Theories and Theorists

Theories and Theorists
By
William Deiyan Towah
Theory is a symbolic statement which consists of concepts or variables that underpin how the relationship of the variables provide for a given phenomenon or set of phenomena that aims to: describe, explain, predict, or prescribe; it is a model or set of concepts that provide understanding to real phenomena and, therefore, hypothesize the basis for guided action or a framework for a given research or study (Patton, 2009; Creswell, 2009). In the Social Science domain, theorists focus on the use of variables which they conceptualize into levels; hence, to further strengthen the critical role of variables in scientific research, Creswell (2009) defined variables as attributes or characteristics of individuals or organizations that can be observed and empirically verified by scale factors, such as age, socioeconomic status, gender, political power, social prestige, race et al. The use of variables further underpins the need for concrete settings in the theoretical concepts as scientific statement without empirical evidence tend to lack understanding. However, some social theorists eschew variable-oriented approaches to theory construction, relying more on process-oriented theoretical frameworks (Jaccard & Jacoby, 2010). Suffix to say, MacCorquodale & Meehl (1948), as stated in Reynolds (2007, p. 52) posited the usefulness of these immeasurable concepts that they termed as hypothetical constructs.
It is worth stating that even though social scientists acknowledge that all theories are made of concepts and the relationships exist between them, it is widely believed that theories differ in hypotheses that are derived from natural phenomena. This had led many philosophers to adopt diverse approaches to solving some scientific dilemma, hence construct varied typologies to enhance understanding of the theoretical models that confront them in research (Jaccard & Jacoby, 2010, pp. 28-30).

Two Key Theories Identified in the Field of Public Policy and Administration
1. Theory of “Red Tape” in Government
“Red Tape” implies enacted procedural rules and regulations that tend to promote excessive or meaningless paperwork, inefficiency and abuse in organization’s functions, service delivery, thereby resulting to frustration (Bozeman, 1993). Abuse of public office and the frustration thereof, resulting from red tapes in most developing countries often upshot unpleasant backlashes, including endless conflicts and civil wars, as in the case of Liberia (Boley, 1983). Accordingly, the concept of Red Tape was fist advanced by theorist, Herbert Kaufman, in his book published in 1977 entitled “Red Tape, Its Origins, Uses and Abuses”. Kaufman developed the concept of Red Tape after widely held criticism of constraints in public and private agencies due to burdensome bureaucracies. Kaufman’s motivation was from earlier works done by Max Weber in the 1930s who originated the idea of excessive bureaucracy in the work places (Bozeman, 1993).
The Theory of Red Tape can best be described as the sum of government and institutional guidelines, procedures, and forms that are perceived as excessive, cumbersome, or pointless in relation to official decisions and policies. It may consist, of having multiple people to endorse decisions, filling out paper works and low-level procedural rules (bureaucratic regulations) that make it difficult and slower to meeting set objectives. The effects of red tape in organizations on performance, productivity and enshrined ethical values has made many theorist to treat red tape as an independent variable that influence commitment, job satisfaction, employee and stakeholder confidence (Bozeman, 1993).
Despite the criticism of red tape theory, when considered within the scope public control do produced verifiable beneficial results by means of public servants fulfilling their responsibilities, accountable leadership and protection of public interest at large. As debates intensified to determine the relationship of red tape to government ownership, research postulated that the exercise of external political authority is the primary causal catalyst of bureaucratic ineffectiveness in organizations. His inferences were made after empirical studies showed that private organizations and agencies with direct resource dependency and communications to government are of higher bureaucratic tendencies leading to red tapes. The theory of red tape in itself is basically an efficacy of rules therefore in measuring the empirical relevance of red tape in government, the rule incidence which sums the data on the type and number of persons affected by an organization’s rules, regulations, or procedures must be evaluated (Bozeman, 1993, p. 283).
There are therefore deductive and inductive inferences that could be derived from an empirical research of this theory as analyzed the case study below:
The theory of red tape in government may be used in conducting a research on the employees of the University of Liberia, a government owned institution of higher learning, which has introduced mobile money salary payment to its work force. The new system allows the University to pay employee salaries through a mobile communication company who in turn confirm to employees via text messages on their mobile phone; amount paid which the employee may then withdraw at any registered outlets across the country. The new system criticized by section of the workforce as being risk-averse and time-wasting, the researcher, may conduct a mixed research theory in contesting this hypothetical construct in order to ensure adequate triangulation of the results.
The researcher in applying a qualitative analysis first, may conduct a mini-conference of interview with the employees. After privacy or confidentiality of data received from each employee is assured the participants and the researcher may seek through the interview to validate if the perceived procedural ineffectiveness in the new system constitutes red tape.
In another vein, the researcher may also send survey questionnaire in form of post cards to employees indicating the research purpose. A quantitative data may then be gathered through a mail delivery system. (Creswell, 2009)
An empirical review is then made on the concerns raised. Many of the respondents argued that the new administrative structure of payment is cumbersome, risk-averse, and time wasting, as they are compel to use mobile network of service provider, receive money from external outlets compromising their privacy on income, some at distance locations, and having to do with long queues compared to the ease at which they at first receive money from the business registry of the university which had been an “on-the-spot” transaction.
However, some other employees support the new system with the argument that, it assures strict financial accountability in the university system, eliminate issues of kickbacks, and creation of platform where one receives salary regardless of distance from the university.
The researcher may also test the validity of the hypothesis by conducting a random sample of customers outside of the University who patronize the mobile money transfer service to test the generality of the theory to the larger community. This will confirm the generality of the theory, a formulation that scientific research seeks to achieve (Patton, 2009).
2. Socialization Theory
Base on the works of earlier theorists, including Charles Horton Cooley and George Herbert, modern scientific researchers developed several concepts on how individuals react and respond to social and cultural diversities. Accordingly, Taylor & Anthony (2000) as stated in Felder (2010) expounded that “Socialization has been identified as ‘the process by which newcomers learn the encoded system of behavior specific to their area of expertise and the system of meanings and values attached to these behaviors’ ” (p. 457).
Moreover, in her work on Doctoral student Development, Felder (2010) posited that, with time minorities or new comers adjust and attune themselves behaviorally to these systems that characterized their surroundings in an effort to negotiate the barriers to achieving their goals. She used the Socialization Theory to examine the effect student-faculty relationships have on the doctoral education of the African American doctoral students. The research explored the support of faculty in the success of these students in a political environment that is perceived to marginalize African Americans. Inferring on the Felder’s research publication, one can apply the socialization theory to explore the degree of assimilation and adjustment of students from poor families into a college environment absorbed by students from affluent homes.
Oftentimes, behavioral experts postulate that, students from poor families encounter perceived discrimination and marginalization from peers form wealthy families, and to some extend faculties, who consider them as unlikely source of unwarranted rewards. They are therefore deprived of supportive mentorship, advice and needed attention from faculty members who are to prepare them to complete their course of studies (Felder, 2010).
In conducting research for this case study, the researcher may try to identify variable constructs that may lead to the empirical research. Causal statements are then identified such as poverty begets deprivation and subsequent marginalization. We may then identify poverty as independent variable and marginalization as a dependent variable. It may also be inferred that deprivation is a causal agent to marginalization that these students encounter at school. This may then be considered as the intervening or mediating variable for the research as discussed in both (Creswell, 2009, p.60; Reynolds, 2007, p.72). The researcher may in effect conduct empirical findings as to if poverty deny these students from acquiring the needed materials for their studies, lower their assimilation rate with their more affluent colleagues, generates inferiority complexes in their relationship with faculty, and if all these hypothetical constructs affect their performance at the college. The research may then identify the criterion to effectively select those students that could be possible targets for the research. Other factors may then be proposed, maybe a study be made over a period of time to ascertain the frequency at which a student attends to cafeteria and other places of pleasure on campus, lifestyle, readiness to acquire relevant course materials, influence over colleagues as many social scientist acknowledged, income or wealth influences social standing, prestige and rank in society (Hopkins, 1964).
When all these factors are analyzed, a sampling may then be made on those students who are to be interviewed. A qualitative research may then be conducted through interviews with the sampled students. Interview responses are then analyzed through the use of coding system. Codes are affixed to the field notes that addressed the interviewee’s belief systems about the social phenomena. This allows for the categorization of the interaction processes. Also, Miles and Huberma (1994) in Felder (2010) suggested that relationships between patterns, distinct differences, and common sequences are identified that could lead to formalization with a theoretical socialization construct from a generalized propositions (P. 462).
Having validly tested the research work to ensure credibility, inductive inferences are then made on the data collected. Many of the participants reviewed do acknowledged that having come from poor families deprived them of equal opportunities to acquiring course materials, affects their confidence leading to inferiority complex, societal influence, their social integration with the students from wealthy homes. In conclusion, it affects their overall performance in the college’s social construct (Felder, 2010).
Analysis and Assessment of Relationship
It can be concluded that the theories used in both case studies, the dependent variables are influenced by several processes that are unique to each hypothetical construct or phenomena. The different scenarios that embodied the theories make it difficult to identify any relationship or correlation between the two. Reynolds (2007), postulated “only if two theories are applicable to the same situation or phenomenon can they be compared for usefulness” (p. 137). It is also evident that, deductive and inductive inferences were made during the mixed method research of the Theory of Red Tape in Government while an inductive reasoning was arrived at in conducting the qualitative method of research in testing the hypothesis with the Socialization Theory. Although, one theory undergo both quantitative and qualitative methods of research, and the other only a qualitative research, the outcome of both research which formulated a generalization, corroborates the assumption that both have equal empirical support.
As applied to my study, this research as used to test the theory of red tape holds that, I could reach a deductive or inductive conclusion or both in a given hypothetical construct. The logical conclusion is that, there are both pros and cons; drawbacks and benefits of red tape depending on the natural phenomena that is presented. It is fitting therefore, to underscore the fact that, despite the constraints and vexations that characterized red tape in public administration, there exists significant positive of red tape in Public Policy & Administration; to protect the collective interest of all persons. The findings in this research have enlightened my desire to research into the Causes and Effects of Maladministration in Government.
In the second case study, the logical conclusions drawn from the use of Socialization Theory unravel the root cause of social classes, which underpinned group classification, such as the elite class. In order to bridge the gap of social and, probably, economic inequalities, there must be continuity of social change through integration and assimilation of the “haves” and the “have nots”, where the poor could have equal opportunities and a dignified social status thereby resulting to transitioning for the better in society. The research is as important to my discipline as Public Policy & Administration seek to promote a just world that reduces if not eliminates inequalities, injustices and marginalization, and to create equal opportunities for all persons irrespective of the geo-political location.
Classic Works
1. Awareness of Dying, Glaser & Strauss (1965)
2. Employee Expectancies for Six Sigma Success, Buch, K.K & A. Tolentino (2006)
3. The Culture of Fear, Barry G. (2000)
4. Metaphors We Live By, Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980).
5. The Conduct of Inquiry, Kaplan, A. (1964).
The above influential works have been authored by renowned theorist, social scientists, and philosophers who draw on the social norms and phenomena that characterized the social being and its environment. Their works which have set scientific standards and established beliefs in the social construct have become useful resource materials for research and scholarly dispositions. Their importance stem from the numerous references made of them by other scholars for the purpose of verification, validity and credibility of research in the scientific community.

References
Creswell, John W. (2009). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative & Mixed Methods Approaches,(3rd Edition) : Thousand Oaks, CA, SAGE Publication
Bozeman B. (1993). A Theory of Government "Red Tape". Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, p273 -274. Retrieved from: jpart.oxfordjournals.org
Felder, P. (2010). On doctoral student development: Exploring faculty mentoring in the shaping of African American doctoral student success. The Qualitative Report,
15(2), 455-474. Retrieved from http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR15-2/felder.pdf
Boley, G.E.S. (1983). Liberia, the rise and fall of the first republic. MacMillan Publishers,
Hopkins, T. K. (1964). The Exercise of Influence in Small Groups. Bedminster Press, Totowa (NJ)
Jaccard & Jacoby; Theory Construction and Model-Building Skills; The Guilford Press, New
York, 2010.
Nettles, M. T., & Milliett, C. M. (2006). Three magic letters: Getting to Ph.D. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press.
Patton, M. (2009). Theory. RSCH 8100. (Laureate Education, Inc., Executive Producer). Research theory, design, and methods. Baltimore, MD. Retrieved from: https://class.waldenu.edu.
Reynolds, P. D. (2007). A primer in theory construction (Laureate Education, Inc., custom ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education. Retrieved from http://waldenulibrary.org

References: Creswell, John W. (2009). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative & Mixed Methods Approaches,(3rd Edition) : Thousand Oaks, CA, SAGE Publication Bozeman B. (1993). A Theory of Government "Red Tape". Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, p273 -274 Felder, P. (2010). On doctoral student development: Exploring faculty mentoring in the shaping of African American doctoral student success Hopkins, T. K. (1964). The Exercise of Influence in Small Groups. Bedminster Press, Totowa (NJ) Jaccard & Jacoby; Theory Construction and Model-Building Skills; The Guilford Press, New York, 2010. Nettles, M. T., & Milliett, C. M. (2006). Three magic letters: Getting to Ph.D. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. Patton, M. (2009). Theory. RSCH 8100. (Laureate Education, Inc., Executive Producer). Research theory, design, and methods Reynolds, P. D. (2007). A primer in theory construction (Laureate Education, Inc., custom ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education