature conventional metaphors are transformed into creative by means of its extending, elaboration, questioning, combining and personification. Having analysed a number of different literary sources, we exemplified different means of conventional metaphors transforming Finally, the conclusions were made regarding the interrelations between the psychological foundations of emotions and feelings and their verbalisation in Modern English by means of lexical units.

CHAPTER TWO PRACTICAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE STUDY OF THE FEELINGS AND EMOTIONS IN THE MODERN ENGLISH LANGUAGE

In this chapter we dwell on the means of verbalisation of the emotion love in the modern English language. As designations are the main means of the emotions verbalisation, the emotion love is highlighted through the different lexical units, among which the special attention is paid to nouns, verbs, idioms, proverbs and phrasal verbs. These lexical units undergo componential and semantic analysis. The second part of the practical study deals with metaphorical representation of love.

1. Means of Verbalization of the Emotion Love in Modern English

In emotiology the following division of the linguistics units was made by Schahovski objectifying the emotions through their a) designation or naming, b) different kinds of descriptions and c) expression in speech. Moreover, units of the first two groups are treated as neutral, as the vertex semes containing ‘logical-subject’ descriptive semantic components, and the linguistic resources that belong to the third group – as emotive, as they are aimed at the typified expressions of the emotions (Шаховский 1987: 100-101). Language designations of emotions are used in speech of their conscious expression or description, that is in ‘verbal testimony talking about their inner world’ (Яковлева 1994: 256), varying within four lexical and grammatical classes: nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. N. V. Dorofeeva (2002) pointed out the following language means of emotions objectifications depending on the context: a) nominative units which include all the lexemes, designating emotions and referring to their emotive potential, b) in the capacity of emotive units, lexical and phraseological means of expressing the emotions in speech are considered and c) properly descriptive should be considered linguistic means that describe the outward manifestation of the emotion. The emotion love as a noun has a wide range of definitions in the contemporary dictionaries of the English language. LDCE suggests the following definitions for the noun ‘love’: – a deep, tender, ineffable feeling of affection and solicitude toward a person, such as that arising from kinship, recognition of attractive qualities, or a sense of underlying oneness; – a feeling of intense desire and attraction toward a person with whom one is disposed to make a pair; the emotion of sex and romance; – exual passion, sexual intercourse, a love affair; – an intense emotional attachment, as for a pet or treasured object; – the feeling of liking another adult very much and being romantically and sexually attracted to them, or strong feelings of liking a friend or person in your family. OALDCE offers such definitions for the word love (2011): – a strong feeling of affection: e.g., babies fill parents with intense feelings of lovetheir love for their country; – a strong feeling of affection and sexual attraction for someone: e.g., they were both in love with herwe were slowly falling in love; – affectionate greetings conveyed to someone on one’s behalf: e.g., give her my love; – a formula for ending an affectionate letter: e.g., take care, lots of love, Judy a great interest and pleasure in something: e.g., his love for footballwe share a love of music; – a person or thing that one loves: e.g., she was the love of his lifetheir two great loves are tobacco and whisky; – (in tennis, squash, and some other sports) a score of zero; [apparently from the phrase play for love (i.e. the love of the game, not for money); folk etymology has connected the word with French l 'oeuf 'egg ', from the resemblance in shape between an egg and a zero]. RCT suggests that ‘love is a strong positive emotion of regard and affection’ (2011), e.g., his love for his work or children need a lot of love. The dictionary (ibid.) gives different types of the feeling love: – love – (a feeling), [strong, positive]; – adoration, worship – (a feeling of love), [of profound love and admiration]; – agape – (a feeling of love), [selfless love of one person for another without sexual implications]; – agape – (a feeling of love), [the love of God or Christ for mankind]; – filial love – (a feeling of love), [the love of a child for a parent]; – ardor, ardour – (a feeling of love), [intense feeling of love]; – amorousness, enamoredness – (a feeling of love), [fondness]; – calf love, puppy love, infatuation, crush – (a feeling of love), [temporary love of an adolescent]; – devotedness, devotion – (a feeling of love), [feelings of ardent love]. RCT also gives other definitions of the emotion love: – any object of warm affection or devotion, e.g., the theater was her first love’, ‘he has a passion for cock fighting; – a beloved person; used as terms of endearment. Synonyms: beloved, dear, dearest, honey, lover – a person who loves someone or is loved by someone. – a deep feeling of sexual desire and attraction, e.g., their love left them indifferent to their surroundings, she was his first love. Synonyms: erotic love, sexual love, concupiscence, physical attraction, sexual desire, eros – a desire for sexual intimacy; – a score of zero in tennis or squash, e.g., it was 40 love. Synonym: score – a number that expresses the accomplishment of a team or an individual in a game or contest, e.g., the score was 7 to 0; – sexual activities (often including sexual intercourse) between two people, e.g., his lovemaking disgusted her, he hadn 't had any love in months; he has a very complicated love life. Synonyms: love life, lovemaking, making love, sexual love, sex, sex activity, sexual activity, sexual practice – activities associated with sexual intercourse, e.g., they had sex in the back seat. The most widespread synonyms for the noun love are affection, attachment, infatuation, devotedness and fondness (RCT). It is very important to understand the difference between these notions, although they all have the initial meaning of the feeling of warm personal attachement. Love – (feeling of warm personal attachment or strong attraction to another person), [the most intense] e.g., marrying for love. Affection – (feeling of warm personal attachment or strong attraction to another person), [a less ardent and more unvarying feeling of tender regard] e.g., parental affection. Devotion – (feeling of warm personal attachment or strong attraction to another person), [ an earnest, affectionate dedication and implies selflessness] e.g., teachers admired for their devotion to children. Fondness – (feeling of warm personal attachment or strong attraction to another person), [a strong liking or affection] e.g., a fondness for small animals. Infatuation – (feeling of warm personal attachment or strong attraction to another person ), [a foolish or extravagant attraction, often of short duration] e.g., lovers blinded to their differences by their mutual infatuation As a verb the word love has following definitions (MOD): – have a great affection or liking for, e.g., I love French food; She loves her boss and works hard for him. Synonyms: cherish, hold dear, treasure, care for - be fond of; be attached to, dote – shower with love; show excessive affection for, e.g., Grandmother dotes on her the twins; – get pleasure from; e.g., I love cooking. Synonyms: like – find enjoyable or agreeable, e.g., I like jogging; She likes to read Russian novels; get off – enjoy in a sexual way; He gets off on shoes; – be enamored or in love with, e.g., She loves her husband deeply; – have sexual intercourse with, e.g., This student sleeps with everyone in her dorm; Adam knew Eve; Were you ever intimate with this man?. The lexical units with the component love can be divided into three groups: 1) the lexical units with the meaning ‘to love, to attract, to have strong feelings’: – true love – a genuine feeling of romantic love; – unrequited love – love that is not returned, one-way love; – fall in love (with someone) – begin to feel love for someone; – love at first sight – instant love; – to be lovey-dovey – for a couple to show everyone how much they are in love: e.g., They 're so lovey-dovey, always whispering to each other and looking into each other 's eyes; – a love-nest – the place where two lovers live: e.g., They made a love-nest in the old basement flat; – to be loved-up – to exist in a warm feeling of love: e.g., They are one loved-up couple!; – to be the love of someone 's life – to be loved by a person: He has always been the love of her life; – platonic love – love without relations between friends; – puppy love – love between teenagers: e.g., It 's just puppy love - you 'll grow out of it!; – cupboard love – love for someone because they give you food: e.g., I think my cat loves me, but it 's only cupboard love!; – ‘Love is blind’ – when you love someone, you can 't see their faults; – ‘All 's fair in love and war’ – in love and war you do not have to obey the usual rules about reasonable behaviour; – ‘One cannot love and be wise’ – love and wisdom are incompatible notions; – ‘Love makes the world go round’ – love is the engine of progress. 2) the lexical units with the meaning which doesn’t correlate with the notion of love: – for love – for pleasure rather than profit: e.g., He played for the love of the game; – for the love of God – used to accompany an urgent request or to express annoyance or surprise: e.g., For the love of God, get me out of here!; – for the love of Mike – (British informal) used to accompany an exasperated request or to express dismay: e.g., For the love of Mike take off those shoes!; – love me, love my dog – (proverb) if you love someone, you must accept everything about them, even their faults; – not for love or money – (informal) not in any circumstances: e.g., They’ll not return for love or money; – there 's no (or little or not much) love lost between – there is mutual dislike between (the people mentioned): e.g., There’s no love lost between Scott and me. 3) the lexical units which do not posess the component love, but have the meaning ‘to love’: – find Mr. Right – find the right or perfect person; – have a crush – have strong feelings of love for someone; – have a thing for – be attracted and care a lot about someone; – hung up on someone – be obsessed with another person; – interested in – have a romantic interest in someone; – made for each other – two people who get along extremely well; – make eyes at someone – look at someone in a way that makes it clear that you like that person and find them attractive; – a match made in heaven – a couple who get along perfectly; – one and only – the only person that one loves; – steal someone 's heart – cause someone to fall in love with you; – those three little words – the words ‘I love you’; – fall for (someone) – fall in love with someone; – catch someone 's eye – to be attractive to someone: e.g., The shy man at the back of the class caught my eye; – to fancy someone – to find someone attractive: e.g., My friend fancies you!; – to have a crush on someone – to only be able to think about one person: e.g., When I was at school, I had a crush on a film star; – to have a soft spot for someone – to have a weakness for someone: e.g., She has a soft spot for Richard – he can do anything!; – to have the hots for someone – to find someone very attractive: e.g., She 's got the hots for the new office manager; – to fall head over heels for someone – to completely fall in love: e.g., He fell head over heels for her; – to have eyes only for – to be attracted to one person only: e.g., He 's dropped all his old friends, now that he has eyes only for Susie; – to be the apple of someone 's eye – to be loved by someone, normally an older relative: e.g., She 's the apple of her father 's eye; – to be smitten by someone – to be in love with someone: e.g., I first met him at a party and from that evening on, I was smitten; – let your heart rule your head – allow your emotions to control your rational side; – wear your heart on your sleeve – show other people how you are feeling.

2. Metaphorical Representation of Love in Modern English It is obvious that the concept of love is not independent of metaphors for love. Without the conventional conceptual metaphors, we are left with only the skeleton, bereft of the richness of the concept. If somehow everyone had been forced to speak and think about love using only the little that is literal about it, most of what has been thought and said about love over the ages would not exist (Lakoff and Johnson 1999: 119). ‘I have said before that metaphors are dangerous,’ Milan Kundera wrote in The Unbearable Lightness of Being. ‘Love begins with a metaphor’ (1984: 209). He might have added that love sometimes ends with a metaphor as well. Like the experience of love itself, metaphors make connections. So it is no surprise that love has been imagined, examined, and remembered through a wide variety of figurative comparisons. Hundreads of metaphors about love exist nowadays. Alongside passages from Plato, Ovid, and W. Shakespeare are fresh figures from the songs by T. Robbins, A. Winehouse, and Eminem. Many of them are familiar ones: LOVE IS JOURNEY, LOVE IS FLOWER, LOVE IS FIRE, LOVE IS GAME. As Z. Kövecses notes in his book Metaphor: A Practical Introduction (2002: 32), ‘These are all highly conventional ways of conceptualizing love; they are age-old in Anglo-American (and even more generally in Western) culture. Most people comprehend their love experiences and lead their love lives via such conventional conceptual metaphors’. Conventional metaphors structure the ordinary conceptual system of our culture, which is reflected in our everyday language (Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 139). But not all love metaphors are conventional, nor do they convey the same message. There are metaphors that are outside conventional conceptual system, metaphors that are imaginative and creative (Kövecses 2002: 44). Unconventional metaphors are usually literary metaphors. Writers use the same conceptual metaphors that ordinary people do. Z. Kövecses writes that ‘Ordinary conceptual metaphors are regularly transformed by poets and writers in a number of ways: 1) extending, 2) elaboration, 3) questioning, 4) combining and 5) personification’ (ibid: 52-53). Writers use special stylistic devices to make conventional metaphors unconventional. Let us consider how these techniques work on the level of literary texts. 1) Metaphorical extension – is a process when ‘a new conceptual element is introduced in the source domain to an already existing conventional metaphor and the ordinary conceptual metaphor is expressed by new metaphorical linguistic expressions’ (ibid: 47). Let us consider the following lines of the verse I’m addicted to you written by R. Flowers:
I 'm addicted to you
I think about you every time I can
And whenever I think I 'm done with you
I can 't get enough of you The word addicted originally means ‘physically and mentally dependent on a particular substance’ (OALDCE), but in this poem it gains a new meaning ‘to be in love’. LOVE IS PATIENT (e.g., Their relationship is really in good shape.) turned into LOVE IS ADDICTION (e.g., I am addicted to you). The same metaphorical extension comprise such synonyms as intoxicated (e.g., Liza is intoxicated with him) and drunk (e.g., I am drunk on you). 2) Elaboration. The difference between elaboration and extension lies in that in elaboration, people elaborate on an already existing element of the source in detail rather than adding a new element to the source domain (ibid: 47). Let us consider the following lines of the poem Love Letter written by L. Naumann. A fire that is carefully stoked and tended will not burn out. It will blaze so brightly that its warmth lingers in your heart. It will beckon your tired soul and embrace you in its radiance. The familiar smell of its smoke can bring a wistful smile, and the occasional blast of fireworks can take your breath away. When we understand this poem, we activate in our mind one of the most conventional metaphors for love: LOVE IS FIRE. This conventional metaphor is seen in everyday linguistic examples as ‘I’m burning with love’, ‘I don’t want to get burned again’, ‘She’s his latest flame’ and others. In Lori Naumann ‘Love Letter’, fire gets elaborated as warmth which lingers in the heart and will beckon the tired soul. 3) In the poetic device of questioning, poets can call into questioning the very appropriateness of common everyday metaphors (ibid: 48). To see an example of this, let us consider the following lines written by J. C. Scarbrough: That I shall love alway, I offer you That love is life, And life has immortality. Here J. C. Scarbrough points out that metaphors LIFETIME IS DAY and LIFE IS IMMORTALITY cease to be appropriate. They become inappropriate because love is day which means that love is short, it can not be immortal. In other words, while the metaphors of LIFETIME IS DAY AND LIFE IS IMMORTALITY are preserved, their validity of appropriateness is called into question. A consequence of the metaphorical source domains (that love is life and life is short) does not apply to the target domains (life has immortality). 4) Combining is perhaps the most powerful mechanism to go beyond our everyday conceptual system (ibid: 49). Let us take the following lines from A Love Song written by K. Fuchs: Let me sing you a love song About what I feel in my heart; Butterflies can 't find nectar Whenever we 're apart. You 're a flower in bloom. In the dark, in the gloom, It 's you who brightens my day. How many ways do I need you? Every day, every way, come what may. These lines combine at least three everyday conceptual metaphors: LOVE IS FLUID IN CONTAINER, LOVE IS FLOWER, LOVE IS LIGHT. The process of combining can activate, and thus be based on, several everyday metaphors at the same time. 5) Personification is a metaphorical device that is also used commonly in literature (ibid: 50). In the following lines written by unknown author love is personificated: LOVE IS MAN IN DRESS Wearing a lace dress Fiery dress and black boots Love walks in the room All eyes melt on him like ice LOVE IS MONSTER Love is a seductive monster. She gets into your life and blinds you. You will find yourself in perilous confrontations before you even realize it is that illusive beauty that has a hold on you. LOVE IS FOE Love is a wily ‘foe’. But she is essential to your life. She manifests herself for a reason. LOVE IS MOTHER-GODDES Love is the mother-goddes that preserves you. That tricky voice of the sirens is an integral part of living. Although she may bring pain and suffering, she also brings meaning and enjoyment. Her persuasion may superficially be seen as a way to lead you down the wrong path, but the true nature of her is to compel you to broaden your horizons and make yourself a better person. It is clearly seen that love can be personificated as a foe, mother-goddes, man, woman and even a monster. Different individual experiences influence on the emergence of such a great variety of personifications for love. Unconventional metaphors exist alongside with conventional. Conventional metaphors are used to express feelings and emotions. Unconventional metaphors are created by people to help themselves understand what they feel and then to express it by means of language. In literature conventional metaphors are transformed into creative by means of its extending, elaboration, questioning, combining and personification. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS

In this course paper a comprehensive analysis of nominative and cognitive aspects of love designations in Modern English has been presented. Firstly, different psychological approaches to the definition of notions emotion and feeling have been outlined. Having done a thorough study of psychological sources, the basis of which consisted of such contemporary works by P. Ekman, K. Cherry, S. Handel, D. Myers, W. Parrot, R. Plutchik, C. Calhoun, R. C. Solomon, M. Pettinelli and others, we stated that the notion of feeling contains in itself the notion of emotion, i.e., the phenomenon of emotion is narrower than that of feeling. Secondly, the specific features of the opposition emotions vs feelings have been revealed. We came to a conclusion that learning the major differences between feelings and emotions (i.e., feelings feedback into emotions etc.) can provide a person with a better understanding of not only oneself, but of the people around.

Thirdly, different approaches to the classifications of emotions have been described, where some basic emotions can be modified in some way to form complex emotions. In one model, the complex emotions could arise from cultural conditioning or association combined with the basic emotions (P. Ekman’s theory). Alternatively, analogous to the way primary colours combine, primary emotions could blend to form the full spectrum of human emotional experience (R. Plutchik’s wheel of emotions).

The next step which we have taken was the determination of nonverbal manifestations of emotions. We have determined that many nonverbal communication skills are affected by emotion and that is why it is important to understand how nonverbal expressions illustrate meaning. Using nonverbal communication is not limited to personal nonverbal responses but also includes interpreting the nonverbal responses of others.

Then, in linguistic foundations for the study of emotion means of designations of emotions have been defined. As in the practical framework for this study metaphorical representation of the emotion has been demonstrated, it was necessary to give general characteristics of the conceptual metaphor theory. The fundamental tenet of conceptual metaphor theory is that metaphor operates at the level of thinking. That is why, in many cases, linguistic metaphors represent subconscious choices on the part of the speaker or writer, whose choice of language is partly constrained by the conceptual structures shared by members of his or her community. Metaphors can also help people to talk about difficult, emotionally intense or uncommon experiences, and thus, according to conceptual metaphor theory, to think about them.

In the practical application to this study we different means of verbalisation of the emotion love have been analysed. The designations of love have been divided into three groups: 1) those which have the component love and possess the meaning ‘to love’; 2) those which have the component love but do not possess the meaning ‘ to love’; 3) those which have the meaning ‘to love’ but did not contain the component love. Metaphorical representation of the emotion love in Modern English has been demonstrated. Unconventional metaphors exist alongside with conventional. Conventional metaphors are used to express feelings and emotions. Unconventional metaphors are created by people to help themselves understand what they feel and then to express it by means of language. In literature conventional metaphors are transformed into creative by means of its extending, elaboration, questioning, combining and personification. We have exemplified different means of conventional metaphors transforming having analysed a number of different literary sources.

РЕЗЮМЕ Ця курсова робота мала на меті встановлення культурних особливостей вербальної репрезентації емоційного статусу кохання з урахуванням номінативного та когнітивного аспектів. У першому розділі було ідентифіковано різні підходи з точки зору психології щодо визначення таких понять як емоція та відчуття; розкрито особливості опозиції емоції – відчуття; виявлено різні види класифікацій емоцій; встановлено невербальні способи виявлення емоцій; визначено номінацію емоцій об’єктом дослідження емотиології та подано загальні характеристики теорії концептуальної метафори. У другому розділі було проаналізовано різні засоби вербалізації емоції кохання та продемонстровано її метафоричну репрезентацію у різних типах дискурсу. Було зˈясовано, що поряд зі звичайними метафорами існують творчі метафори (незвичайні) та встановлено, що найпоширенішими методами трансформації звичайних метафор у творчі є їх поширення, ускладнення, поєднання та персоніфікація. Ключові слова: кохання, емоція, вербалізація, номінація, концептуальна метафора.

LIST OF REFERENCES
1. Дорофеева Н. В. Удивление как эмоциональный концепт (на материале русского и английского языков) : автореф. дис. … канд. филол. наук: спец. 10.02.20 «Сравнительно-историческое, типологическое и сопоставительное языкознание» / Н. В. Дорофеева. – Волгоград, 2002. – 19 с.
2. Дорфман Л. Я. Эмоции в искусстве: теоретические подходы и эмпирические исследования / Л. Я. Дорфман – М.: Смысл, 1997. – С. 138.
3. Камалова А. А. Семантические типы предикатов состояния в их системном и функциональном аспектах: [монография] / А. А. Дорфман. – Архангельск: Изд-во Поморского ун-та, 1998. – С. 230–231.
4. Наумова Ю. А. Развитие эмоциональной сферы личности в процессе общения : автор. дис. ... канд. психол. наук. / Ю. А. Наумова. – Новосибирск, 1999. – 21 с.
5. Современная философия: словарь и хрестоматия: – Ростов-на-Дону: Феникс, 1996. – С. 427.
6. Шаховский В. И. Эмоции и их концептуализация в различных лингвокультурных контекстах / В. И. Шаховский // Русистика. – 2001. – № 1. – С. 13.
7. Шаховский В. И. Категоризация эмоций в лексико-семантической системе языка / В. И. Шаховский. – Воронеж: Изд-во Воронеж. ун-та, 1987. – С. 23–24, 100-101.
8. Шаховский В. И. К теоретической и прикладной лингвистике эмоций / Шаховский В. И. // Филология - 1995. - №7. – Краснодар: Изд-во КубГУ. – С. 49–52.
9. Яковлева Е. С. Фрагменты русской языковой картины мира (модели пространства, времени и восприятия) / Е. С. Яковлева. – М.: Гнозис, 1994. – С. 256.
10. Calhoun C. What is an emotion: classical readings in philosophical psychology / C. Calhoun, R. C. Solomon. – N.Y. : Oxford University Press, 1984. – P. 3–5.
11. Cherry K. The everything psychology book: An introductory guide to the science of human behavior / K. Cherry. – Avon : Adams Media, 2010. – P. 118.
12. Collins English Dictionary [Електронний ресурс]. – Режим доступу до словн.: http://www.collinslanguage.com.htm.
13. Deignan A. Metaphor and Corpus Linguistics / A. Deignan. – Amsterdam : John Benjamins, 2005. – 235 p.
14. Ekman P. Basic emotions / P. Ekman. - Sussex: John Wiley & Sons, 1999. –
P. 47–57.
15. Ekman P. The repertoire of nonverbal behavior: Categories, origins, usage, and coding / P. Ekman, W. V. Friesen. – UK. : Semiotica, 1969. – P. 49–98.
16. Gaulin S. J. C. Evolutionary Psychology / S. J. C. Gaulin, D. H. McBurney. – N. Y. : Pearson, 2003. – P. 121–142.
17. Gwyn R. ‘Captain of my own ship’: Metaphor and the discourse of chronic illness / R. Gwyn // Researching and Applying Metaphor / [ed. by L. J. Cameron and G. D. Low]. – Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1999. – P. 203-220.
19. Handel S. Classification of emotions [Електронний ресурс] / S. Handel. – 2011. ( Режим доступу до статті: http://www.theemotionmachine.com/classification-of-emotions.htm.
20. Kövecses Z. Metaphor: A practical introduction / Z. Kövecses. – Oxford : Oxford University Press, 2002. – 400 p.
21. Kundera M. The unbearable lightness of being / M. Kundera. N. Y. : Harper & Row, 1984. – P. 209.
22. Lakoff G. Metaphors we live by / G. Lakoff, M. Johnson. – Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 1980. – P. 139.
23. Lakoff G. More Than Cool Reason: A Field Guide to Poetic Metaphor / G. Lakoff, M. Turner. – Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 1989. – 230 p.
24. Lakoff G. The contemporary theory of metaphor / G. Lakoff // Metaphor and Thought / [ed. by A. Ortony]. – Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1993. – P. 202-251.
25. Lakoff G. The philosophy in the flesh: The embodied mind and its challenge to western thought / G. Lakoff, M. Johnson. – N.Y. : Basic Books, 1999. – P.119.
26. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. – L. : Longman, 2000. – 1668 р.
27. Macmillan Online Dictionary: Free British Dictionary and Thesaurus [Електронний ресурс]. Режим доступу до словн. : htpp://www.macmillandictionary.com.htm.
28. Myers D. G. Theories of emotion / D.G. Myers. – N.Y. : Worth Publishers, 2004. – 500 p.
29. Fortenbaugh W.W. Theophrastean studies / W. W. Fortenbaugh. – Germany : Franz Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden, 2003. – P. 80.
30. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English [Електронний ресурс]. – Режим доступу до словн.: http://oxforddictionaries.com.htm.
31. Parrott W. Emotions in social psychology / W. Parrot. – Philadelphia. : Psychology Press, 1996. – P. 26–37, 101–106.
32. Pettinelli M. Psychology of emotion, feeling and thoughts / M. Pettinelli. – N.Y. : Mark Pettinelli, 2008. – P. 4–47.
32. Plutchik R. Emotion: theory, research, and experience / R. Plutchik. – N.Y. : Academic, 1980. – P. 3–33.
34. Roget’s 21st Century Thesaurus, Third Edition [Електронний ресурс]. – Режим доступу до словн.: http://dictionary.reference.com.htm.
35. Sandikcioglu E. More metaphorical warfare in the Gulf: Orientalist frames and news coverage / E. Sandikcioglu // Metaphor and Metonymy at the Crossroads: A Cognitive Perspective / [ed. by A. Barcelona]. – Berlin : Mouton de Gruyter, 2000. – P. 199-320.
36. Santa Ana ‘Like an animal I was treated’: Anti-immigrant metaphor in US public discourse / Ana Santa / Discourse and Society. – 1999. – Vol.10. – P. 191-224.
37. Segal J. Nonverbal communication: Improving your nonverbal skills and reading body language [Електронний ресурс] / J. Segal, M. Smith, J. Jaffe. – 2011. Режим доступу до статті : http://helpguide.org/mental/eq6_nonverbal_communication.htm.
38. Starker D. Changing minds: in detail / D. Starker. – N. Y. : Syque Press, 2010. – P. 22.
39. VandenBos G. APA Dictionary of Psychology / G. VandenBos. – Washington, DC : American Psychological Association, 2006. – P. 456.
40. Voris J. Difference Between Emotions and Feelings [Електронний ресурс] / J. Voris. – 2009. – Режим доступу до статті : http://www.authentic-systems.com/featured-articles/difference-between-emotions-and-feelings/htm.

References: 2. Дорфман Л. Я. Эмоции в искусстве: теоретические подходы и эмпирические исследования / Л. Я. Дорфман – М.: Смысл, 1997. – С. 138. 3. Камалова А. А. Семантические типы предикатов состояния в их системном и функциональном аспектах: [монография] / А. А. Дорфман. – Архангельск: Изд-во Поморского ун-та, 1998. – С. 230–231. 4. Наумова Ю. А. Развитие эмоциональной сферы личности в процессе общения : автор. дис. ... канд. психол. наук. / Ю. А. Наумова. – Новосибирск, 1999. – 21 с. 5. Современная философия: словарь и хрестоматия: – Ростов-на-Дону: Феникс, 1996. – С. 427. 7. Шаховский В. И. Категоризация эмоций в лексико-семантической системе языка / В. И. Шаховский. – Воронеж: Изд-во Воронеж. ун-та, 1987. – С. 23–24, 100-101. 9. Яковлева Е. С. Фрагменты русской языковой картины мира (модели пространства, времени и восприятия) / Е. С. Яковлева. – М.: Гнозис, 1994. – С. 256. 10. Calhoun C. What is an emotion: classical readings in philosophical psychology / C. Calhoun, R. C. Solomon. – N.Y. : Oxford University Press, 1984. – P. 3–5. 11. Cherry K. The everything psychology book: An introductory guide to the science of human behavior / K. Cherry. – Avon : Adams Media, 2010. – P. 118. 13. Deignan A. Metaphor and Corpus Linguistics / A. Deignan. – Amsterdam : John Benjamins, 2005. – 235 p. 14. Ekman P. Basic emotions / P. Ekman. - Sussex: John Wiley & Sons, 1999. – P 15. Ekman P. The repertoire of nonverbal behavior: Categories, origins, usage, and coding / P. Ekman, W. V. Friesen. – UK. : Semiotica, 1969. – P. 49–98. 16. Gaulin S. J. C. Evolutionary Psychology / S. J. C. Gaulin, D. H. McBurney. – N. Y. : Pearson, 2003. – P. 121–142. 17. Gwyn R. ‘Captain of my own ship’: Metaphor and the discourse of chronic illness / R. Gwyn // Researching and Applying Metaphor / [ed. by L. J. Cameron and G. D. Low]. – Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1999. – P. 203-220. 20. Kövecses Z. Metaphor: A practical introduction / Z. Kövecses. – Oxford : Oxford University Press, 2002. – 400 p. 21. Kundera M. The unbearable lightness of being / M. Kundera. N. Y. : Harper & Row, 1984. – P. 209. 22. Lakoff G. Metaphors we live by / G. Lakoff, M. Johnson. – Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 1980. – P. 139. 23. Lakoff G. More Than Cool Reason: A Field Guide to Poetic Metaphor / G. Lakoff, M. Turner. – Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 1989. – 230 p. 24. Lakoff G. The contemporary theory of metaphor / G. Lakoff // Metaphor and Thought / [ed. by A. Ortony]. – Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1993. – P. 202-251. 25. Lakoff G. The philosophy in the flesh: The embodied mind and its challenge to western thought / G. Lakoff, M. Johnson. – N.Y. : Basic Books, 1999. – P.119. 26. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. – L. : Longman, 2000. – 1668 р. 28. Myers D. G. Theories of emotion / D.G. Myers. – N.Y. : Worth Publishers, 2004. – 500 p. 29. Fortenbaugh W.W. Theophrastean studies / W. W. Fortenbaugh. – Germany : Franz Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden, 2003. – P. 80. 31. Parrott W. Emotions in social psychology / W. Parrot. – Philadelphia. : Psychology Press, 1996. – P. 26–37, 101–106. 32. Pettinelli M. Psychology of emotion, feeling and thoughts / M. Pettinelli. – N.Y. : Mark Pettinelli, 2008. – P. 4–47. 32. Plutchik R. Emotion: theory, research, and experience / R. Plutchik. – N.Y. : Academic, 1980. – P. 3–33. 38. Starker D. Changing minds: in detail / D. Starker. – N. Y. : Syque Press, 2010. – P. 22. 39. VandenBos G. APA Dictionary of Psychology / G. VandenBos. – Washington, DC : American Psychological Association, 2006. – P. 456.