shylock & antonio
throughout American history, all whites were considered citizens of the United States; however, most aspects of participatory citizenship, especially political participation, have generally been restricted to white men. Participatory citizenship has historically included the ability to vote and enter politics, the right and duty to sit on juries, and the right and obligation to aid in national defense. Over the course of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, full participatory citizenship has come to include the right to expect and demand a degree of social security.
Since the early nineteenth century, participatory citizenship has expanded to include greater numbers of white men, African Americans, and women. And since the first half of the twentieth century, the understanding of participatory citizenship has grown to include social entitlements as well as political rights. Nonetheless these formal and informal expansions of citizenship and citizens have been accompanied by efforts to restrict citizenship by race and, to a lesser extent, by gender. In the twenty-first century, the ideal U.S. citizen remains white and male.
Early American Citizenship.
The Naturalization Act of 1790 declared that “all free white persons” who had immigrated to the United States, had sworn that they wished to reside permanently in the country, and had done so for at least one year “shall be entitled to the rights of citizenship.” Congress had fiercely debated the length of the residency requirement and had also discussed the speed with which new citizens could engage in the political process, but it did not question the necessity of whiteness for citizenship. The connection between whiteness and citizenship was further stressed in the subsequent Militia Act of 1792; white male citizens were described as vital to national defense, including the defense of white life and property against potential slave insurrection.
Although all white residents could claim citizenship in
Since the early nineteenth century, participatory citizenship has expanded to include greater numbers of white men, African Americans, and women. And since the first half of the twentieth century, the understanding of participatory citizenship has grown to include social entitlements as well as political rights. Nonetheless these formal and informal expansions of citizenship and citizens have been accompanied by efforts to restrict citizenship by race and, to a lesser extent, by gender. In the twenty-first century, the ideal U.S. citizen remains white and male.
Early American Citizenship.
The Naturalization Act of 1790 declared that “all free white persons” who had immigrated to the United States, had sworn that they wished to reside permanently in the country, and had done so for at least one year “shall be entitled to the rights of citizenship.” Congress had fiercely debated the length of the residency requirement and had also discussed the speed with which new citizens could engage in the political process, but it did not question the necessity of whiteness for citizenship. The connection between whiteness and citizenship was further stressed in the subsequent Militia Act of 1792; white male citizens were described as vital to national defense, including the defense of white life and property against potential slave insurrection.
Although all white residents could claim citizenship in