SCIMATB Reviewer 1

Part I: Biotechnology

Bio – “life”; Techno – “tools”; ologoy – “the study of”
The use of living systems and organisms to develop or make useful products
Any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use
It is an interdisciplinary field merging basic sciences, applied science, and engineering

Branches of Biotechnology
a. Bioinformatics – an interdisciplinary field addresses biological problems using computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization as well as analysis of biological data possible
b. Blue biotechnology – a term that has been used to describe the marine and aquatic applications of biotechnology, but its use is relatively rare
c. Green biotechnology – a biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. An example would be the selection and domestication of plants via micro propagation
d. Red biotechnology – it is applied to medical processes. Some examples are the designing of organisms to produce antibiotics, and the engineering of genetic cures through genetic manipulation
e. White biotechnology – also known as industrial biotechnology, is biotechnology applied to industrial processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical. Another example is the using of enzymes as industrial catalysts to either produce valuable chemicals or destroy hazardous/polluting chemicals
How Biotechnology helped our life
Diabetes - recombinant insulin still savings lives today
Heart disease –clot buster drugs, which allows emergency doctors to dissolve blockages during heart attacks
The cornflakes in your cereal bowl were grown using fewer pesticides
New plastics are coming into your home made from corn and other plants, not petroleum, via a biotechnology process
New fuels like “biodiesel” and bioethanol are entering the market

* Genetic engineering is a type of biotechnology - probably the one most talked about in the news. While genetic engineering requires special molecular tools to move genes from one location to the next, biotechnology just means that genes have to change location, usually with the help of a living organism such as a bacterium

History of Biotechnology
*Important dates
4000 B.C.: Egyptians use yeast to make leavened bread and wine
1861: Pasteurization is invented by Louis Pasteur
1865: Gregor Mendel begins the study of genetics
1953: James Watson and Francis Crick uncover the structure of DNA
1982: The first biotech drug, human insulin produced in genetically modified bacteria, is approved by FDA. Genentech and Eli Lilly developed the product
1988: The first pest-resistant corn, Bt corn, is produced
1990: The first successful gene therapy is performed on a 4-year-old girl suffering from an immune disorder
1992: FDA approves bovine somatotropin (BST) for increased milk production in dairy cows
1995: Gene therapy, immune-system modulation and recombinantly produced antibodies enter the clinic in the war against cancer
1996: A gene associated with Parkinson’s disease is discovered
1996: The first genetically engineered crop is commercialized
1997: A sheep named Dolly in Scotland becomes the first animal cloned from an adult cell
2007: FDA approves the H5N1 vaccine, the first vaccine approved for avian flu
2009: Global biotech crop acreage reaches 330 million acres
2009: FDA approves the first genetically engineered animal for production of a recombinant form of human antithrombin

Gregor Mendel
(Augustinian Monk) breeding experiment using pea plant, Pisum sativum gene – unit of inheritance was born led to the identification of DNA as the primary genetic material
Uncovering biochemical structure of beans understand how DNA stores and regulates flow of genetic material
Development of techniques that allow the manipulation of DNA

Hybridization
The process of interbreeding between individuals of different species (interspecific hybridization) or genetically divergent individuals from the same species (intraspecific hybridization). Offspring produced by hybridization may be fertile, partially fertile, or sterile.

Part II: Biomolecules

Biomolecules are Organic Molecules
Molecules containing Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and Oxygen.
2. They make up living organisms Examples: Methane (CH4) Glucose (C6H12O6) are all organic molecules
Carbon is the central atom and will bond covalently because of the 4 valence electrons (outermost shell) total of 6 electrons.
CHONP
Basic Molecule: Proteins, Carbohydrates (sugars), Lipids (Fats), Nucleic Acid (DNA, RNA)
Macromolecule: Large molecules of the above that can be broken down.
Ex. Starch into sugar / polysaccharide (starch) into monosaccharide (glucose)

Examples
1. Monomers: The smaller molecules that are the building blocks of macro molecules
Carbohydrate
Example: sugar or, monosaccharide: glucose, galactose, fructose
Protein – amino acids
Example: meat, poultry, eggs, beans, soy, nuts, ENZYMES

Lipid – glycerol & 3 fatty acids
Examples: fats, oils, waxes, Cell Membranes
Nucleic acids – nucleotides
Example: DNA = deoxyribonucleic acid, RNA = ribonucleic acid
2. Polymer: a chain of monomers
Carbohydrate – starch, glycogen, cellulose/Polysaccharides
Lipids – none
Proteins – protein / polypeptide chain
Nucleic Acid – DNA, RNA

A. Carbohydrate
Monosaccharide:
“One” “Sugar”
We will focus on glucose: C6H1206
The basic/main source of organism energy “quick energy”

Simple Sugars: Carbohydrates
Disaccharide
“Two” “Sugars”
Table sugar: Glucose + Fructose
Maltose: Glucose + Glucose
Lactose: Glucose + Galactose
B. Polysaccharides
Complex Sugars: Polysaccharide
“many sugars” Complex Sugar.
Functions: Cells use them for energy and cell wall structure à cellulose.
They allow organisms to gradually use energy since it is stored in large chains
Starch : has thousands of glucoses (sugars) bonded together
Cellulose: Makes up the walls of plant cells. Also made from glucose.
Ruminants (cattle, sheep) can digest both cellulose and glucose.
Humans can digest starch, but not cellulose (WHY?)
Glycogen: Animals store carbohydrates (glucose) in the form of glycogen; similar in form to starch. Why????
This is why…
This is our reserve energy
Stored in liver and muscles
We do not want to lose our carbs all at once

Protein
Made of Amino Acid Chains
Amino Acids are bonded through a peptide bond
Each ball is an Amino Acid bonded Peptide Bonds. There are 20 Amino Acids

Functions of Protein
1. Building material: muscle, bones, hair, fingernails
2. Enzymes: Control rate of chemical reaction in the cells and body (catalyst)
3. Immunity: make up antibodies
4. Other specific functions such as Hemoglobin: carry O2 in red blood cells
5. Regulate cell processes
C. Lipids
Fats
A common lipid is made of 3 fatty acids chains connected to a glycerol
Glycerol: a type of alcohol. The back bone of Fats.
3 Fatty acid chains: Long chains of C & H
Saturated: as many C & H bonded as possible, single bond, (Solid at Room Temp.)
Unsaturated: C and C bonds, must have at least one double bond (usually Liquid at Room Temp.) Generally good for you: fish oil, avocado, olive oil, red meat, HDL vs LDL

Functions of Lipids
The main energy storing molecule because of the high # of carbon to carbon bonds. Why are bonds important? Because Store chemical energy
Lipids store more energy than any other biomolecule
9 Cal/gram = lipids
4 Cal/gram = carbohydrates and proteins
Insulate
Main molecule of the Cell membrane
Make up some hormones (testosterone)

Enzymes
They act as a catalyst by speeding up chemical reactions
They are specific, and depend on temperature and pH to work efficiently…otherwise they will denature
Are protein catalysts that carry out the chemical reactions of metabolism. All chemical reactions require activation energy to break chemical bonds and begin the reaction. Enzymes lower the barriers that normally prevent chemical reactions from occurring by decreasing the required activation energy

Part III: Introduction to Cell

Microscopes:
1. Light Microscope – allows us to see the overall shape and structure of a cell
2. Electron Microscope – allows greater magnification and reveals cellular details
Kinds of Cell:
a) Prokaryotic
- simple cells
- does not contain nucleus
- incomplete cell parts (organelles)
b) Eukaryotic
- more complex cells
- with nucleus/nuclei
- with complex organelles (that are double membrane bounded)
EUKARYOTIC ORGNALLES AND THEIR FUCTIONS
Organelles of the Endomembrane System:
1. Nucleus – contains cell’s DNA
2. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum – lipid synthesis
3. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum – protein and membrane synthesis.
4. Golgi Apparatus Reticulum – post processing of ER (endoplasmic reticulum) products
5. Lysosomes – with digestive enzymes, destroy bacteria, and recycle damaged organelles
6. Vacuole – storage

Energy – Converting Organelles:
1. Chloroplasts – converts solar energy to chemical energy
2. Mitochondria – produces ATP (harvests chemical energy from food)
Cytoskeleton and Related Structures:
1. A network of fiber proteins make up the cytoskeleton
a) microfilament - Enable cells to change shape and move
b) intermediate filament - Reinforce the cell and anchor certain organelles
c) microtubule – gives the cell rigidity and provide anchors for organelles and act as tracks for organelle movement
2. Cilia and Flagella –are loco motor appendages that protrude from certain cells
3. Cluster of Microtubules – drive the whipping action of these organelles

Cell Surfaces and Junctions:
- protect, support and join cells
a) Plant cells
- are supported by rigid cell walls made largely of cellulose
- connect by plasmodesmata, which are connecting channels
b) Animal cells
- tight junctions can bind cells together into leak proof sheets
- anchoring junctions link animal cells into strong tissues
- gap junctions allow substances to flow from cell to cell
Functional Categories of Organelles:
1. Manufacturing
2. Breakdown
3. Energy processing
4. Support, movement, and communication between cells
Part IV: DNA
DNA: Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Present in the nucleus of all organisms
Controls all chemical changes which take place in cells
The kind of cell formed is controlled by the DNA
The kind of organism which is produced is controlled by the DNA
Made up of Nucleotides
Ribose and Deoxyribose
Ribose is a sugar, like glucose, but with only five carbon atoms in its molecule
Deoxyribose is almost the same but lacks one oxygen atom
The Bases

Adenine (A) – Thymine (T)
[RNA: (U) instead of (T)]
Cytosine (C) – Guanine (G)
The paired strands are coiled into a spiral called a Double Helix

Replication
- Before a cell divides, the DNA strands unwind and separate
- Each strand makes a new partner by adding the appropriate nucleotides
- The result is that there are now two double-stranded DNA molecules in the nucleus
- When the cell divides, each nucleus contains identical DNA

3 Nucleotide bases = 1 Amino Acid
Each triplet codes for a specific amino acid
The amino acids are joined together in the correct sequence to make part of a protein

DNA Profiling
- DNA fingerprinting was invented by Alec Jeffreys at the University of Leicester in 1985
Stages:
1) Cells are broken down to release DNA
2) The DNA is cut into fragments using restriction enzymes. Each restriction enzyme cuts DNA at a specific base sequence
3) Fragments are separated on the basis of size using a process called Gel Electrophoresis
4) The pattern of fragment distribution is then analysed

Part V: Mitosis and Meiosis
MITOSIS

MEOSIS
- making reproductive cells

Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis: