Researching Teacher Education: New Perspectives on Practice, Performance, and Policy
23878 DFID Book 49 Synthesis 1/5/03 12:28 pm Page 1
RESEARCHING TEACHER EDUCATION:
NEW PERSPECTIVES ON PRACTICE,
PERFORMANCE AND POLICY
Multi-Site Teacher Education
Research Project (MUSTER)
Synthesis Report
Keith M Lewin and Janet S Stuart
March 2003
23878 DFID Book 49 Synthesis 1/5/03 12:28 pm Page 2
Synthesis Report - Researching Teacher Education: New Perspectives on Practice,
Performance and Policy
Educational Papers
Department for International Development: Educational Papers
N
This is one of a series of Education Papers issued by the Policy Division of the Department
For International Development. Each paper represents a study or piece of commissioned research on some aspects of education and training in developing countries. Most of the studies were undertaken in order to provide informed judgements from which policy decisions could be drawn, but in each case it has become apparent that the material produced would be of interest to a wider audience, particularly those whose work focuses
N
on developing countries.
Each paper is numbered serially, and further copies can be obtained through DFID
Education Publication Despatch, PO Box 190, Sevenoaks, TN14 5EL, UK – subject to
N
availability. A full list appears overleaf.
Although these papers are issued by DFID, the views expressed in them are entirely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent DFID’s own policies or views. Any discussion of their content should therefore be addressed to the authors and not to DFID.
N
N
Address for Correspondence
Centre for International Education
University of Sussex Institute of Education,
Falmer,
Brighton,
Sussex
BN1 9RG _ UK
T
+44 +1273 678464
E
cie@sussex.ac.uk
F
+44 +1273 678568
W www.sussex.ac.uk/usie/cie
© Keith M Lewin and Janet S Stuart
March 2003
DFID
N
23878 DFID Book 49 Synthesis 1/5/03 12:28 pm Page 3
Synthesis Report - Researching Teacher Education: New Perspectives on Practice,
Performance and Policy
Educational Papers
No.1
t d e y l s SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS IN
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES:
A SUMMARY OF THE
RESEARCH EVIDENCE.
D Pennycuick (1993)
ISBN: 0 90250 061 9
No. 2 EDUCATIONAL COST-BENEFIT
ANALYSIS.
J Hough (1993)
ISBN: 0 90250 062 7
D o f n No.3
REDUCING THE COST OF
TECHNICAL AND
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION.
L Gray, M Fletcher, P Foster, M King,
A M Warrender (1993)
ISBN: 0 90250 063 5
No. 4 REPORT ON READING
ENGLISH IN PRIMARY
SCHOOLS IN MALAWI.
E Williams (1993) Out of Print –
Available on CD-Rom and
DFID website
No. 7 PLANNING AND FINANCING
SUSTAINABLE EDUCATION
SYSTEMS IN SUB-SAHARAN
AFRICA.
P Penrose (1993)
ISBN: 0 90250 067 8
No. 8 Not allocated
No. 9 FACTORS AFFECTING
FEMALE PARTICIPATION
IN EDUCATION IN SEVEN
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES.
C Brock, N Cammish (1991)
(revised 1997).
ISBN: 1 86192 065 2
No.10 USING LITERACY: A NEW
APPROACH TO POSTLITERACY METHODS.
A Rogers (1994) Out of Print –
Available on CD-ROM and
DFID website. Updated and reissued on No 29.
No.11 EDUCATION AND TRAINING
No. 5 REPORT ON READING
ENGLISH IN PRIMARY
SCHOOLS IN ZAMBIA.
E Williams (1993) Out of Print –
Available on CD-Rom and
DFID website
FOR THE INFORMAL
SECTOR.
K King, S McGrath, F Leach,
R Carr-Hill (1994)
ISBN: 1 86192 090 3
No.12 MULTI-GRADE TEACHING:
See also No. 24, which updates and synthesises No.’s 4 and 5.
No. 6 EDUCATION AND
A REVIEW OF RESEARCH
AND PRACTICE.
A Little (1995)
ISBN: 0 90250 058 9
DEVELOPMENT: THE ISSUES
AND THE EVIDENCE.
K Lewin (1993)
ISBN: 0 90250 066 X
DFID
23878 DFID Book 49 Synthesis 1/5/03 12:28 pm Page 4
Synthesis Report - Researching Teacher Education: New Perspectives on Practice,
Performance and Policy
Educational Papers
No.13 DISTANCE EDUCATION IN
ENGINEERING FOR
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES.
T Bilham, R Gilmour (1995)
Out of Print – Available on CD-ROM and DFID website.
No.19 GENDER, EDUCATION AND
DEVELOPMENT - A PARTIALLY
ANNOTATED AND SELECTIVE
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
C Brock, N Cammish (1997)
Out of Print – Available on CD-ROM and DFID website.
N
N
No.14 HEALTH & HIV/AIDS
EDUCATION IN PRIMARY &
SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN
AFRICA & ASIA.
E Barnett, K de Koning,
V Francis (1995)
ISBN: 0 90250 069 4
No.15 LABOUR MARKET SIGNALS
& INDICATORS.
L Gray, AM Warrender, P Davies,
G Hurley, C Manton (1995) Out of
Print – Available on CD-ROM and DFID website.
No.20 CONTEXTUALISING
TEACHING AND LEARNING
IN RURAL PRIMARY
SCHOOLS USING
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIENCE.
P Taylor, A Mulhall (Vols 1 & 2)
(1997) Vol 1 ISBN: 1 861920 45 8
Vol 2 ISBN: 1 86192 050 4
N
N
No.21 GENDER AND SCHOOL
ACHIEVEMENT IN THE
CARIBBEAN.
P Kutnick, V Jules, A Layne (1997)
ISBN: 1 86192 080 6
No.16 IN-SERVICE SUPPORT FOR A
TECHNOLOGICAL APPROACH
TO SCIENCE EDUCATION.
F Lubben, R Campbell,
B Dlamini (1995)
ISBN: 0 90250 071 6
No.17 ACTION RESEARCH REPORT
ON “REFLECT” METHOD OF
TEACHING LITERACY.
D Archer, S Cottingham (1996)
ISBN: 0 90250 072 4
No.18 THE EDUCATION AND
TRAINING OF ARTISANS FOR
THE INFORMAL SECTOR IN
TANZANIA.
D Kent, P Mushi (1996)
ISBN: 0 90250 074 0
DFID
No.22 SCHOOL-BASED
UNDERSTANDING OF
HUMAN RIGHTS IN FOUR
COUNTRIES: A
COMMONWEALTH STUDY.
R Bourne, J Gundara, A Dev,
N Ratsoma, M Rukanda, A Smith,
U Birthistle (1997)
ISBN: 1 86192 095 4
N
N
No.23 GIRLS AND BASIC EDUCATION:
A CULTURAL ENQUIRY.
D Stephens (1998)
ISBN: 1 86192 036 9
N
No.24 INVESTIGATING BILINGUAL
LITERACY: EVIDENCE FROM
MALAWI AND ZAMBIA.
E Williams (1998)
ISBN: 1 86192 041 5No.25
23878 DFID Book 49 Synthesis 1/5/03 12:28 pm Page 5
Synthesis Report - Researching Teacher Education: New Perspectives on Practice,
Performance and Policy
Educational Papers
No.25 PROMOTING GIRLS’
Y
E
EDUCATION IN AFRICA.
N Swainson, S Bendera, R Gordon,
E Kadzamira (1998)
ISBN: 1 86192 046 6
No.32 SECTOR WIDE APPROACHES
TO EDUCATION.
M Ratcliffe, M Macrae (1999)
ISBN: 1 86192 131 4
No.33 DISTANCE EDUCATION
M
No.26 GETTING BOOKS TO SCHOOL
PUPILS IN AFRICA.
D Rosenberg, W Amaral, C Odini,
T Radebe, A Sidibé (1998)
ISBN: 1 86192 051 2
PRACTICE: TRAINING &
REWARDING AUTHORS.
H Perraton, C Creed (1999)
ISBN: 1 86192 136 5
No.34 THE EFFECTIVENESS OF
.
No.27 COST SHARING IN EDUCATION.
P Penrose (1998)
ISBN: 1 86192 056 3
TEACHER RESOURCE
CENTRE STRATEGY.
Ed. G Knamiller, G Fairhurst (1999)
ISBN: 1 86192 141 1
No.28 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
AND TRAINING IN TANZANIA
AND ZIMBABWE IN THE
CONTEXT OF ECONOMIC
REFORM.
P Bennell (1999)
ISBN: 1 86192 061 X
No.35 EVALUATING IMPACTS (OF
EDUCATION PROJECTS &
PROGRAMMES).
Ed. V McKay, C Treffgarne (1999)
ISBN: 1 86192 191 8
No.36 AFRICAN JOURNALS –
No.29 RE-DEFINING POST- LITERACY
IN A CHANGING WORLD.
A Rogers, B Maddox, J Millican,
K Newell Jones, U Papen,
A Robinson-Pant (1999)
ISBN: 1 86192 069 5
No.30 IN SERVICE FOR TEACHER
DEVELOPMENT IN SUBSAHARAN AFRICA.
M Monk (1999)
ISBN: 1 86192 074 1
A SURVEY OF THEIR
USAGE IN AFRICAN
UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES.
A Alemna, V Chifwepa,
D Rosenberg (1999)
ISBN: 1 86192 157 8
No.37 MONITORING THE
PERFORMANCE OF
EDUCATIONAL
PROGRAMMES IN
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES.
R Carr-Hill, M Hopkins, A Riddell,
No.31 PRODUCTION OF LOCALLY
GENERATED TRAINING
MATERIALS.
I Carter (1999)
ISBN: 1 86192 079 2
J Lintott (1999)
ISBN: 1 86192 224 8No.38
DFID
23878 DFID Book 49 Synthesis 1/5/03 12:28 pm Page 6
Synthesis Report - Researching Teacher Education: New Perspectives on Practice,
Performance and Policy
Educational Papers
No.38 TOWARDS RESPONSIVE
SCHOOLS – SUPPORTING
BETTER SCHOOLING FOR
DISADVANTAGED CHILDREN
(case studies from Save the Children).
M Molteno, K Ogadhoh, E Cain,
B Crumpton (2000)
ISBN: to be confirmed
No.39 PRELIMINARY
INVESTIGATION OF THE
ABUSE OF GIRLS IN
ZIMBABWEAN JUNIOR
SECONDARY SCHOOLS.
F Leach, P Machankanja with
J Mandoga (2000)
ISBN: 1 86192 279 5
No.40 THE IMPACT OF TRAINING
ON WOMEN’S MICROENTERPRISE DEVELOPMENT
F Leach, S Abdulla, H Appleton,
J el-Bushra, N Cardenas, K Kebede,
V Lewis, S Sitaram (2000)
ISBN: 1 86192 284 1
No.41 THE QUALITY OF LEARNING
AND TEACHING IN
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES:
ASSESSING LITERACY AND
NUMERACY IN MALAWI AND
SRI LANKA.
D Johnson, J Hayter,
P Broadfoot (2000)
ISBN: 1 86192 313 9
No.42 LEARNING TO COMPETE:
EDUCATION, TRAINING &
ENTERPRISE IN GHANA,
KENYA & SOUTH AFRICA.
D Afenyadu, K King, S McGrath,
H Oketch, C Rogerson, K Visser (1999)
ISBN: 1 86192 314 7
No.43 COMPUTERS IN SECONDARY
N
SCHOOLS IN DEVELOPING
COUNTRIES: COSTS AND
OTHER ISSUES.
A Cawthera (2001)
ISBN 1 86192 418 6
No.44 THE IMPACT OF HIV/AIDS ON
THE UNIVERSITY OF
BOTSWANA: DEVELOPING A
COMPREHENSIVE
STRATEGIC RESPONSE.
B Chilisa, P Bennell, K Hyde (2001)
ISBN: 1 86192 467 4
N c No.45 THE IMPACT OF HIV/AIDS ON
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY
EDUCATION IN BOTSWANA:
DEVELOPING A
COMPREHENSIVE
STRATEGIC RESPONSE.
P Bennell, B Chilisa, K Hyde,
A Makgothi, E Molobe,
L Mpotokwane (2001)
ISBN: 1 86192 468 2
No.46 EDUCATION FOR ALL:
POLICY AND PLANNING LESSONS FROM SRI LANKA.
A Little (2003)
ISBN: 1 86192 552 0
No.47 REACHING THE POOR -
THE COSTS OF SENDING
CHILDREN TO SCHOOL
S Boyle, A Brock, J Mace,
M Sibbons (2003)
ISBN: 1 86192 361 9
A
D
DFID
N
23878 DFID Book 49 Synthesis 1/5/03 12:28 pm Page 7
Synthesis Report - Researching Teacher Education: New Perspectives on Practice,
Performance and Policy
Educational Papers
No.48 CHILD LABOUR AND ITS
IMPACT ON CHILDREN’S
ACCESS TO AND
PARTICIPATION IN PRIMARY
EDUCATION - A CASE STUDY
FROM TANZANIA by H.A Dachi and R.M Garrett
(2003)
ISBN: 1 86192 536 0
Other DFID Educational Studies Also Available:
REDRESSING GENDER INEQUALITIES IN
EDUCATION. N Swainson (1995)
FACTORS AFFECTING GIRLS’ ACCESS TO
SCHOOLING IN NIGER. S Wynd (1995)
EDUCATION FOR RECONSTRUCTION.
D Phillips, N Arnhold, J Bekker, N Kersh,
E McLeish (1996)
NOW AVAILABLE – CD-ROM containing full texts of Papers 1-42
AFRICAN JOURNAL DISTRIBUTION
PROGRAMME: EVALUATION OF 1994 PILOT
PROJECT. D Rosenberg (1996)
TEACHER JOB SATISFACTION IN
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES. R Garrett (1999)
A MODEL OF BEST PRACTICE AT LORETO
DAY SCHOOL, SEALDAH, CALCUTTA.
T Jessop (1998)
LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES FOR ALL.
DFID Policy Paper (1999)
THE CHALLENGE OF UNIVERSAL
PRIMARY EDUCATION.
DFID Target Strategy Paper (2001)
CHILDREN OUT OF SCHOOL.
DFID Issues Paper (2001)
All publications are available free of charge from DFID Education Publications
Despatch, PO Box 190, Sevenoaks, TN14 5EL, or by email from dfidpubs@eclogistics.co.uk
DFID
23878 DFID Book 49 Synthesis 1/5/03 12:28 pm Page 8
Synthesis Report - Researching Teacher Education: New Perspectives on Practice,
Performance and Policy
Foreword: The Multi-Site Teacher Education Research Project
This Research Report synthesises the findings from a four-year programme of research on
M
Teacher Education supported by DFID. It is focused on insights from Ghana, Lesotho,
a
Malawi, and Trinidad and Tobago. The research in South Africa is presented in a separate
E
book.
p t The research was co-ordinated from the Centre for International Education at the
c
University of Sussex. Participative workshops were used at different times in the project to
a
develop the framework for the research, design data collection and analysis methods, and
i
consolidate research findings into a range of publications. Principal Researchers were identified in each country who convened country research teams to undertake the research.
B
This created ownership, grounded research activity in national contexts, and contributed to
t
building future research capacity.
a b The dissemination of research insights from MUSTER is taking many forms. Thirty
f
Discussion Papers have now been produced and are available from the MUSTER Website
j
(http://www.sussex.ac.uk/usie/muster). These include country baseline studies, along with many analytic sub-studies by research team members. A special double issue of the
T
International Journal of Educational and Development containing 13 articles has been published (May 2002). Contributions have also been made to a special edition of the
M
International Journal of Educational Research on Teacher Education. Other outputs include
o
a book on Changing Patterns of Teacher Education in South Africa: Policy, Practice and
w
Prospects; a collection of Teacher Educators’ Resource Materials developed from MUSTER
R
research; various locally published research reports, and individually published articles in different academic journals. Five national workshops have been organised for policy makers
•
and practitioners to disseminate findings directly to communities of stakeholders in each
•
country. MUSTER research has also been presented at various international conferences
•
including the Oxford Conference and the U.S. Comparative and International Education
•
Society. Four country reports (Ghana, Lesotho, Malawi and Trinidad and Tobago) are being
•
published as DFID Research Reports. A CD-ROM will be made available of the major
MUSTER publications.
F
s
Keith Lewin and Janet Stuart
P
S
a t D
O i A
i
DFID
23878 DFID Book 49 Synthesis 1/5/03 12:28 pm Page 9
Synthesis Report - Researching Teacher Education: New Perspectives on Practice,
Performance and Policy
Acknowledgements n MUSTER has depended on the collaborative endeavours of a large number of researchers
,
and the co-operation of many teacher educators, teacher education students, Ministries of
e
Education, and training institutions. To all these actors we express our gratitude. Most particularly the research has relied centrally on the efforts, insights, skills, and persistence of the research teams and the Principal Researchers, often working under difficult
e
circumstances with many competing pressures on their time. The range of research products
o
and their quality is testimony to the immense amount of work and goodwill that all those
d
involved have committed to MUSTER.
e
.
Beryl Clough was an unstinting, conscientious, committed and caring Project Secretary for
o
the MUSTER project who cheerfully coped with all its crises, deadlines and financial aberrations. Sadly she passed away before the completion of the Project and is sorely missed by all involved. This report, and the other outputs from MUSTER, have benefited greatly
y
from her dedication, sense of duty, and willingness to go the extra mile. We hope it does
e
justice to her memory.
g e The Researchers
n e MUSTER research was co-ordinated from the Centre for International Education, Institute
e
of Education at the University of Sussex in partnership with five link institutions each of
d
which convened research teams to collect and analyse data. The institutions and the Principal
R
Researchers were:
n s •
The Institute of Education, University of Cape Coast, Ghana (Dr. K.Akyeampong)
h
•
The Institute of Education, National University of Lesotho (J.P.Lefoka)
s
•
The Centre for Educational Research and Training, University of Malawi (D.Kunje)
n
•
The Faculty of Education, University of Durban-Westville, South Africa (Dr.M.Samuel)
g
•
The School of Education, University of the West Indies, Trinidad and Tobago (Dr.
J.George).
r
D
Four Sussex faculty co-ordinated the MUSTER research providing advice, direct research support in–country, and assistance with data analysis and report publication. These are
Professor Keith Lewin, Dr Janet Stuart, Dr David Stephens (1997-1999), and Dr Yusuf
Sayed (1999-2001). Dr Julie Coultas (Research Officer 1998/1999) assisted with statistical analysis and advice to parts of the research. Three doctoral students have been attached to the project and have worked with the relevant country teams – Alison Croft (Malawi),
Dominic Furlong (Ghana) and John Hedges (Ghana). John Hedges also acted as a Research
Officer (2000/2001) to support the dissemination programme. Each country has organised its research teams differently. A full list of research teams in each country is included in
Appendix 1.
DFID
ii
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Synthesis Report - Researching Teacher Education: New Perspectives on Practice,
Performance and Policy
Contents
Acknowledgements
i
Abbreviations
v
Preface
vi
3.4 Some Key Issues
4 Who Becomes a Primary
34
37
Teacher? viii 4.0 Summary
37
1 Introduction
viii
4.1 Introduction and Overview
38
2 On Policy Challenges and
viii
4.2 Characteristics of the
3 On Selection and Admission
xiii
4.3 Trainees’ Perceptions of
4 On the Curriculum for Initial
xiv
Executive Summary
Priorities
Training
5 On Colleges
xviii
6 On Structures
xix
7 On External Assistance
38
Student Teachers Entering College
46
Teaching and the Teaching
Profession.
4.4 Images, Experiences and Role
50
Identity
xxii
8 Some Scenarios for the Future xxv
8.1 Scenario 1: More of the
xxv
Same – Roosting Egrets xxvi Evolution - Weaver Birds at Work
8.3 Scenario 3: Radical Reform – xxviii
Soaring Eagles xxxi 1 Researching Teacher Education
1
57
5 The Curriculum of Teacher
Education
5.0 Summary and Overview
8.2 Scenario 2: Managed
9 Concluding Remark
4.5 Concluding Discussion
61
61
5.1 Introduction
62
5.2 Overview of Curriculum
65
Structures
5.3 Aims and Objectives.
67
5.4 Content
68
5.5 Teaching and Learning
74
Materials and Resources.
1.1 Introduction
1
5.6 Pedagogy
76
1.2 The Research Partners
4
5.7 Assessment
78
1.3 The Research Process
5
5.8 Concluding Discussion
79
1.4 Themes and Variations
6
1.5 Reporting and Dissemination
6
6 Teaching Practice and
83
of Findings
1.6 Overview of Report
School Based Training
7
6.0 Summary and Overview
83
6.1 Introduction
2 Doing the Research
2.1 The Research Questions
9
9
84
6.2 Case-studies of Traditional
85
Teaching Practice
2.2 The Research Process
11
6.3 School-based Teacher Training 90
2.3 Research Methods
12
6.4 Concluding Discussion
2.4 Reflections on the Research
17
Process
96
7 What Happens After Training?: 99
Induction and Beyond
3 The MUSTER Project
25
7.0 Summary and Overview
3.1 Introduction
25
7.1 Introduction
3.2 Overview of the Teacher
25
7.2 What Happens to NQTs after 101
Education Systems
3.3 The College Context.
iii
99
100
Leaving College.
31
DFID
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Synthesis Report - Researching Teacher Education: New Perspectives on Practice,
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Contents - Continued
7.3 Induction
102
7.4 How NQTs Value their Course104
10.9 On Selection and Admission
184
10.10 On the Curriculum for Initial 185
Training
7
7.5 How Others Evaluate the
10.11 On Colleges
188
7
7.6 Evidence of Attitude Changes 109
10.12 On Structures
190
7.7 Career Ambitions
113
10.13 On External Assistance
194
7.8 Concluding Discussion
114
10.14 On the Prospects for Reform
196
10.15 Scenario 1: More of the
197
7
7
D
106
NQTS
Same – Roosting Egrets
8 Teacher Educators in Colleges 117
8.0 Summary and Overview
117
8. 1 Introduction
118
8. 2 Data Sources
119
8. 3 Characteristics of College Staff 119
10.16 Scenario 2: Managed
197
Evolution - Weaver Birds at Work
10.17 Scenario 3: Radical Reform –
200
Soaring Eagles
10.18 Concluding Remark
205
8.4 Tutors’ Views and Perspectives 124
8.5 Concluding Discussion
9 Supply, Demand, Efficiency
129
207
List of MUSTER Researchers by Country
133
and Costs
9.0 Summary.
Appendix 1
Appendix 2
133
209
Other Publications
9.1 Context
134
Appendix 3
9.2 Four Contrasting Case
136
National Conferences
Studies – Supply, Costs and
Demand
210
References
211
217
219
9.3 Case-study 1: Ghana
137
MUSTER Discussion Paper Series
9.4 Case-study 2: Lesotho
145
MUSTER Research Reports
9.5 Case-study 3: Malawi
152
9.6 Case-study 4: Trinidad and
160
9.7 Concluding Remarks
162
10 Insights from MUSTER and
169
Ways Forward
10 Introduction
Tables
1 Characteristics of student
Tobago
169
10.1 Characteristics of Teachers
169
10.2 Teacher Education Curricula
171
10.3 The Practicum: Teaching
173
Practice and School-based Training
40
teacher samples in the four countries. 2 Educational qualifications of
44
parents of student teachers
3 Percentage of student teachers
44 whose father/mother is a teacher
4 Teaching experience of student 46 teachers for each country
5 Proportions of contact time
69
suggested for each subject area
10.4 Post-Training Issues
175
6 Comparisons of backgrounds
10.5 Teacher Educators
177
of college tutors and career trajectories 10.6 Supply, Demand, Efficiency
178
and Costs
136
Teacher Education
10.7 MUSTER Key Issues
179
10.8 On Policy
180
DFID
7 Profile of financing for
120
8 Future demand for teachers
142
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Synthesis Report - Researching Teacher Education: New Perspectives on Practice,
Performance and Policy
Contents - Continued
9 Comparisons of costs between 144
conventional and ‘In-In-Out’
(US$)
10 Primary teacher projections
151
over 5 years
11 MIITEP programme outline
153
12 Distribution of costs per
156
student over two years
13 Comparison between
157
different modes of training
14 Teacher demand
161
15 Some possible training modes 193
Figures
1 The Muster Matrix
10
2 Forms of teacher training
26
programmes in four countries
3 Length of college and school-
26
based training in four countries
(2000)
4 Factors shaping teacher
30
education systems
5 Age profiles of teacher trainees 39
by country
6 Trainees Perceptions Measured 48
by 11 Survey Items
7 Structural patterns: the place
85
of the practicum
8 Entry, Exit and NQT
110
Perceptions - Lesotho
9 Entry, Exit and NQT
111
Perceptions - Malawi
10 The evolution of recurrent
138
expenditure in Ghana
11 Evolution of recurrent
146
expenditure in Lesotho
12 Evolution of recurrent
154
expenditure in Malawi
13 The Three Phases of teacher
202
development
v
DFID
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Synthesis Report - Researching Teacher Education: New Perspectives on Practice,
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Abbreviations
BAGET
Bachelor of General Education and Training
BTC
Blantyre Teachers’ College
CIE
Centre for International
Education
COSC
MANEB
MDG
MIITEP
MOE
Malawi National
Examinations Board
Millennium Development Goals
Malawi Integrated In-service
Teacher Education Project
Ministry of Education
Cambridge Overseas School
Certificate
MSCE
CPD
Continuing Professional
Development
Malawi School Certificate of
Education
MSSSP
CXC
Caribbean Examinations
Council
Malawi Schools Support Systems
Project
DEO
District Education Officer
DEP
Diploma in Education
(Primary)
DFID
DO
DPTE
Department for International
Development
District Officer
Diploma in Primary Teacher
Education
MUSTER
NQT
NTTC
NUL
Multi-site Teacher Education
Research
Newly Qualified Teacher
National Teacher Training
College
National University of Lesotho
OJT
On the Job Training
PEA
Primary Education Advisor
PRESET
Pre-service Education for
Teachers
DRT
District Resource Teacher
EFA
Education For All
PTC
Primary Teachers Certificate
ESL
English as a Second Language
PTR
Pupil-teacher Ratio
Free Compulsory Universal
Basic Education
SPSS
Statistics Package for Social
Sciences
Free Primary Education
SSCE
Senior Secondary Certificate of
Education
FCUBE
FPE
GCE
General Certificate of
Education
GER
Gross Enrolment Ratio
GES
Ghana Education Service
GNP
Gross National Product
GTZ
Gesellschaft fur Technische
Zusammenarbeit
ICT
IJED
INSET
JC, JCE
JSS
JUSSTEP
DFID
Information and
Communication Technologies
International Journal of
Educational Development
In-service Education for
Teachers
Junior Certificate of Education
Junior Secondary School
Junior Secondary School
Teacher Education Project
SSR
Staff-Student Ratio
SSS
Senior Secondary School
TDC
TP
Teachers Development Centre
Teaching Practice
TPP
Teaching Practice Preparation
TTC
Teacher Training College
UCC
University of Cape Coast
UDE
University Department of
Education
UNDP
United Nations Development
Programme
UDW
University of Durban-Westville
UPE
Universal Primary Education
UT
UWI
Untrained Teacher
University of the West Indies
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T a A i d p H
m d s t M c a
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d c a
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c s t
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m i s
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I t t i h
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Executive Review: Researching Teacher Education: New
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1.
Introduction
The MUSTER research project has undertaken extensive empirical studies of different aspects of primary teacher education as it is practised in Ghana, Lesotho, Malawi, South
Africa1 and Trinidad and Tobago. The variety, richness and nuances of the data and its interpretation cannot be captured in a single global summary. This would do violence to the differences in context and culture, the variations in inputs, processes and outcomes, and the profile of needs that each teacher education system seeks to meet.
However, it is possible to offer some synthetic observations which have germinated from the many sub-studies and which highlight some emerging priorities for teacher education and development that resonate across the case-study countries, and perhaps for those confronting similar challenges. This executive review therefore focuses on cross-cutting issues, and invites the reader to pursue individual themes in the main text of this report, and in the various
MUSTER publications. In particular the four country reports published by MUSTER offer comprehensive analyses of each system and reach specific conclusions and recommendations at national level (Akyeampong 2001, Lefoka and Sebatane 2002, Kunje, Lewin and Stuart
2002, George and Quamina-Aiyejina 2002). Each has been the subject of a national dissemination workshop. MUSTER research in the fifth country, South Africa, has been consolidated and published as a separate book (Lewin, Samuel and Sayed 2003). In addition a special double edition of the International Journal for Education and Development (Vol 22,
Nos 3 and 4) carries fourteen contributions by MUSTER authors (Stuart and Lewin 2002).
This review is organised in six sections. The first section identifies a range of key policy challenges for teacher education, and details emerging priorities. The next three sections sequentially reflect on insights and issues concerned with the selection and admission of trainees, the initial teacher education curriculum, and the characteristics of teacher education
Colleges. This leads to a discussion of structures for initial training and some alternative models. The fifth section develops an analysis of the roles external assistance can play in improving quality and effectiveness. Section six briefly outlines some developmental scenarios that arise from the cross-case analysis undertaken within MUSTER.
2.
On Policy Challenges and Priorities
In Ghana, Lesotho, and Malawi the challenge posed for teacher education by national targets for enrolment and pupil-teacher ratios for primary schooling is immense. None of these systems can produce enough new teachers to meet projected demand. Each needs to increase the output of trained teachers several-fold (Lewin 2002). In Ghana output would have to increase three or four times if all children were to be enrolled at primary level and
The bulk of the South Africa work is published in Lewin, Samuel, Sayed (2003) and this report focuses largely on
Ghana, Lesotho, Malawi, and Trinidad and Tobago.
1
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Executive Review taught by trained teachers. In Lesotho, more than five times current output is needed.
I
Projections of demand in South Africa suggest substantially rising demand for teachers
B
(Crouch with Lewin 2001) which is very sensitive to the demographic impact of
r
HIV/AIDS. Demand is rising as the numbers entering primary teacher training have fallen
s
to minimal levels. Malawi has already adopted a mixed-mode approach to training that is
E
relatively low cost and high volume which could meet demand with imaginable levels of
w
expansion. However, quality is widely questioned, the programme cannot be delivered as
L
originally intended, and places are unlikely to be filled without recruiting from those
E
completing just two years of secondary schooling (Kunje and Chirembo 2000, Stuart and
M
Kunje 2000). Trinidad and Tobago is the only case where demand is well within the capacity
t
of training institutions. Here there is a window of opportunity to invest in quality
t
improvement and extending the role of colleges into professional support pre- and post-
(
training, something that is largely absent in the MUSTER countries.
p n Though the detail is complex, the MUSTER conclusions are clear. The Millennium
s
Development Goals (MDG) relating to education cannot be met unless the supply of
E
teachers is adequate to keep pupil-teacher ratios within reasonable limits, and the quality of
p
their training is sufficient to result in minimum acceptable levels of pupil achievement. The
t
costs of existing methods of training are such that simple expansion of existing capacity is
e
often not financially viable. Improvements in efficiency and effectiveness are needed that can
C
lower costs and expand output within sustainable budgets. It may also be necessary to
o
consider alternatives to two or three years full-time, pre-career training. Traditional teacher
c
education programmes are heavily ‘front-loaded’ with most investment at the beginning of
a
a teaching career. Their unit costs can exceed those of university education and may be 50
c
or more times the annual cost of a primary school place. If the average length of teachers’ careers is declining, as it is in some cases as a result of HIV/AIDS, and if the numbers which
I
have to be trained are much larger than current capacity, teacher education programmes with
d
lower costs are needed. The alternative is to revise MDG targets for universalising access and
c
achieving gender equity in primary schooling.
p t MUSTER has explored the process and practice of teacher education across a range of
d
countries in great detail. Several common threads emerge related to policy issues, which are
p
outlined below.
p
T
First, the simple observation is that across the MUSTER countries policy on primary teacher education is fragmented, incomplete, and more often than not simply non-existent. Despite
T
the obvious importance of policy on teacher education to the achievement of nationally and
s
internationally agreed goals to universalise primary schooling, improve quality, and enhance
o
equity in access and retention, the development of coherent, medium term, financially sustainable teacher education policy, tailored to meet the demand for new teachers, has been
T
widely neglected.
d
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.
In Ghana, College reform has not been a priority since FCUBE (Free Compulsory Universal
s
Basic Education) was announced. The recent introduction of the ‘In-In-Out’ programme to
f
replace three-year fully residential training has not evolved from a considered strategy to
n
supply the number of teachers needed to meet the objectives of FCUBE. A Teacher
s
Education Task Force has now been established, as a sequel to the MUSTER national
f
workshop, and time will tell if it will succeed in the development of an integrated policy.
s
Lesotho continues to train far fewer teachers than it needs to implement Free Primary
e
Education (FPE). It has also established a Task Force on Teacher Education to build on the
d
MUSTER research and has ambitions to develop a strategic plan. Malawi has grappled with
y
the implications of its FPE programme and has attempted to meet the need for trained
y
teachers through the innovative Malawi Integrated Inservice Teacher Education Programme
-
(MIITEP) programme of mixed college- and school-based training. The suspension of this programme, with the consequence that no new teachers were enrolled in training for more nearly three years, reflects the absence of national teacher education policy and of any real
m
sense of urgency to address the problems of initial training. The recent creation of a Teacher
f
Education Division within the Ministry, the inclusion of teacher education more
f
prominently in the Policy and Investment Framework, and the agreement on the funding of
e
three extra MIITEP cohorts are positive signs. Trinidad and Tobago policy on teacher
s
education has no clear locus of control or chain of accountability. Unlike other Eastern
n
Caribbean States, where partnerships exist between Ministries, Colleges and the University
o
of the West Indies, responsibilities are ill-defined, as is policy. The MUSTER national
r
conference has developed some momentum to resolve this unsatisfactory situation (George
f
and Quamina-Aiyejina 2002) and created an opportunity to revitalise the college system and
0
capitalise on its strengths.
’ h It is self-evident that national planning must directly address questions of teacher supply and
h
demand, quality, curriculum and deployment. To be plausible such policy needs to have
d
clarity about its goals (what are the skills and competencies newly trained teachers should possess?), methods (how are these to be acquired?), costs (what resources are needed?) and timescale (how long will it take to achieve the desired outcomes?). If such policy is
f
developed alongside the evolution of sector-wide agreements with external development
e
partners, as is the case in several of the MUSTER countries, then it should be an integral part of the process which produces agreed spending plans and identifies performance goals.
This has yet to become a reality.
r e The first priority is therefore for policy makers to actually develop policy which has national
d
standing and is integrated into the medium term planning process. There are a number of
e
other priorities which can be identified.
y n D
The second issue is to recognise that what is possible and sustainable is constrained in different ways in the different countries. Most simply put, any medium term policy has to
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m
hence teachers needed each year), teacher attrition (retirement, alternative career choices,
m
the impact of HIV/AIDS), and enrolment rate targets (achieving and sustaining universal
l
enrolment up to a specified grade level). It also has to start from existing training capacity
t
and recognise the constraints of infrastructure on the rate at which output might grow in
c
quality and quantity. Our analyses indicates how different the situations are in the different
f
countries, and also draw attention to some of the constraints and opportunities imposed by history, politics and finance. In three of the countries the choice is between mass methods
F
that could produce trained teachers in sufficient quantity to meet demand, and those which
c
might improve quality but would limit the number of pupils with access to teachers with any
r
training at all. The MUSTER analyses of supply and demand, and of efficiency and costs,
r
need refinement, periodic up-dating, and integration into frameworks for policy at national
p
level.
l
A third area of policy concern relates to the mechanisms through which teacher education
F
is resourced, and its performance monitored. Typically budgetary systems use historic
T
budgeting loosely related to actual or projected student numbers. The arrangements vary,
t
but none of those we have explored seem sufficient to provide a stable financial environment
t
conducive to the efficient management of colleges. Where budgetary allocations are
r
unpredictable, release of funds irregular, and auditing and accountability weak, it is difficult
C
to see how consistent development can take place. Under these circumstances it is also
t
unlikely that training institutions can develop their own medium term strategic planning and
c
gain the commitment of their staff to a common set of goals. Training systems are not large
s
and complex in comparison with school systems. It should be possible to include teacher
(
education budget lines in Medium Term Expenditure Frameworks and ensure that what is
l
allocated is disbursed regularly. Given the relatively small number of institutions involved
c
there is no obvious reason why they should not stand in a direct relationship with a Ministry
m
department and budget. Where we have observed the effects of decentralising the budget to
a
intermediary levels, this seems to introduce an unnecessary layer of bureaucracy and delay.
i
MUSTER research has not identified existing funding mechanisms which reward efficiency
S
and penalise waste. Neither, as noted above, is funding generally linked to any formula
b
related to the number of students, or their successful graduation. It is also true that salary
i
costs per student (predominantly lecturers’ salaries) vary across training institutions within
n
the same country, largely as a result of variations in student-teacher ratios. This suggests that
q
norms on staffing are seldom applied, resulting in under-staffing of some institutions and
a
over-staffing of others. It is also significant for costs that the average size of training
n
institutions is often small, and falls below 500 trainees in many cases. This is often smaller
i
than the size of typical secondary schools and many primary schools. Economies of scale are available if it is possible to increase average size and distribute fixed costs across more
F
trainees. Expenditure on learning resources in training institutions is often minimal and no
r
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,
minimum level. No ring-fencing or other procedures are used to protect spending on books,
l
learning aids etc., with predictable results. There are many mechanisms that could be used
y
to regularise the flow of funds and create at least some incentives to increase efficiency. These
n
could improve the chances that training institutions will develop cumulatively within a stable
t
financial environment that could offer better value for money.
y s Fourth, boarding-related costs are high and often the largest element of training institution
h
costs. These costs may be necessary and can be efficiently managed. The policy questions
y
revolve around the length of time boarding is essential, and whether any element of cost
,
recovery should be introduced. The latter is especially relevant where trainee teachers are
l
paid stipends as untrained teachers from which they would otherwise have to fund their own living costs.
n
Fifth, policy on initial teacher education should be linked to that on subsequent In-service
c
Training (INSET) and Continuing Professional Development (CPD). This is generally not
y,
the case. However effective initial training is, it leads into the stage of ‘newly qualified
t
teacher’ (NQT), a critical period when new teachers require support and guidance and often
e
receive little systematic induction. Training institutions should play a full role in INSET and
t
CPD, since these activities should cross-fertilise and feed back into more effective initial
o
training. In principle, an ‘initial’ qualification is precisely that, and not a terminal stage in a
d
career ladder. The balance between the time and money spent on initial training and
e
subsequent INSET and CPD is a critical policy question. If most investment is front-loaded
r
(i.e. at the beginning of a teacher’s career), if teacher attrition is high and rising, if career
s
lifetimes as primary teaches are shortening, and if substantial effort is to be directed to
d
changing school practice through direct support for whole school development, then it may
y
make sense to shorten periods of initial training in favour of more training inputs for NQTs
o
as their careers develop. Amongst other things, this has the benefit of directing more investment of training resources towards those on the job and likely to remain so.
y
Sixth, none of the countries within MUSTER (with the exception of South Africa), has
a
begun to address the question as to whether non-government resources have a role to play
y
in expanded and more effective teacher education. Historically much was provided through
n
not-for-profit non-government institutions. It may or may not be the case that these
t
questions should be reopened. Where resources are a major constraint on teacher education,
d
and internal efficiency of public institutions is low, some forms of public-private partnership
g
need to remain among the options. The detailed case that might be made for partnerships
r
is necessarily located within each system and may or may not be attractive.
e e Finally, it seems to us, the constructive and effective development of teacher education
o
requires direct association with Ministerial authority, clear lines of administrative control and
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t
institutions, at least in professional arenas. The latter would seem essential if teacher
b
education institutions are to move away from patterns of organisation and operation which
o
closely resemble secondary schools, to become professional development institutions working to facilitate the learning of adults and their induction into new roles as self-
T
confident, competent and creative young professionals.
i o The policy problems we have identified in MUSTER suggest that at their core are several
n
causes. First, primary teacher education policy has often been seen as an afterthought to
h
policy on Education for All and the MDGs, neither of which foreground teacher education
d
issues . It is almost as if it is a residual concern that has had to be addressed in the wake of
p
policy on universalising schooling, which has had a much higher public profile and much
t
catalysis for development agencies. Second, the locus of control over teacher education has
s
been ambiguous, and is often a subsidiary function within a department of a line Ministry.
f
Third, and partly as a result, resources have not flowed in ways consistent with demand for
d
newly trained teachers. Fourth, key stakeholders (parents, teachers unions, educational
c
administrators, college lecturers) have been slow to assert the importance of re-
w
conceptualising teacher education in the wake of primary curriculum reform and universal
a
access, as also have been some other development partners.
a
m
3.
On Selection and Admission
4
Policy on trainee selection is generally poorly articulated and lacking any evidence base.
Predominantly trainees are selected as a result of meeting minimum academic requirements.
T
Other selection methods – interviews, aptitude tests, language tests – are rarely used and are
q
not consistently applied. Yet we can find no studies of the predictive validity of such selection
s
methods. The attempts MUSTER made to test this do not show that school-leaving
i
achievement scores are good predictors of college performance. It is widely argued that
t
academic selection criteria should be raised to increase the quality of trainees. This is unwise
s
unless there is confidence that these are good predictors of subsequent performance. It is
p
unrealistic where there simply are not enough minimally qualified applicants in the pool
n
currently available, which is the case in some countries. Two policy implications flow from
r
this. First, there is a case for considering whether selection should include things other than
f
academic results from secondary school examinations and, if so, what procedures are viable and cost-effective. Second, where academic achievement levels are thought to be too low,
F
the question is whether content upgrading in subjects should be a priority at training
b
institution level, or whether some sort of access programmes at school level might be more
h
effective (school costs are generally much less than college costs). We note that in two of our
l
case-study countries (Malawi and Trinidad and Tobago), trainees are appointed as untrained
t
teachers before initial training. In principle this provides an extended opportunity to assess
m
suitability and to base selection on performance as an untrained teacher. However, since
l
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r
based programme and the training institutions are weak or non-existent in the two cases, this
h
opportunity is largely lost. It does not have to be.
s f- The second set of issues relates to the characteristics of those selected. The detailed data indicate many factors that shape the starting points from which the trainees progress. Some of these may be thought fairly obvious (e.g. low levels of academic qualification), others are
l
not so obvious (e.g. the range and extent of previous experience as teachers, the relatively
o
high ages of some entrants). MUSTER has also provided insights into attitudes and
n
dispositions to teachers and teaching which can be used to inform the management of
f
professional learning. Trainees do not enter training with no preconceptions, but many. How
h
they learn, what they internalise, and how motivated they are to remain teaching in primary
s
schools, are all bound up with these cognitive and affective qualities. It is these that, at least
y.
from one point of view, frame the ‘zones of proximal development’ which trainers can use in
r
delivering the curriculum. Yet neither curriculum developers nor tutors seem to take
l
cognisance of what students bring with them, or to seek to understand it more fully. In the
-
worst cases training proceeds on assumptions about the characteristics of those trained which
l
are demonstrably false. The first step in ameliorating these problems is to acquire information and insight about the trainees, however they have been selected. It is their characteristics that matter in defining their learning needs and shaping the curriculum process.
4.
On the Curriculum for initial training
.
.
The MUSTER analyses of teacher education curriculum issues lead to many insights into the
e
quality and relevance of material for existing programmes. The picture these paint is one that
n
suggests that investment in curriculum development is long overdue and that much which
g
is currently available falls short of what is needed and what is possible. Large parts of the
t
teacher education curriculum seem to have been adapted from the academic curricula of
e
school or university, rather than designed for adult learners or for the acquisition of
s
professional knowledge and skills. They seldom recognise the role of relevant experiences,
l
nor the different motivation and learning styles of adults. The curriculum needs to be
m
reconceptualised, but in ways that keep in touch with local context and realities. The
n
following are points for consideration.
e
w,
Firstly, the curriculum must be matched to the needs of the learners, recognising areas of
g
both strength and weakness. Primary trainees are usually a ‘mixed ability’ group; they will
e
have done different subjects at high school, and a number may well have been ‘slow
r
learners’. Many may find maths and science particularly difficult. The subject courses must
d
take this into account, by such means as setting, providing remedial support, self-study
s
materials, or whatever is needed. This could include subject upgrading to school-leaving
e
level through recognised and effective distance learning methods.
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Second, a fresh look has to be taken at all the traditional components. Curriculum
a
developers have to be realistic about what can be achieved within the given time, taking
p
account of the age, experience and academic level of the entrants. Many programmes seem to assume that everything has to be taught during initial training, and consequently most of
F
the curricula we analysed are grossly overloaded. The resulting stress on both tutors and
o
students tends to lower morale and lead to less efficient teaching and learning.
u e The curriculum should be slimmed down to concentrate on helping the student acquire
i
relevant core skills and competences, and the basic subject knowledge needed at that stage.
i
This might mean less focus on the subject as a traditional discipline, and more on
a
understanding the main concepts from a learner’s viewpoint, as expressed in the terms
t
science education, language arts education, etc. In so doing, students are likely to come
‘
to a clearer and more useful, if narrower, understanding of the subject itself, as well as the
g
primary school syllabus. The languages of instruction should have a special place in the training of primary teachers, especially where lower primary is taught in the vernacular and
T
upper primary in English. Trainees need to be fully fluent and competent in both, and to
T
understand the strengths as well as the difficulties of bilingualism.
o a Such a slimmed-down curriculum should, however, include key frameworks drawn from
a
psychology and sociology about how children learn, how individuals differ, and about the
t
role of schools in the society. This is a problem area. Firstly, ‘foundations’ courses often try
w
to teach far too much of the theory. Secondly, the texts and the research on which they are based are often drawn exclusively from rich country contexts. There is an urgent need here
F
for both research and curriculum development to bring theories developed elsewhere into
p
dialogue with local cultural practices and the students’ own experiences of growing up. The
u
aim should be to compare what is considered universal with what is culturally specific and
o
contextual, so that students come to understand themselves and their pupils more clearly.
c
Then, taking a problem-solving approach to their work, the young teachers are better
b
equipped to deal with the realities of their classrooms .
p a Third, the role of the personal in professional education has to be recognised. Trainees do
p
not come empty-handed, they bring much baggage in the form of images, ideas and
k
experiences about teaching. One task for the tutors is to help them unpack and articulate these, so some can be thrown away, others refashioned or replaced. This does not require
S
special techniques or resources, but it does imply an open approach from the tutors, and the
p
use of methods such as autobiographical essays, role-play and discussion, to elicit memories
p
and allow attitudes to be re-examined.
b c This links to the need for the whole curriculum to pay more attention to the ‘affective side’.
It is paradoxical that while most trainee teachers and their tutors rate personal attitudes and interpersonal skills as key characteristics of good primary teachers, the training curriculum xv DFID
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m g allows little space or opportunity for fostering personal growth and attitudes conducive to professional responsibility.
m f Fourth, the processes by which the curriculum are delivered need to be rethought. Theories
d
of professional learning stress how public propositional knowledge, situational understanding, and personal experience have to be brought together.
Such theories
emphasise the importance of practice, and of reflection on practice, in developing skills. New e information, ideas and skills have to be used before they are fully understood and
.
internalised. Therefore, preparing and developing teachers means providing them with
n
appropriate inputs of relevant knowledge, information and concepts stage by stage. Learning
s
to apply and use the ideas and skills needs support, coaching and constructive feedback, thus
e
‘scaffolding’ the learning. Therefore learning to teach requires extensive opportunities for
e
guided practice in a conducive environment.
e d This highlights the role of the school. For practical reasons, most training programmes have
o
Teaching Practice in one or two large blocks, or during an internship year, often at the end of the course. Yet shorter, alternating, periods of time on and off campus are more effective, as they allow new information, ideas and skills to be internalised gradually through
m
application and practice; equally, the experiential knowledge gained from attempting to
e
teach can be thought about and refined before the next trial. This is difficult logistically
y
when colleges are residential and/or in rural areas.
e e Fifth, attention must be paid to modes of assessment. Written terminal exams have a role to
o
play but should be complemented by assignments linked to practice in schools which might
e
use the classroom as a resource. Ghanaian experience suggests this is difficult, both because
d
of conservative attitudes, and because alternative methods are thought to be too time-
y.
consuming to be used with large numbers of students. However difficult, new attempts must
r
be made to find more appropriate methods of assessing professional learning and professional competence. In particular, the assessment of TP is often just a ritual, sometimes a farce. Aims in some systems (e.g. South Africa) to provide more holistic assessment of
o
performance in an authentic environment, based on demonstrated competences integrating
d
knowledge, skills and attitudes are laudable, but difficult to achieve.
e e Sixth, we suggest that curricula need to be more precisely designed for specific contexts –
e
preparing teachers for bilingual teaching, large classes, few resources etc – for specific school
s
phases e.g. lower or upper primary, and for specific groups of trainees, such as experienced but unqualified teachers, or school leavers. One practical approach might be a more modular curriculum, where trainees took those subjects and contents they needed, but care would be
.
needed to ensure integration and coherence.
d
m
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Finally, we suggest that in any teacher education curriculum the overall aims and desired
5
outcomes need to be clarified, so that everyone is aware of the kind of teacher they are trying to produce – whether this be framed in terms of an effective instructor engaged to deliver a
T
given curriculum efficiently, or in terms of a more autonomous professional expected to
a
exercise their own judgement reflectively. The curriculum strategy then needs to be
s
consistent with these aims and outcomes, and stakeholders should be supported in
e
understanding and carrying out their roles in achieving it.
i s There are some general dimensions to curriculum problems raised by the MUSTER
P
research. Amongst the most important are:
p c The lack of mechanisms for curriculum development, evaluation and renewal.
a
None of the MUSTER countries have systems for teacher education curriculum
A
development; as a result it is ad hoc and sporadic.
a
Teacher Education and Structural Change.
I
Educational reform focused on schools often proceeds in advance of reforms in teacher
o
education curricula. In principle teacher education should lead rather than lag behind wider
s
reforms, so that new entrants can be prepared to adopt new curricula and teaching methods.
t
It is, however, unrealistic to expect new teachers to be focal points for change as new
s
members of the profession in junior positions. There are risks, exemplified in some of the
i
MUSTER countries, that reforms that simultaneously seek to transform pedagogy,
w
curriculum content, and the organisation of learning and teaching, may over-stretch
i
infrastructure and capacity for change.
C
Cross-Cultural Borrowing and Innovation.
M
International borrowing is inevitable and often useful for the development of teacher
s
education. However, models and theories developed in one context should not be imported
p
uncritically to others. Some aspects will resonate more easily across cultures than others.
r
Teacher education curricula are needed that, while sometimes using cross-national insights
s
as points of departure, also build on local teacher knowledge, experience, and examples of
t
good practice, in order to develop culturally relevant and effective teaching strategies. If
o
innovations are to work, they need to be grounded and contextualised, and to make sense to those expected to carry them out. Moreover, strategies for innovation should recognise
S
the importance of establishing a favourable climate of opinion to adopt new practices.
I
Innovations that are pushed from the centre, rather than pulled by effective demand from
w
communities of practice, will always be more difficult to sustain.
a t p t i
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On Colleges
g a The college systems that MUSTER has explored have their specific histories which draw
o
attention to the contributions they have made to educational development in the past. The
e
strong impression from MUSTER data is that whatever the historic impact of teacher
n
education institutions had been, those which we researched were no longer playing key roles in the development of their national education systems. There was little evidence that most staff were engaged directly in curriculum development, either at school level or in Colleges.
R
Professional links with school system were often fragile or non-existent and practising primary teachers were conspicuous by their general absence from activities organised in the colleges. Many colleges can be characterised by physical and intellectual isolation and many appeared held down by the weight of tradition, by lack of vision, and poor management.
m
Any reconceptualisation of teacher education has to consider whether colleges have a role, and if so, what that role should be.
In principle training institutions could be ‘powerhouses of change’ responsible for a number
r
of different facets of teacher education: initial training, INSET, training of trainers for
r
school- and district-based support, curriculum development, research, development of
.
teaching materials, etc. As developmental institutions distributed geographically across
w
school systems, they should be ideally situated to be centres of support, inspiration and
e
innovation not only for new teachers but for NQTs and experienced teachers as well. If this
y,
were to become a reality then a number of issues need consideration, which necessarily differ
h
in detail in different cases. These include:
College governance.
Most colleges exist uneasily in an ill-defined area between Ministries, higher education, and
r
schools. Forms of governance need to be identified that support an academic and
d
professional atmosphere, and which might encourage the development of cultures of
.
research on practice linking staff and programmes into problems of school development and
s
students’ achievement. This may imply some form of University affiliation to provide access
f
to expertise, enhance the status of training institutions, and expand the intellectual horizons
f
of staff.
e e Staffing.
.
It is essential to develop a cadre of professional teacher educators, who are capable of
m
working both within and outside the institution in creative and innovative ways. This implies
D
a pay and career structure that recognises the kinds of work they do and the responsibilities they carry. It should be policy to recruit primary trainers from experienced and committed primary teachers and provide the necessary academic upgrading, or if taking secondarytrained teachers, to provide appropriate orientation including a period observing/teaching in primary schools. Gender issues must be borne in mind to ensure women candidates are
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c
implies induction programmes for new recruits, and regular opportunities for continuing
p
professional development, including where appropriate post-graduate degrees. Teacher
o
educators should be expected to work with and in schools and carry out research, to keep
c
up to date with international developments and to help adapt these to local conditions.
2
Links with Schools.
C
Colleges need to establish closer relationships with schools. We found few examples of good
o
practice. Possible partnership arrangements include: selected ‘professional development’
n
schools, near or on the campus; the linking of initial training of students to the professional
i
development of the co-operating teachers; the use of trained mentors to undertake part of
c
the supervision and assessment, etc. Tutors could spend in schools time teaching, training,
a
or doing research; equally, experienced teachers could be seconded to colleges for specific
i
tasks.
f
College Strategic Planning.
U
A strategy of ‘whole college development’ is attractive. Such an approach would require a
d
senior management team with a clear vision of change and administrative support and
t
resources to carry it out. This presupposes medium term policy on teacher education and
l
confirmation of the role colleges can play. It also assumes the existence or appointment of
b
groups of tutors prepared to commit themselves to their own professional development and
k
that of the training system.
d
6.
S
On Structures
m
Teacher education systems develop within national contexts which condition their form.
w
New ideas for methods and structures have to recognise the realities of differing needs,
a
circumstances and resources. Suggested improvements have to be formulated within the
H
assumptions, processes and expectations of the wider national education system. There is
s
thus no ‘one-size-fits-all’ solution to the problems of teacher education MUSTER has
p
explored. However there are some structural questions that recur across systems. The basic
s
structural issues for teacher education systems revolve around where training should take
a
place, how long it should take, and what, if anything, should happen before and after periods
i
of initial training leading to certification.
t
‘
There are three common options as to institutional location. These are colleges of
n
education, university education departments, or in schools. In reality the choices between
s
these locations are not free. College-based systems for primary training are common in many
c
low income countries and reflect how training systems have developed. Colleges are often
i
the only post-secondary institutions in their geographic area and may be associated with
t
post-secondary opportunities for particular groups who have a political stake in the
h
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g
political decisions are taken to adopt another arrangement. South Africa has taken the step
r
of making all initial training university-based or affiliated with universities. However, the
p
circumstances under which this has come about are unique (see Lewin, Sayed & Samuel
2003).
College-based systems may have advantages in terms of local location linked to communities
d
or clusters of schools, a focus on a single profession and a responsiveness to educational
’
needs, a role in pre-service and in-service education, and lower costs than tertiary level
l
institutions. Our research suggests that these potential advantages are not necessarily
f
converted into realities. They also have to be balanced against the risks of parochialism
,
associated with the local (especially when colleges are rural and physically and intellectually
c
isolated), the limits of expertise and insight associated with training institutions divorced from research, and the high costs that may be associated with small size.
University-based training offers the prospect of inputs from staff with high levels of
a
disciplinary expertise, connection to insights from research relevant to learning and
d
teaching, multi-disciplinary perspectives, and superior teaching resources associated with
d
large-scale institutions. On the other hand critics suggest that university-based training may
f
be a long way removed from the issues of practice in primary schools, high levels of academic
d
knowledge in disciplines are largely irrelevant, and tutors’ career advancement is likely to depend more on research recognition than training competence.
School-based training has become increasingly common in rich country systems. There are many good pedagogic and professional development reasons why training located in the
.
work environment is potentially attractive because of its direct links with practical problems,
,
advice from successful teachers, and socialisation into professional norms and standards.
e
However, the basic assumptions of school-based training – namely that there are sufficient
s
schools to offer appropriate training environments and enough qualified teachers to act as
s
professional mentors to trainees – are often difficult to meet in low income countries. Most
c
schools may not be appropriately resourced as training sites, lacking both qualified teachers
e
and enough teaching and learning materials. Nor do staff necessarily see their role as
s
including training new teachers and they are unlikely themselves to have any training as trainers. Under these circumstances, school-based training may simply become a form of
‘sitting by Thabo’, with new teachers simply copying what is done around them whether or
f
not this is good practice. The MIITEP experience does suggest that with enough support,
n
some elements of school-based training are possible even in very resource-poor
y
circumstances. But expectations of what can be achieved have to be realistic: serious
n
investment has to be made in print-based handbooks and manuals for trainees and for
h
trainers, while field-based peripatetic resource persons and selected members of school staff
e
have to be trained in supervision and support.
D
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School-based training is generally associated with various forms of distance education, as it
t
is in MIITEP. Distance education methods are attractive because they allow teachers to be
m
trained while on the job, which saves the costs of replacement. It should also reduce the
a
direct costs if a proportion of the training is self-instructional and based on print or other
d
low cost media. However, the problems of distance learning are well known. For primary
p
teachers in rural Africa there are particular problems. The materials have to be at the right language level for ESL learners and cover a wide range of topics, as the trainees may have
T
access to few other printed resources. In so-called predominantly ‘oral’ cultures students
o
may find book-based learning particularly difficult; aural media such as radio programmes or
b
audio-cassettes may be more effective, if the technology is available and motivation can be
d
maintained. Video is much more expensive, and unlikely to be as cost-effective as
o
alternatives. Though new information technologies based on computers and the internet
o
appear to offer many potential benefits, these are yet to be demonstrated in practice in mass
e
systems of teacher education in Africa. They have high initial costs and carry risks of rapid
a
obsolescence of hardware and software. Regular face to face contact with peers and a tutor
q
are likely to remain essential components of training, albeit supplemented by other methods.
7
The questions of how long training should take and what should happen before and after the period of initial training are important, but as with the question of where training should
S
be located there is no single answer. A wide range of possibilities can be imagined some of
a
which are shown below.
p s Modes of Training
p
Mode 1
Conventional full-time college-based training preceded by no experience
i
Mode 2
Conventional full-time college-based training preceded by pre-course experience and followed by mentored induction into schools
e
Mode 3
Untrained teaching experience followed by conventional full-time college-based training
q
Mode 4
Mentored pre-training experience followed by conventional full-time college-based training and mentored induction into schools
Mode 5
Mentored pre-training experience followed by a short period of conventional college-based training followed by school placement with INSET support
T
Mode 6
Mentored pre-training experience followed by alternating short periods of conventional full-time college-based training followed by mentored induction into schools
t
Mentored pre-training experience followed by wholly school-based training on the job leading to mentored distance support
f
Mode 7
p o t i m r There are many other possible mixes which carry different resource and cost implications.
We can note four key observations. First, extended full-time institutional training is only one
T
of many options. Second, what comes before and what comes after core periods of training
e
may be just as important as what occurs in the core, though rarely is it systematically
d
considered as part of the training process. Thirdly, there is no necessity for core periods of
s
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e
mixed-mode methods, which make use of distance education and learning while working,
e
are clearly options which have potential cost advantages. The resource implications of
r
different approaches can only be identified when their component parts are specified in
y
particular country contexts.
t e The analytic questions related to future policy and practice focus on which of these (and
s
other possible modes) are feasible, relevant to short to medium term needs, and are likely to
r
be cost-effective. Is a new and different balance of inputs attractive to meet new needs and
e
disquiet over both costs and effectiveness of existing patterns of delivery? There are
s
opportunities to reconsider how investment in teacher education and training is best
t
organised and delivered, given the shortfalls in teacher supply generated by enrolment
s
expansion, the new emphasis in many countries on changing curricula to improve pupils’
d
achievement, the consequences of financial constraints, and the importance of improving
r
quality and effectiveness.
.
7.
On External Assistance
r d Several issues stand out from the MUSTER research for those who provide external
f
assistance. First, a number of points have already been made relating to the formation of policy on teacher education. Where teacher education, and more broadly the education system as a whole, is partly externally financed, it is incumbent on agency representatives to promote a strategic approach to teacher education and ensure it is appropriately considered in medium term planning. Where such policy does not exist it should be encouraged and the evidence base for its development supported. International development targets related to primary education and the EFA agenda cannot be realised without an adequate supply of qualified and competent teachers. Teacher supply is the main constraint on the achievement of these goals in a good number of the poorest countries.
The second point is that evidently it is not sufficient to make external finance available either through projects or as part of more general budgetary support. Availability is not the same thing as disbursement; disbursement is not the same thing as resources reaching end users in ways that result in valued outcomes. Where teacher education institutions are starved of funds (resulting in erratic and often very low salary payment, near zero allocation to learning materials, and lack of maintenance to the point where facilities are closed for long periods), regeneration of effective training systems is impossible.
. e The third point is that judgements do have to be made in the round about the profile of
g
external assistance whether within a sector plan or without. More specifically, assistance
y
directed to school level designed to improve access, retention and quality has to include
f
support for teacher development, since it is teachers who determine, more than anything
D
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F
system, and its institutions, is a core question. Initial training of itself is always unlikely to
w
result in the transformation of teaching and learning in schools in the short term: new
t
teachers are likely to be less skilled than experienced teachers, their organisational status is
o
such that they have less influence on curriculum and school policy and practice, their
t
numbers are small compared to those established in the profession etc.. Nevertheless, new
c
teachers, and the institutions that train them, are in principle one of the few vectors for
t
introducing new practices to improve pupil learning. Others may exist or be developed (e.g.
T
teachers’ centres and peripatetic advisory teachers). So a key question for those who provide
i
external assistance is whether to include initial training institutions in development plans or
s
to by-pass them in favour of direct support into the school system. A strategy of benign
p
neglect of colleges, which does seem by implication to have been followed in some cases,
r
seems an opportunity missed. Unless of course the judgement is made that such institutions
d
really have reached the point where they are largely ineffective and not amenable to
o
significant reform.
a
Fourth, external support has a comparative advantage in some spheres but not in others.
S
Most obviously, subsidy of development budgets for capital assets (predominantly buildings)
F
may be the only way in which physical capacity can be expanded. Like other forms of
p
assistance this can, of course, result in plant which is suited to purpose with appropriate
s
durability and recurrent costs; it may also be poorly designed, expensive and difficult to
o
maintain with local resources. Technical assistance is the other common form of support.
s
This also needs to be tailored to purpose. Few believe that agency support of staff directly
o
delivering services is cost-effective. More attractive is expert assistance with curriculum
t
development, especially in those areas of the curriculum that are most internationalised (e.g.
a
mathematics, science, international languages). This can also give access electronically or
a
otherwise to networks which allow developers to share their experience across institutions
t
and countries. Such international experts need to work very closely with national experts
p
with a view to creating sustainable capacity in the future. This is sometimes easier said than achieved. External support for learning materials production as well as development can also
F
be useful. Views may differ on the value of supporting low volume, low quality domestic
f
production of print material (which often has a high import content), rather than buying in
s
from the lowest cost international provider. The fact is the latter may be considerably
o
cheaper and more cost-effective, but it requires foreign exchange. External assistance is often
c
the only source of staff development for college staff, especially where this involves periods
e
spent outside the country acquiring new skills and evaluating different approaches to
p
training. Training institutions generally account for a small proportion of the education
i
budget and relatively small amounts of external assistance can have a substantial impact on
n
their quality. Their staff ought to be aware of the most recent developments in their fields
r
of study elsewhere and be able to adapt and develop these sensitively and realistically for local
s
use.
t
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o
well as salary benefits. Inevitably this means that curricula in action are heavily influenced by
w
the form and content of the assessment system. MUSTER research identifies this as an area
s
of general weakness. Different arrangements exist in different countries for the setting,
r
taking and marking of assessment tasks and various rubrics are followed that can include
w
continuous assessment, project work, and assignments alongside the fairly universal fixed-
r
time closed-book written examinations and the assessment of teaching practice by tutors.
.
There is evidence that much assessment is narrowly limited and excludes many things
e
identified in curricular materials as valued learning outcomes. Professional knowledge and
r
skill are rarely reliably assessed and much teaching practice evaluation is ritualised to the
n
point where it is unlikely to be valid and reliable. Assessment and certification techniques
,
require expertise and systematic application. External assistance can and should make a
s
direct contribution to the development of reliable and valid examination systems with the
o
objective of ensuring curriculum relevance, technically robust selection, and cost-effective assessment. .
Sixth, the management of many teacher education systems and their institutions is weak.
)
Few systems provide training or support for senior management who are likely to have been
f
promoted from teaching positions. None of the colleges we undertook research in had a
e
strategic medium term plan, and as far as we can establish none had been asked to produce
o
one. If they had it is likely they would have needed assistance. Management information
.
systems were also lacking, with basic information often incomplete or simply not collected
y
or retained. The extent to which management expertise, procedures and systems can be
m
transferred across systems depends on differences in organisational culture, infrastructure
.
and resources, and levels of institutional autonomy. However, much is known about more
r
and less efficient and effective management, and external assistance can help such knowledge
s
to be shared in ways which are sensitive to what will and will not make a difference within a
s
particular system.
n o Finally, the list of possibilities for constructive assistance would not be complete without a
c
further observation. Innovation almost invariably requires resources. Poorly financed
n
systems under pressure rarely have these available. Crisis management informs action more
y
often than tested solutions to problems of learning and teaching. External assistance can be
n
crucial to develop work that would otherwise not occur. It can and does also support
s
experiments with innovative curricula and alternative delivery systems, some of which may
o
promise cost-effective methods of meeting expanded demand. This has to be seen as what
n
it should be. It is development support for limited periods beyond which such innovations
n
need to become self-sustaining. If this is not so, then such assistance begins to resemble
s
recurrent budgetary support, which needs a different kind of justification. It should be
l
support for innovations grounded in the systems to which they are applied, not simple
D
transplants of blueprints developed elsewhere for different purposes.
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8.
Some Scenarios for the Future
8
Teacher education appears to be one of the most conservative parts of many education
M
systems. It seldom is the source of curriculum innovation, theorised pedagogy, or radical
r
reconceptualisations of professional learning. It often lags behind schools in the adoption of
s
new practice and patterns of learning and teaching. This is a signifier that political will and
p
bureaucratic courage may be needed for the implementation of real changes designed to
i
improve efficiency and effectiveness. The case of South Africa, where changes in teacher
s
education were part of more general system-wide transformation, is instructive but unique
d
(see Lewin, Samuel & Sayed 2003). There the will and the vision has existed to challenge
a
old orthodoxies, wasteful resource allocation, and ineffective training methods.
s s The MUSTER research leads to much food for thought about future patterns of teacher
s
education. One way of encapsulating some of the possibilities is to formulate some possible scenarios. Three portraits are developed in the main text. These are summarised below.
T a 8.1
c
Scenario 1: More of the Same – Roosting Egrets
2
T
More of the Same (MOS) is what will happen in the absence of coherent development policy
o
and medium term strategic planning. The strengths and weaknesses will remain, inertia will
a
define curricula and learning experiences, working practices will continue to deliver the curriculum at current levels of efficiency, and increased output will be difficult to achieve
M
where it is needed at sustainable levels of cost.
d
This scenario is only attractive if there is a reasonable balance between supply and demand
I
for new teachers and the quality of training is regarded as appropriate. The former only
P
applies in Trinidad and Tobago, and the latter in none of the MUSTER countries.
T
O
For all the reasons MUSTER has highlighted – e.g. the changing characteristics of new
p
entrants, the gulf between curricular content and process and the realities of schools coping
r
with post-EFA surges in enrolments, the lack of innovation in colleges designed to promote
e
closer professional interactions with schools, the lack of systematic support for induction of
c
NQTs – MOS is not really an option. It is however the default condition and the most likely
p
outcome unless energy, commitment and resources are directed towards the challenges
MUSTER has identified.
C
T
c c t
3
2
t s Egrets are birds of habit that return to the same spot each evening to roost day in day out.
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8.2
Scenario 2: Managed Evolution - Weaver Birds at Work3
n
Managed evolution is a real possibility where medium term policy (identifying goals,
l
resources, implementation modalities, and time-scale) can be realised and integrated into
f
sectoral plans for education. This is a prior condition since without such policy, updated
d
periodically to reflect changing needs, development cannot be purposefully managed. It
o
implies prioritisation of teacher education as a critical arena for support, manifested through
r
secure forward planning of resource allocation over a long enough period to allow
e
development plans to come to fruition. It also assumes that teacher education has a defined
e
and effective locus of control within Ministry of Education structures (e.g. Departmental status with Director level representation). Though there may be potential in decentralising some aspects of teacher education, this may be premature if existing institutions have weak
r
self-management capacity, small size, and common needs.
e
The incrementalism implied in this scenario invites strategic thinking which identifies those aspects of teacher education that impinge on quality, efficiency and effectiveness and which can be changed without radical reforms and which have gains which outweigh their costs.
These may or may not be sufficient to develop systems in ways which respond to the volume y of demand for new trained teachers. They may lead to revised time-scales for the
l
achievement of EFA and MDG targets.
e e MUSTER identifies a raft of incremental changes that have more or less applicability to different systems. These include:
d
Improved selection and preparation for initial training
y
Pre-training teaching experience as an untrained teacher is common. Only in Trinidad and
Tobago is this institutionalised as an On-the-Job Training Scheme. The development of
OJT-like schemes has several attractions – trainees can be selected partly on the basis of their
w
performance over time, rather than initial academic qualification; trainees contribute to
g
reducing teacher shortages through the work they do; managed OJT schemes could greatly
e
enrich the skills and competencies of those entering training. At the same time, pay and
f
conditions of service need to be improved to the point where they can attract and retain
y
people with appropriate qualities.
s
D
Curriculum Development
Teacher education curricula suffer in varying degrees from fragmentation. In most systems curricula are not developed dynamically or incrementally, neither are they suffused with contributions from teacher educators at college level. Written materials for trainers and for trainees are in short supply and often derived from a variety of sources which lack coherence
Weaver birds in their many varieties both follow set patterns to build nests and display astonishing ingenuity in adapting to different sites with different local conditions to construct efficiently durable nests which all differ in detail but serve the same purpose.
3
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T
situation through systematic and cumulative approaches to developing and enriching the
T
curriculum and its learning materials base at college level, and through coherent national
m
level programmes to generate more relevant core materials within an agreed framework.
d s Changed Working Practices
a
Working practices in teacher education differ widely. However, MUSTER data indicates that
f
there is considerable scope to improve quality through more effective management focused on trainees’ learning experience. Training institutions need to be much more demand-led,
C
in terms of being responsive to the needs of trainees, rather than to the preferences, priorities
T
and familiar practices of those who work in them. In many cases lecturing to large groups of
a
up to 100 is favoured, though it is not necessary where student-staff ratios are below 20:1.
p
Few colleges make much use of experienced teachers drawn in to inform discussions about
p
pedagogy, class management, and curriculum realities. Even fewer college staff spend
i
periods in schools in a professional development role which could help inform their college-
a
based teaching.
a
Teaching Practice
8
All the MUSTER training systems include periods of teaching practice in schools. This can have high costs associated with supervision by college tutors. Trainees’ experience of
R
teaching practice suggests that it can be very valuable, but that for many learning is not
f
coherently managed, and supportive supervision is not consistently available. There is little
a
clear thinking on what learning outcomes can and cannot be achieved through existing
o
patterns of teaching practice, most of which have not undergone any fundamental
e
reappraisal since they were first introduced. There is considerable scope for improvements,
p
such as integrating teaching practice much more closely and extensively with college work, re-evaluating the merits of college-based micro-teaching and other methods of acquiring
S
professional skill which can be more resource-efficient than largely unsupported teaching practice, and arranging teaching practice placement and support more effectively.
R
C
Infrastructure and Learning Materials
o
Most colleges in MUSTER countries have poor physical facilities and infrastructure, few
t
learning materials, and underutilised space as a result of periods of neglect. They are
s
nevertheless frequently the only post-secondary institution in an area with a concentration of educational professionals, and thus the only source of advice and support to practising
A
teachers. Impoverished facilities compromise the effectiveness with which training can be
w
conducted and have a depressing effect on morale. Relatively small investments could
b
transform at least some of these institutions into much more vibrant, accessible and attractive
a
professional development nodes with outreach capabilities.
i t 4
a
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e
The college lecturers are a neglected resource. Their main needs are: better personnel
l
management, deployment and induction, and a clearer career structure linked to staff development and promotion opportunities, which would attract, motivate and retain suitable tutors. These things are achievable without excessive costs, but require different approaches to staff development which could improve morale, create incentives and rewards
t
for improved performance, and attract new talent into the profession.
d
,
Changes in approaches to learners
s
Teacher educators may need to develop or rediscover culturally appropriate ‘visions’ of what
f
an effective teacher is. They should provide opportunities for growth and development of
.
personal attributes that can help trainees become confident and competent in their diverse
t
professional roles. Student teachers need to be treated as adult learners and helped to study
d
in more independent and proactive ways, so they experience themselves new ways of learning
-
and teaching; they need to learn to reflect in ways that enable them to improve the quality and effectiveness of their teaching.
8.3
Scenario 3: Radical Reform – Soaring Eagles4
n f Radical reform requires vision, courage and persistence to reshape teacher education in
t
fundamental ways. It will usually require substantial investment up-front before benefits are
e
apparent, and the conversion to new approaches of those embedded in the comfort zones
g
of the old. It is the most exciting but the most risky option as entrenched interests rarely
l
embrace new practices without strong incentives; such changes are usually linked to wider
,
political reforms.
, g Some possibilities here are:
g
Reprofiling the structure and length of training
Conventional teacher education systems are heavily front-loaded in terms of the investment of resources i.e. most if not all the resources are committed to pre-career full-time residential w training. Where demand is high long periods of pre-career training will be expensive and
e
slow to produce large numbers of new teachers.
n g Alternatives which provide shorter periods of introductory training, followed by periods of
e
work as assistant teachers, and interspersed with subsequent training inputs building on the
d
base acquired from school experience, could be both more efficient (those who are trained
e
are on the job, therefore costs are lower), and more effective (theory and practice are placed
D
in dialogue, college-based work has to respond to real problems and skill needs). It is therefore possible to conceive of training which is ‘drip fed’ over time rather than provided
Eagles cover large distances with remarkable skill and adapt to different environments with apparent ease, flexibly applying themselves to the problems of survival in different and changing environments.
4
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Executive Review in a single long period pre-career. There are many possibilities of detailed configurations
p
which could include short intensive (e.g. 3 months) residential training, vacation workshops,
(
complementary distance learning support, local cluster groups to support trainee teachers on
k
the job etc. If this were linked to incremental progression up the career structure – e.g.
a
trainee teacher, assistant teacher, junior teacher, fully qualified teacher – it could provide
t
incentives to stay with the programme and accumulate skills and competence.
c c A variant of this approach could seek to move the locus of training activity to schools, as is
t
the case in many high income countries. Conceptually it is easy for this to appear attractive.
s
However, MUSTER empirical evidence draws attention to some important stumbling blocks. These include: the scarcity of school locations representing good practice relative to
T
the numbers of trainees, the shortage of those likely to possess mentoring skills at school
T
level and their willingness to invest substantial time in the activity, and the difficulties of
r
moderating the school-based experience and ensuring appropriate and valid assessment and
c
certification. Circumstances will differ and it may be that some of these problems can be
p
overcome. In the short to medium term it is possible to imagine movement towards more
m
school-based training through alternating periods of On-the-Job training and college-based
i
work.
i t Mixed-mode training programmes, which combine college-based work with different types of distance learning, already exist. MIITEP in Malawi is an example. The research on
S
MIITEP indicates the many difficulties that exist in realising the technically coherent model
c
in practice where infrastructure is weak. MUSTER countries do not currently use modern
t
information and communication technology (ICT) in teacher education. The reasons for
E
this in the African countries are self-evident. The costs are high, connectivity is low, and
a
relevant content is yet to be created. This situation may change over the next decade. Until
o
it does it will remain the case that print material offers far more durable opportunities for
q
support for training at a distance, though of course it lacks the interactivity that ICTs could
s
potentially provide .
a
5
b
A different conceptual model of learning to teach
e
Many of the curricula we analysed seemed premised on the idea that if students are given
l
enough knowledge and skills at college these can be applied unproblematically, like ‘recipes’,
d
to any classrooms. A more useful model is one that sees teaching as interactive problem-
e
solving, requiring a thoughtful and reflective approach to practice. Thus learning to teach means acquiring not only knowledge and skills, but also a situated understanding of pupils and how they learn, along with repertoires of skills and strategies for dealing with unique
C
C
and ever-changing circumstances. The aim of the training should be the development of
A b 5
Interactivity is only of value where it suits the purpose (i.e. it provides a pathway to desired learning outcomes), and is available at affordable price levels. Interactivity that requires responses from people can quickly become very expensive in staff time, or simply inoperable when the volume of messages requiring considered response overloads the capacity to respond. xxix
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Executive Review s professional reasoning ability, rather than the acquisition of pre-defined behaviours
,
(Akyeampong 2001). Such a model requires an epistemological shift towards a view of
n
knowledge that recognises the value of teachers’ personal, experiential and craft knowledge
.
as well as the public propositional knowledge offered in college. For such a different model
e
to take root will require time, debate, and professional development among lecturers, curriculum developers, MOE personnel, and the wider educational community. This is consonant with the new more learner-centred and constructivist-based approaches to
s
teaching and learning in many reform programmes for school curricula, and could be a more
.
suitable preparation for them.
g o Transforming College Practices
l
Two radical suggestions emerge from MUSTER data. First, none of the colleges in the
f
research have strong and free-flowing professional links with schools. They play little role in
d
curriculum development and implementation at school or any other level, and seldom
e
provide central resources for teachers’ INSET and CPD. With a different mandate,
e
managerial commitment, and appropriate resources they could become developmental
d
institutions with substantial outreach to schools. Their staff could acquire responsibilities to improve learning and teaching at school level directly as well as through the training of teachers. s n Secondly, and even more radically, college lecturers could be appointed on different types of
l
contracts than those which prevail. Most college staff are drawn from the ranks of practising
n
teachers in mid-career. For many this becomes their occupation through until retirement.
r
Employment practices usually privilege those with higher levels of academic qualifications
d
and this can have the effect of excluding those with extensive primary experience in favour
l
of those who have taught at secondary level and who are more likely to have degree level
r
qualifications. The staffing of a developmental college might not look like this. It could be
d
staffed by experienced and effective teachers, given appropriate professional development, and seconded from primary schools for, say, five year periods. Permanent college staff could be required to work in schools periodically to give them relevant and recent experience and ensure that their training activities were closely grounded in the realities of schools and
n
learning problems. With imagination groups of staff could be periodically tasked with
,
development activities related to curriculum implementation, improving training
-
effectiveness and supporting the induction of NQTs.
h s e
Changing the Relationships between Content and Professional Skills and
Competences.
f
All the college systems MUSTER has researched have difficulties in striking an appropriate
D
balance between up-grading content skills in subjects (and in the medium of instruction), and developing pedagogic and professional skills. Most attempt both simultaneously with more or less successful integration. Where the entry level characteristics of trainees suggest
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Executive Review that subject-based knowledge and skill, or language fluency, are inadequate, the radical
•
choice may be to develop pre-course bridging programmes focused specifically on these.
This could be in the training institution. But it could also be undertaken in nominated secondary schools given this task. The latter is likely to be more cost-effective. If initial training programmes really could assume students’ mastery of basic content and language skills, then they would be free to focus sharply on professional and pedagogic competencies.
A Flood of Materials
Learning material for trainee teachers and NQTs located within national contexts in
MUSTER countries is scarce. Yet print material is relatively cheap, durable and can be
•
immensely helpful to those starting teaching in school environments where good practice may not be common and informed advice is difficult to come by. Colleges, which could and should be a major source of such material, often do not produce text material in volume and are unable to ensure trainees leave with a portfolio of supporting manuals, enrichment materials etc. This problem is more readily resolvable than textbook supply to all children since the numbers are much smaller. The radical proposition may not sound radical – flood
•
the trainee teachers with quality support materials. It is radical in the sense that it has yet to be prioritised or realised in the systems we have researched.
9.
Concluding Remark
The last scenario has explored some of the more radical options available that would
W
challenge current practice and can provide an agenda for reform. In conclusion several
d
possibilities stand out that could make real differences. These include:
e p •
‘
programmes and school-based apprenticeship-like relationships (on-the-job training). If
t
this process was managed effectively it could become a step on a pathway to initial
a
qualification. The experience of working as a teaching assistant would discourage some,
s
reinforce the aspirations of others, and allow the unsuitable to be selected out.
•
More strategic use could be made of untrained teachers supported by orientation
t
Initial training could be organised in a more modularised way to allow training to be acquired as and when needed. Investment in skill and competency would be cumulative and could take place through a variety of routes (full-time, part-time, day release, residential, distance etc) and in a variety of locations (in school, at teacher centres, in colleges and universities). It would have to be linked to a progressive career structure that regulated promotion to different grades to experience, qualification level and competence. The important difference is that it would not be a single-shot qualification process but a continuous pathway leading to higher levels of competence.
xxxi
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Executive Review l •
A staircase of training linked to posts of responsibility and rewards offers the
.
opportunity to embed the training process more firmly in the school and the learning
d
needs of its pupils. So also might the modularisation of the training curriculum. It would
l
make it possible for more training to take place in closer proximity to professional
e
practice both in space and time. It might allow possibilities for schools (and colleges) to
.
acquire some of the attributes of learning institutions. It could obviate the need for special induction and support of NQTs if a seamless web of Continuing Professional
Development began to develop which could include the induction of NQTs.
n e •
Teacher educators at all levels, whether school or college-based, need to have induction
e
and continuing professional development. This should ensure that they are aware of
d
recent developments, can judge whether these should be incorporated into training,
d
have perspectives that run beyond their direct experience, and have a rich range of
t
material to draw on to support and stimulate trainee teachers.
n d o
•
Colleges could then move away from being monotechnic institutions focused purely on residential long course qualifications, towards becoming dynamically integrated nodes of innovation, professional development activity, and advisory support. They could be challenged locally and nationally to make a real difference to learning in schools and the development of the human potential of the populations they serve.
d
Whether these kinds of proposals are feasible or desirable is necessarily a question for
l
different systems to address. It may be that incremental changes based on the kind of evidence that MUSTER has accumulated are both more attractive and more likely to gain political support. The teacher education systems MUSTER has undertaken research on are
n
‘not broken but they do need fixing’. If teacher educators are to retain public support for
f
their activities, if EFA and MDG targets are to be realised, and if new approaches to learning
l
and teaching which have developmental significance are to be adopted, then all the options
,
should be aired and considered judgements made about which will make a real difference to the next generations of learners and teachers.
e e , n e d n
D
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1
T
D
S
i
w d t t I p T r i
O
•
•
•
•
6
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Chapter One
1.1
1 The MUSTER Project
Introduction
The Multi-site Teacher Education Research (MUSTER) project grew from several roots.
During the early 1990s the Centre for International Education (CIE) at the University of
Sussex Institute of Education built up links with Universities in a number of low and middle income countries. Teacher education emerged as a common focus of interest. The consensus was that teacher education in many countries was under-theorised, practice was often not demonstrably effective, and existing systems were unable to deliver the numbers of qualified teachers needed at sustainable levels of cost to meet the demands imposed by commitments to Education for All. Consequently, in 1997 the CIE approached the UK Department for
International Development6 (DFID) with a proposal for a collaborative multi-country programme of research into teacher education.
The original proposal for the research identified two separate sets of reasons for such research into teacher education. One set was policy-related, the other was concerned with insights into the nature of teacher education.
On policy MUSTER noted that:
•
All countries have systematic arrangements in place for teacher education and allocate substantial resources to initial training in the belief that it enhances the quality of teaching and student achievement.
•
Despite this there is widespread evidence that achievement of students is unsatisfactory, and that teaching methods in schools are slow to change in ways that reflect approaches deemed to be effective. Though many factors are involved in low school achievement, one strategy is to improve the quality of training given to teachers before they begin teaching and enhance the support available for the development of professional skills in the first years of employment.
•
Little research has been carried out into the effectiveness of teacher education in most low income countries. Training programmes persist which are based on models developed by the former colonial powers. More recently contemporary models from the
UK, USA, Australia and New Zealand have been influential, though their impact and feasibility is largely untested in low income countries. Ministries and development agencies trying to devise more efficient and effective programmes have few locally-based research findings to guide them; nor do they have the capacity to assess formatively which strategies are working in the manner intended.
•
In high income countries, where teachers have to be qualified before their first employment, there are clear conceptual and practice differences between pre-service
(PRESET) and in-service (INSET). In many low income countries teachers begin working in classrooms with no training, and gain initial professional qualifications much
6
Formerly the Overseas Development Administration (ODA).
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1 The MUSTER Project later, if at all. In several Commonwealth Caribbean countries this pattern is effectively a policy. By default it is also the case in many African systems. The curriculum in many
Teacher Training Colleges (TTCs) and University Departments of Education (UDEs) in these countries often does not recognise and build on the prior teaching experience trainees possess.
•
It is extremely rare for the responsibilities for training to be shared with schools in which new teachers work in many parts of Africa. Little support is generally available for the professional development of unqualified and newly qualified staff. Mentorship
F
relationships are rarely formalised and the value of initial training may be compromised
e
by subsequent lack of access to advice and role models of good practice.
•
Teacher education budgets in most low income countries are heavily constrained. There are indications that costs can be very high relative to other forms of education and training. It is therefore important to generate indications of the costs of different patterns of initial teacher education and identify any areas where more can be achieved within sustainable budgets.
On the nature of teacher education MUSTER pointed out that:
•
The actual ways in which teachers acquire and use professional knowledge are not well understood. Over the last 15 years these have been conceptualised and discussed within
e
Empirical studies and theoretical conceptualisation associated with these developments
t
(e.g. teacher thinking, teacher reflection, the differences between novices and experts)
c
have revealed the complexity of the training task.
t
The great bulk of published studies have been carried out in high income countries (e.g.
t
UK, USA, Canada, Australia). There are some exceptions (e.g. Tatto et al 1991,
s
Lockheed & Verspoor 1991, Dove 1985, Avalos and Haddad 1981, World Bank 1978)
s
but these are limited in scope and now becoming dated. Superficially teacher education
•
T
a rapidly growing literature grounded in the experience of high income countries.
M
programmes in many low income countries have remained substantially unchanged since their development under colonial administrations. This is despite radically changed demands from school systems on teachers, often arising from Universal Primary
Education (UPE), the commitments to Education for All, and related reforms of the school curricula. In addition, the work of teaching is intimately bound up both with the teacher’s identity and sense of self and with the norms, values and expectations of the communities they serve. When these things change, some fundamental reappraisal grounded in context is needed.
•
Though attempts have been made to reform teacher education the limited evidence suggests that much has remained at the level of rhetoric rather than being implemented in teacher education institutions. The general theorising which can provide models and concepts for new practice has frequently not found its way into national teacher
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1 The MUSTER Project a education curricula. The reasons for this need to be identified in advance of further
y
)
efforts to promote more effective practice. These may differ from system to system.
•
e
Once consequence is that there is a need to identify which aspects of teacher education theory and practice developed in high income countries might be transportable, and which carry assumptions about the cultural roles of the teacher, pedagogic preferences,
h
and infrastructure availability that compromise their value and restrict their relevance.
e p From these premises and concerns, a research proposal was designed to look at teacher
d
education from four different but complementary aspects. These were to:
e
•
d t Identify who becomes a teacher, what images, experiences and motivations they bring with them, and how these change during training and induction.
•
d
Analyse the curricular processes by which new teachers acquire and learn to apply the understanding, skills and attitudes needed to become effective professional practitioners in their local schools.
•
Profile training college staff, their career structures and their working practices
•
Explore the varied patterns of initial qualification, and link these to considerations of supply, demand, costs, and benefits.
l n The overall aims were to reach conclusions that could improve the quality of initial teacher
.
education programmes through a better understanding of the processes, and to point
s
towards more effective and efficient methods of meeting demand within realistic resource
)
constraints. Part of the MUSTER problem diagnosis indicated that published research on teacher education was rarely grounded in the context of low income countries, and that
.
teacher education policy was almost never based on evidence derived from particular
,
systems. An additional goal therefore became to build local research capacity at each of the
)
sites chosen for the research, to catalyse subsequent work which could continue after
n
MUSTER was complete and contribute to the development of evidence-based policy.
e d In summary MUSTER had ambitions to:
y e •
enhance understanding of how new teachers acquire the knowledge, skills and attitudes
e
needed to teach in different systems, and identify the professional learning experiences,
e
including teaching practice, which are most useful and valuable to new teachers given
l
the qualities that they bring with them to initial teacher education.
e
•
categorise different types of pre-service provision leading to initial qualification in each
d
system and profile their institutional bases, identify patterns of overall costs and costs
d
per qualified teacher, and consider implications for efficiency, effectiveness and the
r
prospects of meeting demand in sustainable ways.
D
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1 The MUSTER Project
•
build research capacity in-country focused on issues in teacher education using both
l
quantitative and qualitative techniques, and strengthen the resource base of young
u
researchers with field experience through in-project training.
M c 1.2
The Research Partners
D
The choice of research sites grew out of already established links7 between the Centre for
T
International Education (CIE) and the other educational research institutions listed above.
In Malawi, joint research had already been carried out with untrained teachers (Stuart and
•
Kunje 1997). A CIE link visit to Trinidad coincided with the decision of the UWI School of Education’s Research Committee to focus, inter alia, on teacher education. The Institute
•
of Education at the National University of Lesotho was interested in working more closely with the National Teacher Training College, whose Director wished to encourage research among his staff. Researchers at both ends of the link with the Institute of Education at Cape
•
Coast University in Ghana had been involved in the reform of teacher college curricula. The
South African link developed from a long-standing relationship with the Faculty of
•
Education at the University of Durban-Westville and its associated policy and research centres, which fed into the development of new approaches to teacher education designed
•
to meet the challenges posed by the transformation to democracy and the deconstruction of apartheid. •
Ghana, Lesotho, Malawi, and Trinidad and Tobago all have single national teacher education systems that are centrally controlled and relatively homogenous. In these locations
T
it was possible to undertake studies within a common framework with some comparative
B
elements. In South Africa the 1990s were a period of dramatic transition. Teacher education
a
was diverse, fragmented, and undergoing radical change. For these reasons it became clear
O
that MUSTER research needed to take a different form. The scope of the research was
C
broadened to capture some of the diversity that existed and a network of researchers was convened from other institutions including the Universities of the Western Cape,
O
Witwatersrand, and Pretoria. Though several references are made to the South African
d
research in this report it is not reported in detail. A separate book is available that synthesises
q
the fruits of the research in South Africa (Lewin, Samuel and Sayed 2003).
d p 1.3
s
The Research Process
The Sussex team made a formal proposal to DFID after preliminary contacts had been made
P
with potential link partners, and Principal Researchers identified. When this was agreed
1
contracts were drawn up between Sussex and the other institutions. The first task for each
s a 7
The Higher Education Links scheme run by the British Council had at various times supported staff exchanges between
CIE and all the other institutions.
4
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1 The MUSTER Project h local research team was to conduct a Baseline Study on the current state of teacher education
g
using secondary sources. These were presented at the first MUSTER workshop at Sussex in
March 1998, where an overall research design was developed collaboratively building on the concerns listed above.
During this two-week workshop common research elements emerged across the countries.
r
These included needs to focus on:
. d •
l e •
y
teacher
•
e f enquiry into the teacher education curriculum as locally conceptualised and implemented, exploring inputs, experiences, and outcomes
•
h d a sequential consideration of the stages through which trainees pass – enrolment in training, the training process, and induction into the first years of teaching as a trained
h e teacher preparation for the basic cycle of formal education (generally primary, but in some cases including junior secondary)
a profiling of institutions which provide initial teacher education, the staff who deliver the curriculum, and their professional needs and career trajectories
•
f
analyses of supply and demand, and their implications for costs and financing of sustainable systems for teacher education
•
an awareness of gender in the professional and institutional aspects of training, and how gender issues are addressed in the training and induction process.
r s These concerns, together with the original themes, were distilled into four Strands –
e
Becoming a Teacher, Curriculum Issues, College Issues, and Costs and Resources. Each was
n
approached through questions in the three sequential Arenas – Inputs, Processes, and
r
Outputs. A grid was developed to locate research questions within each stand and arena (see
s
Chapter 2).
s
,
On the basis of the grid of questions each country team began to design sub-studies, and
n
develop research instruments along common lines agreed at the workshop. A mixture of
s
quantitative and qualitative methods were used to complement each other, enhance both depth and breadth, and allow corroboration of insights. During the next 9 months country plans were finalised and work was begun on sub-studies within each country. These were supported from Sussex through in-country visits and through the e-mail network.
e
Progress was reviewed at the second MUSTER workshop in Durban, South Africa, in July
d
1999. This provided the opportunity for the research teams to consolidate draft reports on
h
sub-studies, identify gaps, discuss data analysis, design instruments for further data collection,
D
and plan the completion of sub-studies and country reports which would synthesise findings.
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1 The MUSTER Project
In July 2000 the researchers convened for a further workshop at Sussex. This was focused
C
on refining draft reports of further sub-studies, editing the Discussion Papers which were
T
being produced, and planning the country reports. Time was also allocated to sharing ideas
J
about the main issues and findings that had emerged from the research. A dissemination
T
strategy for MUSTER was developed which included an extensive publication programme,
p
a website, and a series of national level policy-orientated symposia. Preliminary work was undertaken to plan these and attract stakeholders. The symposia were held during 2001 and
1
2002 and each attracted key decision makers. The MUSTER principal researchers met as a group for a fourth time during the South African and Lesotho symposia, and for a fifth
T
meeting around the Oxford International Education Conference in September 2001, which
t
hosted an additional session based on MUSTER findings.
s i 1.4
w
Themes and Variations
s
7)
There were local variations to the overall pattern outlined above. This was deliberate and reflected the specific circumstances of each system and the enthusiasms of the researchers to
T
explore in more depth particular issues. Thus, in addition to the core research programme
d
based on the research matrix questions, a variety of sub-studies were conceptualised (see
c
Chapter 2 for examples). Three D. Phil. studies were developed to address specific questions
b
in very considerable detail. John Hedges explored issues to do with the induction and
e
posting of new teachers in Ghana, focusing on problems and issues confronting new teachers
t
in rural locations. Dominic Furlong developed research on financing teacher education in
p
Ghana using data collected across the College system. Alison Croft studied the training and
q
development of infant teachers in Malawi, focussing particularly on how teachers use the
C
local culture and environment effectively in resource-constrained classrooms.
s u 1.5
o
Reporting and Dissemination of Findings
The first method of dissemination was to create a MUSTER Discussion Paper series. These
T
are listed at the end of this volume and are available free on the MUSTER website. This series
o
included the Baseline Studies written at the beginning of the research period as well as many
c
other thematic contributions. MUSTER Country Studies (Ghana, Lesotho, Malawi and
r
Trinidad and Tobago) which synthesise findings at a country level, are published as DFID
Research Reports. The South African material is published by Heinemann as a book. Other documentary outputs are extensive and are indicated in Appendix 2.
Alongside the publication programme five national workshops have been organised for policy makers and practitioners to disseminate findings directly to stakeholders in each country. The first of the national dissemination workshops took place in April 2001 in
Maseru and in Pretoria. It was possible to schedule the MUSTER researchers to meet for a fourth time as a group at these conferences. This provided the opportunity to update progress towards completion of the research and plan the contributions to the Oxford
6
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1 The MUSTER Project d Conference. The Malawi national workshop took place in November 2001 in Lilongwe, the
e
Trinidad and Tobago workshop in January 2002 at UWI, and the Ghana dissemination in
s
July 2002 in Accra. These workshops were well attended and resulted in a variety of national
n
Task Groups being established to take the ideas from MUSTER forward into policy and
,
practice. (See Appendix 3 for details).
s d 1.6
Overview of Report
a h This Research Report is organised in three parts. In the first part Chapter 2 elaborates on
h
the key research questions that shaped the empirical work, and details aspects of the research strategy and the design, the development and use of the research methods chosen, and includes some reflections on the research process. Chapter 3 outlines the contexts within which the research was undertaken and provides an overview of their teacher education systems to locate subsequent discussion of research findings.
d o The second section consists of six thematically-based chapters exploring the findings from
e
different parts of MUSTER. These Chapters are broadly organised around the strands that
e
constituted the MUSTER planning framework. Chapter 4 explores the characteristics of
s
beginning teachers and their perceptions and motivations. Chapter 5 analyses the teacher
d
education curriculum. Chapter 6 takes this analysis further and focuses specifically on
s
teaching practice, since this is widely regarded as one of the most useful and one of the most
n
problematic areas of the training curriculum. Chapter 7 examines what happens when newly
d
qualified teachers enter the school system, and what might be the impact of the training.
e
Chapter 8 synthesises insights into the training institutions, their organisation and their staffing. Chapter 9 addresses questions of supply and demand, costs, and resource utilisation, and highlights the prospects for achieving development goals at sustainable levels of cost using existing training methods.
e
The last section (Chapter 10), in summarising findings across the MUSTER data, comments
s
on policy options for the future under a number of headings that include selection questions,
y
curriculum issues, college development potentials, support for newly qualified teachers, the
d
role of external assistance, and the implications of resource demands for future training.
D r r h n a e d D
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2
T i s
T
t u w a •
•
•
•
F
R t a a C f c
8
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Chapter Two
2.1
2 Doing The Research
The Research Questions
The original questions in the proposal emerged from discussions during link exchange visits, international debates on Teacher Education, the particular interests of the Sussex Team, and suggestions from the DFID. At the first MUSTER workshop much brainstorming went on.
This produced inter alia a list of ‘really interesting questions’ that invited enquiry because they were ones which team members felt were both important and currently poorly understood in each system. What finally emerged was a selection of key questions based on what could realistically be researched in each country with the resources available. It was agreed that the research would aim to:
•
Identify who becomes a teacher, what images, experiences and motivations they bring with them, how these change during training and induction, and how they relate to the role and identity of the teacher.
•
Analyse the curricular processes by which new teachers acquire and learn to apply the understanding, skills and attitudes needed to become effective professional practitioners in their local schools.
•
Gain a deeper understanding of the training colleges, their development and organisation, and the career patterns and perspectives of their staff.
•
Explore the varied patterns of initial qualification, costs, and benefits in the context of supply and demand for teachers
Four Strands - Becoming a Teacher, Curriculum Issues, College Issues, and Costs and
Resources - and three Arenas - Inputs, Processes and Outputs – were used to collect together research questions which could be used to guide sub-studies. The grid developed and changed over time and was modified in the light of insights from the baseline studies, and by operational constraints. A simplified version (Fig.1) is presented here and linked to
Chapters of this report where research questions included in this version are addressed. The full range of research questions and sub-questions exists within the Discussion Papers which capture data from the various sub-studies in more detail.
DFID
9
8
10
Resources
Costs and
Colleges
Curriculum
Becoming a teacher
Arena 1: Inputs
Arena 2: Process
and demand for primary teachers? (9)
configured? (9)
for training institutions
o How are budgets and other resources
Arena 3: Outputs
training? (7)
! What is the experience of NTQs after
retrospect? (7)
! How do trainees value their training in
training? (7)
intentions change as a result of
! How do Trainees’ attitudes and career
young teachers? (8)
of knowledge skills and attitudes by
✻ How do they perceive the acquisition
their work? (8)
✻ How do teacher educators perceive
the curriculum realised? (6)
• How are the practical elements of
How are they profilrd? (9)
o What are the costs of training and
resources? (9)
efficiency in the allocation of
sustainable? (9)
training and are the costs
o What is the future demand for initial
the development of college staff? (8)
✻ What needs should be prioritised for
of the graduating NQTs? (7)
of the knowledge, skills and attitudes
• What are the competencies, in terms
objectives achieved? (7)
• How is the curriculum delivered? (5) • How far are stated aims and
(5 and 6)
! How do trainees value their training?
programmes? (5 and 6)
! How do Trainees experience training
o What are the national levels of supply o What are the indicators of internal
available for teacher educators? (8)
development programmes are
✻ What induction and professional
and how? (8)
✻ Who becomes a teacher educator
assumptions? (5)
what are the underlying pedagogic
• What is to be taught, and how, and
influenced it? (5)
curriculum developed and what
• How was the teacher education
are these culturally located? (4)
expectations and experiences and how
! What do they bring in terms of images,
characteristics do they have? (4)
! Who becomes a teacher and what
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Figure 1: The Muster Matrix: An Overall View of Arenas and Strands8
2
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Numbers in brackets refer to Chapters where the questions are discussed.
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2.2
The Research Process
MUSTER was conceived as a collaborative multi-site research project that would maintain a core agenda of common research themes. It was also designed to allow the special circumstances and concerns of national researchers to be reflected in variations to a common design and extension into themes specific to particular countries. Some key features of the research process are worth highlighting.
Baseline studies: these were developed to profile the current status of teacher education systems, identify research literature, official reports, curriculum documents and planning material on teacher education, and analyse the key issues that were of most concern in each system. These baseline studies served the purpose of providing a focus on an initial task that was of itself useful (in most cases no recent reviews of teacher education policy and practice existed), and which could provide the basis for the detailed exploration of the issues raised.
The baseline studies provided an evidenced counterpoint to assumptions and assertions about the nature and quality of teacher education circulating amongst communities of stakeholders (e.g. see Kunje and Chimombo 1999, Quamina-Aiyejina et al 1999) Lefoka,
Jobo, Khiba et al 2000, Akyeampong and Furlong 2000).
Research Matrix: MUSTER developed a grid of core research questions around which there was a consensus. Fig. 1 shows a simplified version of this matrix. This two-dimensional grid identified four strands and three arenas. It was used to guide the development of country research plans and the sub-studies designed to explore the major research questions.
Detailed plans identified the data collection methods that would be used for each sub-study.
The framework went through several iterations and proved a useful heuristic tool to focus discussion and develop particular components of the research; in the event data relevant to each cell was collected and analysed in all the countries, albeit in different degrees of depth and breadth.
Sub-studies: the research plans that were developed were deliberately segmented in terms of sub-studies. These were configured as research projects with specific foci that could be undertaken and written up in a fairly self-contained way. There were several reasons for this approach. First, some members of the research teams had little experience of acting as independent researchers. Sub-studies enabled individuals and groups to take responsibility for particular pieces of research of manageable scale which could be guided by more experienced researchers. Second, the intention was to build up from the sub-studies to synthetic research reports that would address the larger research questions. Using substudies reduced the risk that a particular aspect of the MUSTER research would not come to fruition (if a sub-study could not be completed, there would at least be several others to address related research questions). Third, the completion of sub-studies provided milestones against which to judge the progress of the research and offer more support if
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2 Doing The Research deadlines were slipping or quality needed enhancing. Many of the sub-study reports were produced in good draft form early on and circulated as part of the MUSTER Discussion
Paper series; some were later refined into journal articles.
Local Variations: certain studies were undertaken at some sites and not others, as noted above. This allowed the important differences in the significance of different research questions in different contexts to be captured. It also gave more ownership of parts of the research to the research teams and allowed space for local agendas. The local variations
T
included a study of On-the-Job Training Scheme in Trinidad and Tobago, an analysis of
u
patterns of assessment for teacher education in Malawi, detailed observations of college
T
classes in Lesotho, and a wider survey of trainee teacher attitudes in Ghana. In the case of
(
South Africa the research team decided first to focus on the experience and developmental
s
initiatives of UDW, one of the major providing institutions that was historically
d
disadvantaged. Subsequently the scope of the research was widened to include consideration
l
of the four most important pathways to becoming a teacher – college-based training,
r
university training, distance programmes in public institutions, and franchised arrangements
w
with private sector providers.
w i Symmetrical and Sequential Design: the research was planned to move from baseline studies which provided an overview of recent developments in teacher education and the
T
issues these raised, through detailed research sub-studies, back to a synthetic country report
e
which could have an evidenced basis for conclusions it reached about practice and policy.
m
This country report, and its findings, could then be used during the dissemination process,
e
along with those aspects of more detailed work relevant to future planning. Finally, the substudies and the country reports could be used to create comprehensive and synthetic
2
research reports at country level and above.
Q
Communications: MUSTER Principal Researchers were linked into a network of
e
communication through e-mail which allowed frequent sharing of insights, research
Q
instruments and support for data analysis and for report writing. The co-ordinators visited
o
the research sites to support the design, development and analysis of data, and individual
c
researchers visited Sussex for periods of writing and reflection. The MUSTER workshops
s
provided opportunities to consolidate products, share insights, and collaboratively plan
A
future activities.
c a 2.3
c
Research Methods
c
MUSTER used a wide range of research methods, drawing on both quantitative and
a
qualitative techniques of data collection and analysis. This was designed to gain as full a
a
picture as possible of the complex issues. There were also cultural reasons for using a variety
l
of approaches. As one principal researcher put it:
12
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2 Doing The Research e …. The socio-political values of African societies and the attitudes they promote
n
present those researching into the lives and experiences of its people with a different set of methodological challenges. This reality required the picking and choosing of a combination of research approaches, across what is often seen as the methodological
d
divide of qualitative and quantitative research [….] to enhance the validity of findings
h
and their interpretation. (Akyampong et al 2000: 4)
e s There was a tension between collecting data that would be directly comparable across sites
f
using common instruments, and wanting to respond to the local situation in different ways.
e
The process of designing instruments collaboratively was commenced at the first workshop
f
(March 1998). The Sussex team subsequently drew up research memoranda for the different
l
strands, containing draft instruments that could be adapted locally. In the case of survey
y
data, draft instruments were developed which had a high degree of commonality. This was
n
largely retained after piloting, though in some cases particular wording was modified to
,
reflect local variations in expression and interpretation to enhance construct validity. There
s
was more variation in the methods used to acquire qualitative data, though broad themes were agreed which were then explored through interviews, focus groups etc. These varied in the detail of their realisation.
e e The main data collection methods, how they were applied, and any special features that were
t
employed to meet specific circumstances are indicated below. Where appropriate we link
y.
methods to particular strands and arenas. More detailed accounts of the methods used in
,
each case are available in the relevant Discussion Papers.
c
2.3.1 Surveys
Questionnaires were used to collect data on student teachers at the points of entry to and f exit from their training course, and from Newly Qualified Teachers (NQTs). The Entry
h
Questionnaire contained sections on biodata (age, sex, family background, schooling etc),
d
on memories of schooling, expectations of college, and career plans, using a mixture of
l
closed and open-ended questions. A final section contained a number of Likert-type
s
statements about pedagogy, the role and status of teachers, and other professional issues.
n
Although the open-ended questions produced rich data, they proved difficult and timeconsuming to code and analyse. The Exit and NQT questionnaires were therefore drawn up at the Durban workshop to a closed-response format so they could be quickly analysed by computer, using SPSS. They contained a similar section on biodata, evaluations of the college experience including Teaching Practice (TP), careers plans, and for NQTs items
d
about induction and early experiences in school. A revised list of Likert items was developed
a
and included. Because of the time scale, these surveys were cross-sectional rather than
y
longitudinal, with different cohorts being surveyed.
D
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In Lesotho (one college) and Trinidad and Tobago (two colleges) it was possible to survey
i
trainees from each training institution. In Malawi, two Colleges were sampled out of six, and
w
in Ghana four out of thirty eight. Overall the entry samples included 400 student teachers
u
in Ghana, 90 in Lesotho, 176 in Malawi, and 299 in Trinidad. These samples have their
r
limitations, particularly as regards gender. Over two-thirds of the student teachers in the
r
samples in Lesotho, Malawi, and Trinidad and Tobago were female. In Ghana only about a
s
third were female. In Ghana and Lesotho these proportions were broadly consistent with the
o
intake in previous years. However, in Trinidad and Tobago, and in Malawi, the samples had
j
an over-representation of females when compared to the overall proportions enrolled in
c
training. In Malawi this was due to the fact that one of the colleges used in the sample was
d
all female. In Trinidad and Tobago the reason appears to be because of differential response
c
rates between males and females. Further information on the samples can be found in
MUSTER country reports and discussion papers (e.g. Akyeampong and Lewin 2002,
2
George, Mohammed et al 2001, Kunje et al 2001, and Lefoka, Molise et al 2001).
T
Similar, though slightly smaller, samples were used for the Exit questionnaire. Administering
w
questionnaires in the colleges to entering and exiting students ensured fairly high response
b
rates. The NQTs were more difficult to contact and responses were lower: data was collected
s
from 134 respondents in Ghana, 64 in Lesotho and 64 in Malawi. The Lesotho team drew
c
up a separate questionnaire to elicit views on teaching practice from 120 recently returned
(
third-year students.
e t A predominantly closed-item questionnaire was used in Ghana, Malawi and Lesotho for
u
college tutors. It requested information on qualifications and career paths, views of the college, its curriculum and their students, and contained a Likert item section inviting
2
agreement or disagreement with a range of statements, many of which paralleled those given to students.
T
w
The main strength of the surveys was to capture broadly comparable data across the different
e
countries. This was particularly useful in analysing the origins, characteristics and attitudes
I
of those entering teaching. The Likert sections enabled us to make some tentative estimates
a
about how far attitudes might be changed by training (Akeayampong and Lewin 2002,
g
Coultas and Lewin 2002).
t g The researchers were aware that many of the survey respondents indicated quite high levels of satisfaction with aspects of the teacher education curriculum although interviews often
2
revealed more general discontent. These sometimes contradictory results had to be interpreted carefully. There was a general consensus that questionnaires may be seen as
T
‘official’ instruments, and respondents did not wish to criticise the colleges because of
t
traditions of respect for elders and for those in authority, and this could have led to patterns
o
of response that exaggerated levels of satisfaction. Judgements were made to mediate the
o
14
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2 Doing The Research y interpretation of responses accordingly. Another problem was language; all the instruments
d
were designed in English – the medium of instruction. After piloting there were
s
uncertainties that respondents understood all the questions in the same way as the
r
researchers, and further attempts were made to try to improve wording and presentation to
e
reduce this problem. In addition there were problems with the administration of some
a
survey instruments. In some cases student respondents were under pressure from exams or
e
other events and were unwilling to devote time to questionnaires; in other cases it was
d
judged more productive to collect some data using other methods since levels of
n
cooperation were problematic. These difficulties were recognised in the interpretation of
s
data and the decisions made on sampling which were designed to be as representative as
e
circumstances allowed.
n
,
2.3.2 Interviews
These were used widely in a variety of forms wherever the research teams felt comfortable g with this approach. Key informants in colleges and Ministries were interviewed for
e
background information, and to provide views on policies. Semi-structured interviews with
d
samples of college tutors were used in the four sites to elicit both information about their
w
careers, and their perspectives, attitudes and beliefs about their work in preparing teachers
d
(see Stuart et al 2000). In Trinidad and Tobago the experience of teaching practice was explored in depth using interviews with college tutors, students, principals and cooperating teachers in the schools (see George, Worrell et al 2000, parts 1 and 2). Similar methods were
r
used there to explore the views of NQTs (Morris & Joseph, 2000).
e g 2.3.3 Focus Groups
n
These were used in a limited number of places for specific purposes. In cultural contexts where much respect is given to those in authority, the one-to-one interview may not always t elicit full and open answers, especially where there is a large perceived power distance.
s
Interviewing students in groups proved useful, encouraging respondents to speak out, and
s
allowing for alternative views and underlying assumptions to emerge. For example, in Ghana
,
groups were used effectively with NQTs to discuss their first year of teaching, and also with trainees about their TP (see Akyeampong et al 2000). Similarly in Malawi and Lesotho small groups of students in college were brought together to give their views on the curriculum.
s n 2.3.4 Observations
e s These were used both in college lecture halls and school classrooms. Tutors were observed
f
teaching in all four sites, most extensively in Lesotho, where eight tutors were observed 3
s
or 4 times each, and in Malawi, where 16 tutors, drawn from two colleges, were each
e
observed once. In Ghana and Trinidad and Tobago smaller samples were observed. No
D
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2 Doing The Research schedules were used, but observers noted down key points of the classroom events and
2
processes with as much detail as they could, in some cases supplemented by tape recordings.
D
Classroom observations were used in all the studies of NQTs, albeit with small samples (6
s
in Lesotho, 8 in Trinidad and Tobago, 11 in Ghana.), again using simple notes. Small
a
numbers of untrained teachers were also observed to give some insight into differences. In
a
Malawi NQTs were observed using the standard TP assessment instrument to explore how
s
far their teaching differed from those of their untrained colleagues.
t
2.3.5 Combining classroom observation with interview
2
In several of the studies in both colleges and schools observations and interviews were used
I
together to try to elicit teachers’ and tutors’ views about their work in more depth. The
t
shared experience of the lesson provided a context for the interview; more deliberately, the
G
interviewer could use incidents from the lesson to probe some of the underlying assumptions
s
and reasoning (e.g. Croft 2002a). The importance of taking time to build up rapport and
l
trust was emphasised in interactions between researchers and respondents (See Hedges
2002a). In the Trinidad and Tobago TP study, the researchers observed not only the lessons
2
but also the post-lesson conferences, and then interviewed students and tutors. Such forms of triangulation enabled researchers to gain a more holistic view of the processes by drawing
S
out the participants’ meanings (George, Mohammed, et al 2001).
a t r
2.3.6 Autobiographical essays and student diaries
a
These were used to supplement the Entry Questionnaire. A small sample of students (18 in
g
Ghana, 27 in Lesotho, 20 in Malawi, 16 in Trinidad and Tobago) were asked to write about
a
good and bad experiences of schooling, their best and worst teachers, and their current hopes and expectations. The essays were coded and analysed qualitatively by theme, along
2
with the open-ended questions on similar topics in the entry questionnaire. They provided very valuable information on the kinds of images and experiences of schooling and of
A
teachers that trainees bring to their training.
s
(
A small group of trainees in Lesotho were given diaries in which to write comments about
o
their classes, what they were learning, and their problems. Language, time and the
s
unfamiliarity of diary keeping made this difficult to sustain, but some rich insights were
y
obtained that cast a new light on students’ lives.
E a a c r
m
16
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2 Doing The Research d 2.3.7 Document analysis
.
Documents were used extensively. The Baseline studies were compiled from secondary
6
sources. Past student files were accessed where appropriate. Curriculum documents were
l
analysed using Eraut’s (1976) scheme that identifies aims and objectives, content, pedagogy,
n
and teaching-learning materials to see whether they form a consistent curricular strategy. In
w
some sites exam papers were also analysed to ascertain the coverage of syllabus topics and the cognitive demands made.
2.3.8 Tests
d
In the four sites tests in Maths and English were drawn up using items from, or similar to,
e
the local school-leaving examinations which are used for college entrance. In Malawi and
e
Ghana pedagogical knowledge tests were also devised. These tests were administered cross-
s
sectionally to entering and exiting cohorts since it was not possible to follow cohorts
d
longitudinally.
s s 2.3.9 Financial analysis and modelling supply and demand
s g Statistical analysis was undertaken based on school census data, national planning reports and budgetary allocations. This was supplemented with data collected at institutional level to establish patterns of expenditure. Interviews were conducted with those with financial responsibilities at different levels. Supply and demand was modelled using simulations adapted for each country to derive projections of future needs linked to national policy
n
goals. This was used to profile budgetary demand and ascertain whether current methods
t
and costs of training were likely to prove sustainable.
t g 2.4
Reflections on the Research Process
d f A project as large as MUSTER inevitably experiences dilemmas and difficulties as well as successes. Many things did not go according to plan and many adjustments had to be made
(Lewin and Stuart 2002). During the fieldwork Lesotho experienced political unrest and
t
occupation by SADC troops. For much of the research period MIITEP in Malawi was
e
suspended as government and agencies negotiated over funding. At the end of the third
e
year, South Africa finally announced a new national policy to incorporate Colleges of
D
Education into the higher education system, ending a period of uncertainty and confusion about policy on the location of initial training. In Ghana elections created uncertainties about the implementation of the ‘In-In-Out’ system in 2001. An election was announced to coincide with the Trinidad and Tobago national dissemination workshop, causing it to be rescheduled. At Sussex staff changes occurred which had to be accommodated, and new members of the team had to be inducted into the MUSTER research.
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Towards the end of the project we set up various structures to enable all participants to
t
reflect on the project and identify aspects of the experience that might inform future
a
collaborative research of a similar kind.9 The comments below are drawn from some of these
q
reflections.
a t o
2.4.1 Collaboration and participation
a
The original proposal for the research was made from Sussex on the basis of general
c
discussions that emerged from various academic link programmes maintained by CIE with the five partner countries. This followed from the nature of the DFID research
O
commissioning process at the time. Thus, the first research framework that emerged was not
s
a product of formal collaboration for this purpose, but a distillation of issues and questions
a
that had arisen as teacher education issues were debated with colleagues within the link
t
programmes. Ideally, perhaps, a developmental proposal should have been made at the
u
outset to allow a detailed research framework to be developed through a systematic process
a
of collaboration designed with this in mind. This would have involved perhaps six months
v
to a year of preparatory work in partnership with colleagues in the link institutions, and the provision of funds for exploratory work in advance of a joint proposal. This strategy may be
M
an option for future research funding. As it was, outline approval for MUSTER was obtained
c
with a list of possible collaborators. Research fellow positions were advertised and the final
g
list of collaborating partners was agreed in consultation. It took more than six months to
p
firm up partnerships, make the necessary appointments, and draw up draft research
n
contracts.
p
w
Thus staff at Sussex initiated the project, negotiated the outline proposal, and became the
F
fund holders accountable to DFID for the research products. In practice, this meant that
r
Sussex, together with DFID, agreed a time-table for products in consultation with the
t
researchers, and disbursed funds against the achievement of agreed milestones in the form
s
of research reports. This was judged a more appropriate way to proceed than the alternative
w
of payments linked to detailed accounting of fieldwork activity10. The latter would have
t
created a considerable administrative overhead and not necessarily guaranteed timely
w
completion of work.
d
As a result of its origins, and the arrangements for accountability for funds, there were some
A
perceptions that MUSTER was hierarchically organised from the centre and ‘product-
c
driven’. The latter is in part true and is arguably appropriate for commissioned research
s
intended to inform policy and practice within a finite time scale. Products are needed and
e
completion of research reports can be the most problematic and time-consuming element of
u
9
For example, we held a full team discussion during the July 2000 workshop, which was taped and transcribed; the D.Phil research students invited the Principal researchers to individual semi-structured interviews about their experiences of the project; June George wrote a short article for the issue of Perspectives that Michael Samuel was editing (an example of
South-South collaboration).
10
Local budgets were subject to the accounting rules of the collaborating institutions.
18
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2 Doing The Research o the research process. However, MUSTER was intellectually driven by the research questions
e
agreed at the first joint workshop, and the products arose from exploration of these
e
questions. The administrative organisation of MUSTER was partly shaped by the nature of accountability to DFID. Overall responsibility for delivery rested with Sussex and through the project co-ordinators with the sub-contracted research groups. This meant that the coordinators, without the help of paid support staff, had to become managers and administrators of the project as well as undertaking the research. At times this resulted in
l
considerable stress.
h h Other approaches are conceivable, and might be considered in future. They would have to
t
satisfy needs to maintain accountability, manage the quality and timely delivery of products,
s
and be administratively efficient. MUSTER researchers did recognise that the structure of
k
the project had some advantages. Thus one comment was that ‘the project structure pushed
e
us to draw on our reserves and make that extra effort’ in meeting agreed deadlines. Perhaps
s
a less structured approach would have resulted in more slippage in the completion of the
s
various sub-studies.
e e MUSTER established an email network for communication early in its life. At first
d
communications developed with most information flowing outwards from the centre. This
l
generated a reciprocal flow of responses back to the centre. News from the remote sites was
o
passed on to other sites, with limited communication along the ‘rim’ of the network. The
h
notable exceptions occurred at the annual workshops where face-to-face interaction was possible. To enhance the flow of ideas among the researchers, drafts from the different sites were made available electronically, and each site was provided with a laptop computer.
e
Facility with new technology varied, as did infrastructure and back-up services, with the
t
result that sometimes communication failed for significant periods. It also became clear that
e
the volume of work produced across the five sites was such that there were problems in
m
simply keeping up to date with developments in all the sites. Sometimes it seemed that there
e
was not enough time to download and read all the material available. Later on, as a result of
e
the experience of the team meetings, and in particular the dissemination workshops, there
y
was more sharing, and mutual learning grew. If funds had permitted it would have been desirable to rotate meetings around all the five sites.
e
A steering committee was set up which included a ‘critical friend’ who was invited to
-
comment periodically on the progress of the research. This proved very helpful and various
h
suggestions were taken on board. DFID advisors were also kept in the picture about
d
emerging work and were invited to comment on drafts and attend workshops. This proved
f
useful throughout MUSTER.
l
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2 Doing The Research s 2.4.2 Research design and building research capacity
n
MUSTER experienced some tensions from the outset that are common to many multi-site
r
research projects. One the one hand there was a firm commitment to be responsive to the
M
research interests and enthusiasms of the principal researchers and their teams. Context and
o
priorities differed, as did the history, content, and process of teacher education. It would
t
have been ill-advised if not impossible to ignore this in designing the research in detail. On
r
the other hand, there was an ambition to address common issues to highlight aspects of
T
practice, policy, and possibilities that would not necessarily appear from single country
f
studies. Not least there was an aspiration to address teacher education issues at the international level, and develop dialogue with those working in development agencies and
2
governments on externally assisted Education for All programmes.
M
At the first workshop it proved possible to identify common questions and approaches to
t
data collection for parts of MUSTER. As a result some sub-studies followed similar
t
pathways for data collection and analysis. Alongside this other sub-studies were devised
e
which were specific to particular sites. Adopting this approach was one of the factors that
o
led to MUSTER growing in scope. Had it elected to focus only on the national without
s
regard to cross-national perspectives, or alternatively adopted a single standard set of
e
questions and research instruments, it would have been less complex. But neither of these options seemed appropriate since either alone would overlook what were generally agreed
T
to be important perspectives, not least because of the interactions between national and
f
international aspects of teacher education curriculum, policy and practice.
m p The discussions around the development of the research framework encouraged researchers
h
to use a range of data collection and analysis techniques that included those with both
K
qualitative and quantitative characteristics. This meant that to different degrees the
f
researchers had to use methods they were already familiar with and to acquire
f
understanding and skill with those that were new to them. Support for this was provided
t
from Sussex through in-country visits, email, and the opportunities that arose for
r
researchers to spend periods of time at Sussex. The researchers also shared experiences with colleagues in-country and across the MUSTER team. Technical advice was provided from
I
Sussex when unavailable locally.
t a Developing higher level research skills is time-consuming. Intuitively such skills are best
d
developed with a mixture of systematic study and involvement in the real world of
a
application. MUSTER attempted in some measure to both undertake high quality research,
t
and to develop skills in the process. It has succeeded to a degree evident in the various
w
outcomes and considerable volume of publications by a wide range of authors. In an ideal
W
world many facilitating factors would have been present – a supportive national
c
environment for research, a critical mass of researchers at PhD level, adequate technical
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2 Doing The Research support in-country, release time for researchers, substantial infrastructure to underpin national level data analysis, interpretation, and the production of high quality draft research e reports. In the nature of the project not all these things were present at each site. The
e
MUSTER infrastructure helped partly compensate for this and generated solutions to many
d
of the problems that arose. It also drew attention to the implications of adopting approaches
d
to policy that are more, rather than less, evidence-based. The reality is that the collection of
n
robust evidence rigorously collated is often a time-consuming and skill-intensive activity.
f
Though the costs can be high, they remain small in relation to the costs of misguided policy
y
founded on assumption and casual empiricism.
e d 2.4.3 Resources
MUSTER supported a wide range of research activity across six sites for four years. Though o the funding made available was substantial, it was nevertheless very modest when compared
r
to the resources currently allocated to teacher education in each country and to the size of
d
external support for Education for All programmes. These of course depend at least in part
t
on adequate teacher supply and teacher quality for their success. More could have been well
t
spent. Lessons can also be learned from how the project resources might be utilised more
f
effectively in future.
e d The MUSTER contracts were largely made with the institutions, not with individuals. The
d
funds provided were intended to include payment for the time of lead researchers and team members, and to cover direct costs of fieldwork, data analysis, report production etc. As a principal researcher noted ‘One of the difficulties in doing research in a setting that doesn’t
s
have a rich culture of research is finding appropriate blocks of time in which to do the work’.
h
Key individuals often carried heavy teaching and/or administrative loads and responsibilities
e
for other projects. Most of the collaborating institutions did not have formal arrangements
e
for release time for research projects though funding was provided for this purpose. Where
d
they did, norms and practice varied widely. This created difficulties both for principal
r
researchers, and for team members, when the time needed was not necessarily forthcoming.
h
m
It was assumed that all the participating institutions would contribute some ‘institutional’ time and other resources to the enterprise, since the research would benefit the institutions and their staff in terms of capacity building and research profile. All in fact did this in
t
different ways, but there was general agreement among all the researchers, including those
f
at Sussex, that ‘the amount of time that was funded was nothing like the amount of time
,
that was put into it’. The project’s success was due to the great efforts that everyone made
s
well over and above the personal and institutional contributions originally envisaged.
l
Without these non-costed contributions the MUSTER project would have been
l
compromised.
l
D
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2 Doing The Research
The institutions all had different ways of handling research money. These sometimes clashed
o
with the project framework established. Thus in general resources were provided against the
o
completion of agreed products e.g. the baselines studies, drafts of sub-study reports, and the
r
full country reports. Internal accounting systems often refused to advance money for
a
research expenses until funds had been transferred notwithstanding the existence of a
t
contract. In spite of some degree of flexibility, in one case it was said the Institution ‘lost money through MUSTER though it gained in reputation’. Sussex itself waived research
2
student tuition fees and thereby supported MUSTER research financially. Our experience draws attention to the need to share expertise in research management, not least the fact that
F
accounting systems designed primarily to handle university general business (e.g. student
r
fees, government subsidies, staff salaries etc.) can be dysfunctional for research contracts.
•
2.4.4 Benefits and burdens
There was no doubt that the project constituted a steep learning curve for all involved, from
•
which everyone gained in terms of professional development. Some of the benefits mentioned frequently by the researchers were:
•
-
skills in managing research projects
-
working with other academics, sharing ideas, getting feedback
-
gains in academic confidence, especially in writing skills
-
a broadening, or refocusing, of research and career interests
S
•
There were many indications that the associated institutions had gained in terms of:
-
enhanced local and international reputation
-
research publications, especially where Discussion Papers, or articles based on them,
•
were made available locally
-
expanding the numbers involved in research to include new and inexperienced
•
researchers
For the research students based at Sussex, being part of a larger project removed some of the isolation of doctoral research, and working in collaboration with a local institute and its
•
staff during fieldwork enriched both their data and the personal experience. The ‘hidden costs’ to the local institution for hosting such students were, however, considerable, and while many were generously absorbed in a spirit of collaborative activity, in future such costs should be recognised and factored in.
Not surprisingly, given the scope of MUSTER and the dynamic ways in which its emphases changed, some reflections suggested that the project became too ambitious and covered too much ground. The initial enthusiasm generated research agendas that were sometimes out
22
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2 Doing The Research d of proportion to the resources and time available. Everyone mentioned experiencing periods
e
of pressure and stress, especially as deadlines for workshops approached. It was generally
e
recognised that much had been learned and that there were many benefits both individually
r
and to the institutions, though the personal costs in terms of tension and overload had at
a
times been substantial.
t h 2.4.5 Some suggestions for the future
e t From all this, certain lessons can be learnt. Certain aspects worked well and can be
t
recommended. For example:
•
A sequential development of publications, from Baseline Studies to Discussion Papers, and the setting of milestone targets, linked to sub-studies which can be written up for articles and integrated into the final reports.
m
•
s
An overall research design flexible enough to guide the studies and frame the broad research questions, which also allows more precise and context-specific questions to be identified. •
A Steering Committee, which can serve many purposes, particularly that of providing feedback and suggestions at a distance from the day to day management of the research.
Some suggestions for those undertaking similar projects include:
•
Recognising the need to involve Principal Researchers in the design of the research at the earliest possible stage and if financially possible hold full team meetings at all the research sites.
•
,
Trying to ensure that there is at least one full-time researcher at each site for most, if not all, of the research period, whether this is the Principal Researcher or a member of one of the research teams.
d
•
Accepting that if there is an explicit commitment to build research capacity in a sustainable way, additional time and resources are required to guide and support inexperienced researchers as they learn on the job; this needs to be incorporated into the
f s budget.
•
n d s
Matching funding arrangements to take into account the financial regulations and norms of the receiving institutions, to the extent these are consistent with sponsors’ requirements and the progress of the research.
•
Negotiating clear and transparent agreements about the contributions of partners, that recognise what they can realistically do with the resources available.
s o t
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3
T c h a e v d c b l t b e
A
T i i c g a t
3
T t c i s
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Chapter Three
3.1
3 The MUSTER Project:
Context and Emerging Issues
Introduction
This chapter presents background information needed to set the MUSTER research in context. The teacher education systems in the MUSTER countries differ for complex historical, political, cultural and demographic reasons. All share influences that arise from the activities of missionaries and colonial governments in the formative stages of teacher education in each country. In all cases the systems are now government-controlled, with varying degrees of residual relationships with groups who played a role in the founding of different training colleges. The training institutions exist within different policy and curriculum regimes, and have been subject to more or less developmental support since being assimilated into state education systems. It is the national contexts that determine the level of supply and demand for new teachers, and the nature of new entrants recruited into training. The characteristics of the different training systems are explored in a series of baseline studies (Ghana - Akyeampong and Furlong, 2000; Lesotho – Lefoka, Jobo, Khiba et al, 2000; Malawi - Kunje and Chimombo, 1999; Trinidad and Tobago - QuaminaAiyejina et al, 1999) and in other MUSTER discussion papers.
The first section describes the current system of training primary teachers, gives contextual information on relevant aspects of the school systems, and notes some of the concerns identified in the Baseline Studies. The second section describes some of the features of the colleges where the training takes place. These include their historical origins, aspects of governance and control; and some of the physical and environmental features that can have an impact on teaching and learning. The final section identifies some key issues that shaped the MUSTER research.
3.2
Overview of the Teacher Education Systems
The training systems in Ghana, Lesotho, Malawi and Trinidad and Tobago vary in terms of the entry level qualifications required, the length and location of training, the type of certification, and the mode of delivery. Figure 2 shows the contrasting patterns. Figure 3 illustrates graphically the length of training and the division of time between college and school-based activity.
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3 The MUSTER Project: Context and Emerging Issues
Figure 2: Forms of teacher training programmes in four countries
s
Country
Ghana
Lesotho
g
Entry level
5 O level credits
4 COSC credits JC or MSCE
+ 2 yrs work
5 CXC passes,
On Job Training
+ 2yrs work
q
Malawi
Trinidad & Tobago
4
S
Length
3 years11
3 1/2 years
2 years
2 –5 years
a
Location of
Training
Teacher T.
College
Teacher T.
College
TTC + schools Teacher T. College
o
Diploma
Certificate
Certificate
Qualification Certificate
Awarded by
MOE
NTTC
MOE
Pre-service,
Residential
Pre-service,
Residential
In-service,
Mixed
o
MOE
Mode of training o
In-service.
G i u
w
Figure 3: Length of college and school-based training in four countries (2000)
p n In Sec Sch
3
Ghana
c
1-semester upgrading
T
Lesotho
c
Untrained Teachers
c
Malawi
d p On the Job Training
t
Trinidad & Tobago
Pre Training
Year 1
Year 2
Year 3
3
Full Time Residential
T
Full Time Non-Residential
L
School-based Training
t a c
3.2.1 Ghana
Ghana has only one mode of initial teacher education. Thirty-eight colleges (seven male,
t
one female, and the rest mixed) provide three-year full-time post-secondary training. All the
t
colleges except one are residential and all prepare teachers for primary and junior secondary
7
level with options to specialise. Since 1993 the number of trainees has increased by over 50%
p
and in 1998 20,400 were enrolled, of whom 38% were female. Average enrolment in
a
colleges was about 500 students, covering a range from 240 to 910. About 1,050 college
f
12
C
After the research started Ghana shifted to an In-In-Out system of two years in College and one year in school based training. 12
There are thirty eight state-run colleges and three private colleges.
11
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3 The MUSTER Project: Context and Emerging Issues staff are employed, giving an average staff-student ratio of 20:1. Two-thirds of staff are graduates and over 80% are male. Formal entrance requirements for training are: a minimum qualification (Ghana GCE ‘O’Level – 5 Grade Es or better; Senior Secondary Certificate –
4 Credits and one other pass), an interview, and a common college entrance examination.
Some trainees with the minimum requirements may enter college via ‘protocol’ arrangements that may circumvent normal entrance requirements. A recent reform (2001) of the teacher education system has introduced an ‘In-In-Out’ system whereby the third year of training will be located in schools rather than in the Colleges. This is in the early stages of implementation.
Ghana is committed to universalising primary education and enrolments have been increasing. Primary gross enrolment rates appear to be around 79%. The proportion of untrained teachers has been falling to below 20%, with large regional variations. There is widespread concern with low levels of pupil achievement that are partly attributed to the poor quality of teacher education. Expenditure on teacher education has been rising and now accounts for about 6% of total recurrent expenditure on education which itself is about
35% of all government spending. The cost per trained teacher is about five times GNP per capita. There is an on-going debate in Ghana about the most suitable course structure and curriculum for preparing teachers for primary schools, and in particular how such schools can be used as training sites. There are also concerns about the colleges and the professional development of their staff. Currently the large classes, heavy staff workloads, and traditional practices of the colleges seem to militate against innovations aimed at raising the quality of training. 3.2.2 Lesotho
The National Teacher Training College (NTTC) is the only teacher education college in
Lesotho. It trains primary and junior secondary level teachers on different courses. Initial training has evolved through a variety of programmes but is being consolidated into a three and a half year residential programme, the Diploma in Education, Primary (DEP). Total college enrolment has been maintained at about 80013 on various programmes including
,
those for in-service and post-service up-grading. The total numbers enrolled in initial
e
training for primary have fluctuated between 300 and 400 in the recent past. Typically, over
y
70% of trainees are female. The effective staff-student ratio is about 1:14 on primary programmes. More than 95% of the 44 College staff in the Primary Division hold degrees
n
and about two-thirds were female in 1998. Selection onto the DEP requires a minimum of
e
four credits (one of which must be in English) and a pass in Cambridge Overseas School
D
Certificate. NTTC also interviews some candidates.
13
This includes part time students and is therefore not a full time equivalent figure.
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3 The MUSTER Project: Context and Emerging Issues
Gross enrolment rates at primary level are over 100% and are greater for girls than boys. The
i
proportion of untrained teachers in primary schools has remained around 25% over the last
t
five years. The college output of less than 150 new teachers a year has been insufficient to
e
reduce this proportion. The introduction of free primary schooling from 2000 is increasing
r
enrolments thereby increasing demand for teachers. Lesotho allocates between 2% and 3% of the recurrent education budget to NTTC and commits over 30% of government
3
resources to education as a whole. The cost per trained teacher is over ten times GNP per capita. T e Major issues in Lesotho concern the status and characteristics of the NTTC as the only
w
teaching training college, how the college curriculum can be rationalised and upgraded, how
8
teacher quality can be enhanced, and how output can be increased.
a u t
3.2.3 Malawi
o
Since 1997 pre-service college-based training for primary level in Malawi has been
m
suspended to allow for large numbers of untrained teachers to be trained through the
Malawi Integrated Teacher Education Programme (MIITEP). This system provides for one
T
term in College, four terms in supervised teaching practice, and most of a term in College
n
preparing for and taking final examinations. The programme is run in all six primary colleges
O
(two are single sex) which together enrol cohorts of about 2,500 students at a time, three
a
times a year when fully operating. Six cohorts were enrolled between 1997 and 1999 with
e
each college taking between about 400 and 600 students per cohort three times a year.
r
About 42% of MIITEP trainees are female. Nominal staff-student ratios vary between 1:11
t
and 1:21. About a quarter of staff appear to be graduates and about 35% are female.
MIITEP trainees are drawn from the ranks of untrained teachers who constitute perhaps half
T
of all teachers. Most of those enrolled (65%) have been Junior Certificate of Education
o
(JCE) holders (two years secondary schooling), though the stated policy is to recruit those
t
with the Malawi Secondary Certificate of Education (MSCE) (four years secondary).
p
Candidates are selected from the MIITEP database and are not interviewed or tested. The
t
MIITEP programme was suspended in 1999 for nearly two years whilst negotiations took place concerning continued external support.
Malawi implemented Free Primary Education (FPE) in 1994 resulting in an increase in enrolments from about 1.8 million to 3 million primary pupils. Currently Malawi allocates about 4% of its educational expenditure to teacher education and about 30% to education as a whole. The cost per trained teacher in MIITEP is about three times the GNP per capita.
Important issues in Malawi are concerned with training and upgrading enough teachers to meet the needs created by FPE for more teachers. The MIITEP school-based system seeks to share training between the colleges and the schools but this is problematic given the poor
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3 The MUSTER Project: Context and Emerging Issues e infrastructure, stringent resource constraints, and volume of demand. Challenges for
t
training include the extent to which it can prepare trainees for very large classes which can
o
exceed 100 in the lower grades of primary schools, and whether the MIITEP system can be
g
refined to make it more efficient and effective at sustainable levels of cost.
t
3.2.4 Trinidad and Tobago
r
Trinidad and Tobago has two government colleges where most primary initial teacher education takes place. The Teacher’s Diploma is awarded after two years full-time study (39 y weeks) including periods of teaching practice. Total enrolments average between 700 and
w
800, split evenly between the colleges. About 30% of trainees are male. Staff-student ratios are about 1:13 and 55% of the tutors are female. Selection into the colleges is made from untrained teachers who have been working in schools for two to five years, most of entered teaching via the ‘On the Job Training’ apprenticeship programme. Students are employees of the Ministry of Education and receive full scholarships. Entrants to the teaching service
n
must have 5 CXC (Caribbean Examinations Council) passes or the equivalent ‘O’ Levels.
e e Trinidad and Tobago has achieved close to universal enrolment at primary level. The
e
number of primary students is projected to fall from 188,000 in 1995 to 163,000 by 2005.
s
Overall demand for teachers is therefore falling. However over 20% were untrained in 1997,
e
and opportunities exist to lower further the teacher-pupil ratio in primary schools from its
h
existing level of about 24:1. Teacher training accounts for somewhat less than 2% of the
r.
recurrent education budget which is 13% of total government expenditure. The cost of a
1
trained teacher is about three times GNP per capita.
. f There are concerns in Trinidad and Tobago that the college curriculum is outdated and
n
overloaded, and that it may not be effective in preparing teachers for the practical skills of
e
teaching. Entrants to college enter with experience, but this is not linked to the selection
.
procedure nor to the college curriculum Further, little is known about how the novice
e
teachers utilize their training or what impact they have on the schools.
k
n s s
o s r
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3 The MUSTER Project: Context and Emerging Issues r 3.2.5 Some cross-site comparisons
t
Cross-country comparisons of factors which shape the teacher education systems are shown
p
in Figure 4.
f
w
Figure 4: Factors shaping teacher education systems
Country
Population
GNP per Capita
Claimed Gross
Enrolment Rate at
Primary
Ghana
Lesotho
Malawi
Trinidad and
Tobago
L
18.7 million
2 million
10.1 million
1.3 ,million
u
US$390
US$570
US$200
US$4250
o
79%
108%
130%
99%
m
p
s
Rate of Growth of
Primary Age Cohort
4% possible falling to 3%
Declining 0 to –1.5%
+2% but may be falling
Declining –2% to –3%
T
Primary Enrolments
2,290,000
370,000
2,800,000
171,000
e
63700
8100
43400
7311
r
Pupil-teacher Ratio in
Primary
36:1
45:1
65:1
23:1
% Untrained teachers
13.5%
23%
40%-50%
23%
5%
5%-10%
10%-15%
3%
6
2
Primary Teachers
Primary Teacher
Attrition Rate
p
3
Number of Primary
Teacher Education
Colleges
38
1
(includes J.Sec) (includes some
Sec.)
Current Enrolments
20,400 (1998) 900 including 2500 per cohort,
Full time secondary and 3 cohorts/year part time when fully students operating
P
T
D e 791 (1999)
Full time
c e o
Lecturers
1044
43 (primary)
150
60
b
Student-staff Ratio in
College
19.5:1
14:1 in primary division 15:1
13:1
a
Annual Output of New
Primary Teachers
6000
150
7000 when fully operating
400
Ratio of Total Number of Primary Teachers to
Annual Output
10.6
54:1
6.2
18.2
s h r
3
Ghana and Malawi have relatively large populations and teacher education systems
T
compared to Lesotho and Trinidad and Tobago. The latter is a middle-income country
s
whereas the others are much poorer in terms of GNP per capita. Demand for new teachers
f
is high in three of the countries, but for different reasons. In Ghana the GER at primary is
t
still well below 100% and more teachers are needed to achieve Education for All (EFA)
o
targets for universal enrolment. It also has a high rate of growth in the school age cohort,
t
and teacher output must grow at least at this rate to maintain the current pupil-teacher
i
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3 The MUSTER Project: Context and Emerging Issues ratio, and more if untrained teachers are to be trained. In Malawi demand arises mostly from the growth in primary numbers, the need to reduce very high pupil-teacher ratios and n proportions of untrained teachers, and the very high rates of teacher attrition. During the four years MITTEP was in progress, the ratio of teachers in post to newly trained teachers was low (6.2:1) indicating a high level of effort in training.
Lesotho is different. It has high enrolment rates and low or negative cohort growth. Its primary pupil-teacher ratio is high, but not excessive, and about a quarter of teachers are untrained. The main factor creating demand for new teachers appears to be the very low output of the training system. The ratio of 65:1 teachers in post to output is insufficient to maintain the pupil-teacher ratio at current levels, and replace teachers who leave. This situation is deteriorating as enrolments increase and drop out declines as a result of FPE.
Trinidad and Tobago also has a negative rate of growth in the school age cohort. In this case pupil-teacher ratios and teacher attrition are low, and the output ratio of the teacher education system is more than sufficient to maintain enrolment rates at current pupil-teacher ratios. 3.3
The College Context.
Primary teacher training in anglophone Africa and the Caribbean mostly takes place in
Teacher Training Colleges (TTCs), while most secondary teacher education is in University
Departments of Education (UDEs). In Africa, colleges usually grew out of missionary-run education, though generally with national independence they came under government control. These colleges usually occupy an intermediate position between schools and higher education. They are often more like ‘glorified high schools’ than universities in their organisation, teaching environment and culture. Their physical location, layout and buildings place constraints on their operation and the opportunities to innovate. Colleges are mostly residential and are often situated away from towns. As a result there may be few schools nearby which can be used for teaching practice. These teacher education institutions have their own history, culture, ethos, practices, etc. and any programme of change must recognise these as a starting point.
3.3.1 Ghana
s
The first TTC in Ghana was founded in 1848 by the Basel Mission and many of the colleges
y
still have church affiliations. Others grew out of secondary schools; all are now government-
s
funded and have a common curriculum. Training colleges in Ghana have the appearance of
s
traditional secondary schools from the way they were built and their way of operating. Many
)
of them were started as missionary institutions to train ministers, catechists and later
,
teachers. Some of them were built as traditional secondary schools and were later converted
r
into colleges for training teachers. Their characteristic features include residential boarding
D
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3 The MUSTER Project: Context and Emerging Issues facilities, a dining hall, a daily timetable divided into periods of 40 minutes, classrooms with
r
seats arranged in rows and columns facing a chalkboard (seating between 40-50 students),
s
a small library, staff bungalows, an administrative block and playing grounds for sports
b
activities. Those with strong missionary roots have a chapel. Classrooms have no visual aids or storage facilities for keeping teaching and learning materials. Their science laboratories
M
appear to be poorly equipped and are too small. In one of the colleges studied, there was
t
only one laboratory for practical work in physics, chemistry and biology which could only
a
seat about fifty students. College libraries tended to be small and in one college it was
i
estimated that it could seat about 30 students at a time. In the case-study colleges, the
h
libraries’ newest collections appeared to be books donated under recent British aid programmes. Most of the books looked old and unused (Akyeampong 2001).
T
m
In the colleges there is an emphasis on discipline and moral training, often with daily
h
worship. Students have to undertake manual labour, such as weeding or sweeping the
d
compound. The strict rules and regulations, sometimes verging on the militaristic, are felt
D
by some trainees to be demeaning. ‘We are treated like primary pupils’ one said. This could
f
conflict with an aim of producing teachers ready to take responsibility and to make professional judgements.
3
The curriculum is developed and assessed by the Institute of Education at the University of
I
Cape Coast, under direction from the Teacher Education Directorate of the Ministry of
f
Education. College lecturers are involved to the extent that they sit on subject panels and
g
help mark the exams, but otherwise exercise little control, and are reported to see their role
c
simply as teaching what they are given.
c
J
l
3.3.2 Lesotho
w
The three main churches in Lesotho – Evangelical, Anglican and Catholic – all developed
l
their own TTCs for primary teachers which were located around the country. This
(
continued until 1975 when all primary and junior secondary training was centralised in a
B
new, secular, National Teacher Training College (NTTC) in Maseru. The NTTC aims were,
s
inter alia, to enhance national unity, modernise the curriculum and effect economies of scale
a
in training. The college was set up as with UNDP support and an American Director. The
A
decision to have an all-graduate staff had several implications: few lecturers could be taken
n
over from the old church colleges, so there was a sharp break with the past; expatriates staffed the college until Basotho were trained; and from the start the college aspired to
T
tertiary status.
t c After the UNDP project ended financial control was taken over by the MOE, while for
d
academic purposes the college became loosely affiliated to the National University of
a
Lesotho (NUL). The college controls its own curriculum and assessment, though final
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3 The MUSTER Project: Context and Emerging Issues h results have to be agreed by the university senate. Negotiations have been under way for
,
some years to give the institution financial autonomy as the ‘Lesotho College of Education’
s
but this is yet to become a reality.
s s Most of the teaching facilities date from the 1970s. The timetable is divided into one- and
s
two-hour slots, and teaching takes place in a lecture theatre or classrooms which have tables
y
and chairs rather than desks. The library has recently been improved, but laboratories are
s
inadequate for hands-on scientific experiments. Most students board, and until recently
e
hostel accommodation was a limit to enrolment.
d
Throughout its 25 years of existence, the college has depended greatly on foreign aid, first mainly American, and then Irish. The original Primary Teacher Certificate curriculum was y heavily influenced by the American educational thinking of the time, which emphasized skills
e
development, micro-teaching, and behavioural objectives. The development of the new
t
Diploma programme took place under Irish advice. The University of Bath had a recent link
d
for upgrading tutors to Masters degree level through a distance programme.
e
3.3.3 Malawi
f
In Malawi a number of small TTCs were also originally established by the missionaries. The
f
first government college was established in 1962; this became Blantyre TTC. After 1973 the
d
government took control over teacher education and through a process of amalgamation 13
e
colleges were reduced to six, of which two are still owned by the Catholic Church. The two colleges selected for MUSTER case-studies present both contrasts and similarities. St.
Joseph’s, an all-female Catholic-run college, stands 15 km. from a small town, in a rural landscape. It is one of the four colleges which in the late 1980s were substantially rebuilt with World Bank support and has impressive, spacious buildings, including halls, labs and
d
library, but is very poorly equipped with books and materials. Blantyre Teachers’ College
s
(BTC) is government-run, mixed sex, and is on the outskirts of the industrial area of
a
Blantyre. Its one-storey buildings, laid out in quadrangles, are 40 years old, the library is
,
small and understocked, there is no staff common room, the labs and technical workshop
e
areas are inadequate; the hostels are grossly over-crowded and have poor sanitary facilities.
e
At one time during the research the water supply failed and the college had to be closed, a
n
not uncommon event.
s o The teaching day is divided into six one-hour periods, with study time in the evenings, though lack of electricity in BTC prevented students from doing this. In both colleges, classrooms typically are set out in traditional style, with heavy wooden seat-desks that are
r
difficult to move. The few displays were tatty, with no evidence of student work. The total
f
absence of equipment and consumables made the labs inoperable.
l
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The teacher education curriculum is laid down by the Malawi Institute of Education, which is a part of the Ministry. Examinations are set and marked by the Malawi National
Examination Board, with the college tutors acting as markers. The MIITEP curriculum resonates with that of previous full-time residential programmes and dates back to reforms carried out in the 1980s with only minor adjustments to the aims to reflect recent social changes. It is skills-based, aiming to produce teachers who can deliver the curriculum effectively and obtain high levels of examination achievement from pupils.
3.3.4 Trinidad and Tobago
2
Primary Teacher Education in Trinidad and Tobago started with government and charitable initiatives dating back to the nineteenth century which first set up ‘normal’ schools and then a government teacher training college (TTC). Later denominational TTCs were set up, but the colonial government retained a measure of control. Alongside the colleges, for nearly
100 years (1870-1963) there was a system of school-based apprenticeship training, by which pupil-teachers gradually acquired qualifications while teaching (Quamina-Aiyejima et al
1999)
3
In the 1970s all the old TTCs were replaced with two government non-residential colleges, one in the north of the island and the other in the south. The campuses are spacious, with adequate buildings and reasonable resources, though the time-table and organisation are similar to those of a high school, with seven 45-minute periods per day and little free study time. The Board of Teacher Training is responsible for the curriculum, sets the exams in consultation with the college tutors, and moderates the results; there is, strangely, no link with the University of the West Indies. The college tutors, many of whom hold Masters degrees from the UWI, have been active in gradually altering and adapting the curriculum to suit new circumstances.
3.4
Some Key Issues
From the information presented and other insights from the MUSTER data collection a number of key issues can be identified which help frame subsequent discussion. In summary these are:
1.
4
Fundamental structural characteristics are important in determining key issues and future possibilities. Demographics shape teacher demand, and existing institutions determine current capacity. National indicators and targets (e.g. current and targeted
GERs, pupil-teacher ratios, % untrained teachers) and national wealth, (current and projected growth in GNP per capita and national resource allocation to education) circumscribe what is needed and what is financially sustainable. Thus, simply speaking,
Trinidad and Tobago has minor problems in matching supply and demand and can
34
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3 The MUSTER Project: Context and Emerging Issues h afford to do so. Ghana would need to train many more teachers if it were to raise its
l
primary GER and not see pupil-teacher ratios deteriorate. Malawi has very high teacher
m
attrition rates which create a large demand which, it appears, can only be satisfied by a
s
large scale, mixed-mode teacher education programme based in schools rather than
l
colleges for much of the training period. Lesotho trains small numbers of teachers at
m
relatively high costs which would be difficult to sustain if the current system were expanded to meet projected demand.
2.
Two of the countries (Lesotho and Trinidad and Tobago) have very small teacher education systems concentrated in one or two institutions. In principle this makes the
e
systems easier to research, and might make it easier to design and implement reforms to
n
improve quality. Ghana has a large system with considerable variation, and MUSTER
t
therefore could only research specific aspects in an illustrative way. The Malawi case
y
stands in the middle with a single system across 6 institutions, and a radically different
h
pattern of curriculum organisation.
l
3.
As systemic conditions have changed, so have the characteristics of those entering teacher training (Chapter 4 elaborates on this). The teaching profession no longer
,
enjoys the status it once had, salaries are relatively low, and conditions of service
h
perceived as poor. Young people apply to training colleges often as a last resort, lacking
e
the academic qualifications for university, and perhaps seeing it as a stepping stone to
y
other careers. Their characteristics, and the interaction between them and the training
n
process, are core concerns for the reform of teacher education systems. They are a
k
reminder of starting points for more effective training, building from the qualities,
s
perceptions and commitment of those available and willing to train as teachers. Once
m
training has been successfully completed NQTs acquire teaching jobs through a variety of mechanisms which range from being posted (Ghana, Malawi), to applying according to preference to schools or in response to advertised vacancies (Trinidad and Tobago).
In Lesotho much recruitment is through the Education Secretariats of the various churches. In all cases colleges appear to have little influence over the first appointment
a
and little systematic knowledge of where their graduates teach.
y
4.
Various changes, notably greatly increased enrolments in most of the countries as a result of Education for All commitments, and curriculum reform at school level to
d
develop improved materials and promote more effective teaching methods, have created
s
new challenges for teacher education. Teacher education curricula have been much
d
slower to change than school curricula. Key questions revolve around the structure and
d
content of the curricula, their appropriateness to new purposes and new audiences, and
)
the quality of their implementation. There are also questions about the relationships
,
between theory and practice, where and how practical skills are best developed, and
n
about the epistemological and professional theories that underpin the curricula.
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3 The MUSTER Project: Context and Emerging Issues
5.
College-based systems predominate across the MUSTER countries. History, both
4
colonial and post-colonial, has shaped the institutions that provide teacher education, leaving them poised somewhat anomalously between the secondary and higher
T
education sectors. These institutions have normative characteristics derived from their
p
past and mediated by established working practices. The college sector, often isolated
r
both professionally and geographically from other parts of the system, has been neglected, and teacher educators have generally not been recognised as a separate group
➢
in need of professional development. Practice has changed, or persisted, through
➢
interactions between piecemeal government policy initiatives, institutional traditions,
➢
and the qualities and motivation of teacher trainers.
4
6.
The content, quality and outcomes of teacher education are in significant part determined by the resources that can be mobilised. There are wide variations across the
A
countries in the levels of allocation to teacher education. Though some of the reasons
p
reflect underlying structural differences, others are not so easily explained. There may
•
be scope for increases in efficiency and effectiveness that make it easier to sustain teacher education systems which more closely approach satisfying demand for new teachers than is the case in several of the countries. Where demand greatly outstrips supply it may be
•
that more radical alternatives to conventional college-based programmes have to be
•
considered.
•
•
•
•
C
•
•
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Chapter Four h 4.0
4 Who Becomes a Primary Teacher?
Summary
, r This chapter presents data on the characteristics of trainee teachers, explores some of their
r
perceptions and aspirations, and provides some insights into their self-image and sense of
d
role identity. The main questions guiding these parts of the research were:
n p ➢ Who becomes a teacher and what are their academic qualifications?
h
➢ What do they bring in terms of images, expectations and experiences?
,
➢ How are these related to the cultural context?
4.0.1 Summary of findings
t e A survey of entering students across Ghana, Lesotho, Malawi and Trinidad and Tobago
s
produced the following picture:
y
•
Tobago all have taught for at least two years and are in their mid-twenties.
n e •
Primary trainees are predominantly male in Ghana and Malawi, and predominantly female in Lesotho and Trinidad and Tobago
e
D
In Ghana and Lesotho trainees are recruited soon after leaving high school, aged between 20-22; some may have taught for a year or two. In Malawi and Trinidad and
r
•
In all the sites most teachers claim affiliation to a Christian denomination; Muslims seem under-represented in Ghana and Malawi.
•
In multi-ethnic and multi-lingual societies, trainees come from different tribes speaking different mother-tongues, which may not match those of the children they teach.
•
Typically trainees have left school with relatively low academic grades, including poor achievement in English.
•
Family background data suggest that the majority are upwardly mobile, often being the first generation to enter post-secondary education. In Africa, many of the parents work outside the modern sector. A substantial minority, however, have parents and other family members who are teachers.
•
Their attitudes to teaching as revealed by Likert items vary somewhat with the country.
While no clear overall trends could be ascertained, some of the responses are out of line with college aims and expectations.
Complementary qualitative data suggest that:
•
Students have powerful memories of their own schooling. Positive aspects include academic success, sports and friendships, as well as teachers who helped them. Negative memories overwhelmingly focus on corporal punishment, to which they now have an ambivalent attitude.
•
Teachers are usually described in terms of personal characteristics, often using images of parent or counsellor, rather than in terms of cognitive or pedagogic skills.
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4 Who Becomes a Primary Teacher?
•
e
Studies in Trinidad and Tobago and Ghana indicate socio-cultural metaphors and myths
a
about the role of the teacher, which students may incorporate into their self-image.
4.1
(
being able to analyse clearly what made their methods successful.
•
Trainees are ready to model themselves on memories of their own teachers, without
5
F
Introduction and Overview
Any effective system of teacher education has to recognise and build on the characteristics and motivations that trainees bring to the profession when they enter training programmes.
Understanding what these characteristics are provides a basis for the development of curricula that address trainees’ needs and capabilities. It is also a reminder to teacher trainers that the backgrounds and aspirations of those entering training now may not be the same as in the past. Where this is so it invites consideration of how training content and methods should change to reflect new realities.
This chapter exemplifies how different methodological frameworks were used within
MUSTER. The questionnaires administered to entering students provided some systematic comparative data on age, sex, religion, ethnicity, prior experience, home background and academic achievement. The Likert items and open-ended sections of the questionnaires provided further insights to complement and deepen this information. Other methods semi-structured interviews, focus groups and autobiographical essays – were used to try to understand some of the ways in which early experiences of schooling might influence the ways trainees perceived themselves as teachers. The more qualitative studies were designed and implemented in different ways by the different researchers, and the interpretations were site-specific, the intention being to gain insights rather than draw comparisons. Chapter 2 has given more details of the methods and samples used.
The Chapter is organised in four parts. First, the characteristics of trainee teachers in four countries are outlined from the survey data. Second, the perceptions of trainees of teaching and the teaching profession are discussed using data from Likert items in the Entry questionnaire. Third, insights are drawn from qualitative data to illuminate some of the experiences and images of schools and teaching students bring to their training. The last section attempts to bring together insights from all the data sets to point up the implications
O
for policy and action.
L
T
4.2
Characteristics of the Student Teachers Entering College
A
t
4.2.1 Age
r
The average age of entrants to teacher education in the samples vary. Ghana (21 years) and
h
Lesotho (22.2 years) have the youngest entrants; Malawi (25.9) and Trinidad and Tobago
a
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4 Who Becomes a Primary Teacher? t (26.1) have the oldest. The most obvious explanation for this is that in the former cases most entrants are admitted directly from the school secondary system. In the latter most entrants
s
acquire teaching experience as untrained teachers before being accepted for training. Figure
5 and Table 1 show the age profiles.
Figure 5: Age profiles of teacher trainees by country
s
60
200
. f 50
150
40
s s 30
100
s
20
50
10
n
0
18.0
20.0
22.0
24.0
Ghana
c
26.0
28.0
30.0
0
d
17.5 20.0 22.5 25.0 27.5 30.0 32.5 35.0 37.5 40.0
Lesotho
Std Dev = 2.06
Mean =21.0
N = 390.00
Std Dev = 3.23
Mean =22.2
N = 88.00
s o 70
120
60
e d 100
50
40
80
e
60
30
2
40
20
20
10
r
0
22.0
24.0
Malawi
g y 26.0
28.0
30.0
32.0
34.0
36.0
Std Dev = 2.50
Mean =25.9
N = 172.00
0
22.0 24.0 26.0 28.0 30.0 32.0 34.0 36.0 38.0 40.0 42.0
Trinidad
& Tobago
Std Dev = 3.79
Mean =26.2
N = 277.00
e t s
Overall between 70% and 75% of teachers are between 19 and 22 years old in Ghana and
Lesotho, and the same proportions are between 23 and 27 years in Malawi and Trinidad and
Tobago.
Age may be significant for training in a number of ways. First, older trainees are more likely to likely to have some formal or informal experience of teaching, whether or not this is required for entry. Second, they are more likely to be married, or marry during training and
d
have direct or indirect experience of child-raising. Third, older trainees are more obviously
o
adult learners rather than young students arriving directly from school. Fourth, older
D
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4 Who Becomes a Primary Teacher? trainees may be more fixed in their views about teaching and teachers, and clearer about
4
their commitment to teaching as a career.
S p T
4.2.2 Gender
v
The proportion of male and female student teachers in the samples in each country is shown in Table 1. Over two-thirds of the student teachers surveyed were female in both Lesotho
T
(71%) and Trinidad and Tobago (67%). The reverse was the case in Ghana, where only one-
t
third of the student teachers were female. These figures are broadly in line with national
u
totals. The Malawi sample also had a very high proportion of female student teachers (84%),
l
but this was due to the inclusion of an all-female college; overall only 28% of MIITEP trainees have been women. Worldwide, the trend has been for primary teaching to become
4
largely feminised; it is interesting that in Ghana and Malawi this has not yet happened.
I
Table 1: Characteristics of student teacher samples in the four countries.
Country
Ghana
Male (%)
Female (%)
Total
Mean Age
w
Std Dev
e
265 (66.25)
135 (33.75)
400
21
2.06
g
Lesotho
26 (28.9)
64 (71.1)
90
22.2
3.23
(
Malawi
29 (16.5)
147 (67.2)
176
25.9
2.5
g
Trinidad
98 (32.8)
201 (63.6)
299
26.2
3.8
A r 4.2.3 Religious Affiliation
A
All the teacher education systems have been influenced by institutions originally established
e
by Christian denominations. Religious affiliation plays an important role in defining identity
c
in each country. In Ghana some colleges, particularly the most prestigious ones like
t
Presbyterian Training College and Wesley, retain strong religious affiliations, though the
o
system of 38 colleges is formally under the control of the Ministry of Education. Religiously-
G
based training colleges were amalgamated into a single secular institution in Lesotho in
l
1975. Two of the six colleges in Malawi remain affiliated to the Catholic church, though
p
formal control over the Colleges was taken by the government in 1973. In Trinidad and
c
Tobago most of the denominational institutions closed from the 1960s onward, while the government established Corinth and Valsayn Colleges on a secular basis.
T
C
The religious affiliation of Ghanaian student teachers in the sample was predominately
a
Christian with 36% Catholic, 16% Methodist, 15% other named denominations and 24%
C
who just classified themselves as ‘Christian’. Muslims accounted for 4% of the student
h
teachers, significantly less than their percentage of the population, perhaps reflecting the fact
G
that colleges in the sample were selected from the predominantly Christian South. In
d
Lesotho, the majority of Basotho student teachers were either Catholic (37%) or Lesotho
y
Evangelical Church (33%). About 16% were Anglican and a further 14% ‘other’. In Malawi
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4 Who Becomes a Primary Teacher? t 41% were members of the Church of Central Africa and 29% were Catholic. About 15% were
Seventh Day Adventists, and 3% Muslim. Again this is significantly less than the national proportion of Muslims, which may reflect different attitudes to education. In Trinidad and
Tobago 22% were Catholic, 19% Hindu, 16% Presbyterian, and 30% were distributed across various other Christian denominations; 6% were Muslim.
n o The religious affiliation of student teachers, and the denominational history of many of the
-
training institutions, carries implications for the training process. These are not simple to
l
unravel, but are likely to have some influence on student teachers’ attitudes towards
,
learning, and their role as teachers.
P e 4.2.4 Ethnic Group or Tribe and Language Spoken at Home
In three of the countries ethnic group is a signifier of difference. The exception is Lesotho which is ethnically (Basotho) and linguistically (Sesotho) homogenous. Ghana is the most ethnically diverse of the countries with 26 groups represented in the sample. The largest groups in the sample were Ashanti (51%), Fante (11%) and other Akan-speaking groups
(12%). The remaining 26% were distributed relatively evenly across the 20 other ethnic groups. The language spoken at home in the Ghanaian sample was predominately one of the
Akan languages. Twi accounted for 47%, other Akan languages 22%, and Fante 15%. The remaining 16% were distributed across 21 other languages.
Akyeampong and Furlong (2000) draw attention to the significance of language in teacher d education. They note that the first language spoken is not a criterion for admission and no
y
consideration is given to the native language of students during posting. Trained primary
e
teachers are expected to use the local language of pupils in grade 1 to 3. The great majority
e
of students sampled speak the Akan family of languages. However, there are four regions in
-
Ghana (and other areas within regions) where the vast majority of grade 1-3 pupils speak
n
little Akan (Volta, Northern Upper West and Upper East regions). If Akan speakers are
h
posted to these areas they will have to use English as a medium of instruction in
d
contradiction to the language policy of Ghana Education Service.
e
The student teachers in Malawi belonged to one of 9 tribes. The greatest numbers were
Chewa (28%), Ngoni (27%), Lomwe (22%), and the Tumbuka (18%). The language spoken y at home was predominately Chichewa (83%) even though only 28% of student teachers are
Chewa. The majority of Lomwe and Ngoni student teachers appear to speak Chichewa at
t
home. Chichewa and English are the two languages used in the school curriculum. As in
t
Ghana, there is an issue about the posting of teachers to areas which speak a language
n
different to the mother tongue of student teachers, since the policy is that the first three
o
years of primary should be taught in the mother tongue of pupils.
i
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4 Who Becomes a Primary Teacher?
Trinidad and Tobago classifies its population into one of five groupings, each of which has
A
much diversity. The majority of students in the sample were East Indian (56%), African
A
(24%), or mixed (17%). The school system is in English and all students are required to speak
C
it, though they may speak an English Creole at home.
q a 4.2.5 Home Background
p
The cultural capital that new entrants to teaching bring with them to the teaching profession
I
is broadly influenced by home background and the educational attainment of parents. There
t
is a wide range in the occupations14 given for the fathers of Ghanaian student teachers. The
o
majority indicated that their father was a teacher (21%), a farmer (18%), or a trader (14%).
c
The other most frequently mentioned occupations were civil servant, accountant, driver, and
f
minister in the Church. The range of occupations given for mothers was smaller. The largest
e
numbers of those responding (52%) indicated that their mother was a trader. About 14% of
6
mothers were teachers, and 13% farmers. The remaining 21% of respondents indicated that their mothers were nurses, seamstresses, housewives, and secretaries.
A q About 40% of the Ghanaian student teachers claimed their fathers had a post-secondary
l
qualification, of which 15% had degree level qualifications; and 21% said their fathers had a
h
secondary secondary school certificate (O or A Level). This compares to only about 10% of
s
the population who have similar qualifications. Most of the remainder had some secondary
n
schooling, and a small minority had only completed primary schooling or less. In contrast, only 24% of their mothers had a post-secondary qualification, and fewer than 2% were
I
graduates. About 13% had a secondary school certificate; about 35% had some secondary
w
schooling. The remainder had primary schooling or less. It is reasonable to conclude that
A
many beginning student teachers come from families with relatively well-educated parents,
m
though a significant minority do not.
a
w
In Lesotho half of the student teachers did not respond to the question about their father’s
h
occupation and one-third did not respond concerning their mother’s occupation15. The
t
fathers of the other student teachers were farmers (21%), miners (9%), and civil servants
(3%). Smaller proportions were teachers, drivers, skilled or unskilled workers and a few were
A
listed as not working. The most frequently mentioned occupation for mothers was either
o
housewife (21%) or teacher (18%). The remaining third were fairly evenly distributed across
p
a range of other occupations: hawkers, shopkeepers, civil servants, business people,
t
secretaries and farmers.
T
T
Occupational classification was problematic in all countries – labour markets and terminology differ and respondents may not be consistent in the use of particular categories. The data reported reflect judgements made in consultation with principal researchers based on answers to open ended questions.
15
An unknown combination of unwillingness to respond, and lack of knowledge of their father or his occupation, possibly related to historically high rates of male migration to work in South Africa.
14
42
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4 Who Becomes a Primary Teacher? s About 3% of the fathers of the Basotho student teachers had a degree level qualification.
n
About 17% had fathers with a Cambridge Overseas School Certificate (COSC) or a Junior
k
Certificate, a quarter had a primary leaving certificate and under a quarter had no qualifications. More of the mothers than fathers were qualified above secondary school level, although none of the mothers had a university degree. Over a third of the mothers had a primary leaving certificate, and 17% had no qualifications.
n
In Malawi about 19% did not respond to the questions about parental occupation. A further
e
third of the student teachers indicated that their father was a farmer (38%), a teacher (12%),
e
or a businessperson (10%). Others were clerical workers, drivers, field health assistants,
.
church ministers, clinical officers, nurse, engineers, a tailor, and a carpenter. There were
d
fewer occupations listed for the mothers than the fathers. The majority of their mothers were
t
either farmers (33%) or housewives (30%). About 6% had mothers who were teachers and
f
6% businesspersons.
t
About 11% of the fathers of the Malawian student teachers had a higher education qualification. Nearly a third had a secondary school certificate and a quarter had a primary y leaving certificate. A further 21% did not have any qualifications. Very few of the mothers
a
had a higher education qualification, and far fewer mothers than fathers had a secondary
f
school certificate. Over a third of the mothers had a primary leaving certificate and 39% had
y
no educational qualifications.
, e In Trinidad and Tobago the occupations of the fathers and mothers of the student teachers
y
were broadly categorised and ranged from higher professional to unskilled persons.
t
Approximately 16% did not respond to the question about their parents’ occupations. The
,
majority of the fathers were lower professional and managerial (15%), skilled workers (24%), and semi-skilled workers (12%). The remainder were fairly evenly distributed between those who were unskilled workers, unemployed, retired or deceased. Half of the mothers were
s
housepersons. A further 14% were lower professional or managerial (this category included
e
teachers), and a few were skilled, unskilled, retired, unemployed, or deceased.
s e A sixth of the fathers and the mothers had a higher education qualification. Just over a third
r
of the fathers and slightly more of the mothers had CXC/GCE16, a further sixth of both
s
parents of the student teachers had a primary school-leaving certificate, but more fathers
,
than mothers had no qualifications. About 15% of the student teachers in Trinidad and
Tobago did not respond to the question about their parents’ educational qualifications.
Thus the data suggests that about half of parents have no more than primary education in
Lesotho and Malawi. Ghana, and Trinidad and Tobago have higher proportions with secondary and above. The gender differences are consistent with known patterns of male
y
D
16
Caribbean Examinations Council certificate, equivalent to former General Certificate of Education at Ordinary Level
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4 Who Becomes a Primary Teacher? and female educational achievement in these countries. Table 2 summarises the educational
I
qualifications of student teachers’ parents in the four countries.
r f Table 2: Educational qualifications of parents of student teachers
Father %
h
w
Mother %
Ghana Lesotho Malawi Trinidad Ghana Lesotho Malawi Trinidad and and
Tobago
Tobago
Post Secondary
40.117
6.6
11.4
16.1
23.8
15.6
1.7
16.1
Secondary School
47.6
16.7
31.8
35.5
48.8
18.9
9.7
40.1
Primary
3.0
25.6
24.4
16.4
7.5
36.7
38.6
15.1
None
8.0
22.2
20.5
16.1
18.0
16.7
39.2
12.0
No Response
2.0
28.9
11.9
16.0
2.0
12.1
10.8
16.7
s t B s a a t i c
It is clearly difficult to draw simple conclusions from these patterns. However, we can note
g
that in Ghana, Malawi and Lesotho large proportions of student trainees originate from
s
families where fathers and mothers are working in livelihoods outside the modern sector of
t
regular wage employment. The largest proportions of those who are in the modern sector
t
are usually in teaching (Table 3). In Lesotho mothers are in general better educated, and many are teachers, reflecting patterns of male employment and migration associated with the
T
mining industry. In Trinidad and Tobago much higher proportions are in skilled wage
t
employment than in the other countries, reflecting the different structure of the economy.
m t w
Table 3: Percentage of student teachers whose father/mother is a teacher
Country
% Father
Ghana
20.8
14
Lesotho
2.2
17.8
Malawi
11.9
6.3
n.a
g
% Mother
n.a.
Trinidad
M
T
t t 4.2.6 Educational Qualifications of Student Teachers
4
It is difficult to present the diversity of the educational experience and qualifications of the
T
student teachers in the four different countries. The examinations in the different countries
t
are often not equivalent and the levels of attainment differ across the sites. However it is
e
possible to make some general statements about the educational qualifications of the student teachers on entry.
1
1
2
These apparently high proportions result from the Ghanaian sample responding in terms of any post – O level secondary qualification including ‘A’ level, whereas the other samples responded in terms of further and higher education.
17
44
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4 Who Becomes a Primary Teacher? l In Ghana the majority of student teachers only achieved an E grade in SSCE18 English, representing a bare pass. About 40% achieved a grade above E in GCE19 or SSCE. The results for mathematics were slightly more varied than the results for English, but again the majority had low grades for either SSCE or GCE. The range of grades for science examination results was greater than for English or mathematics. Some (9%) student teachers did not have a
d
science qualification, and others had low grades i.e. F or 9. In Lesotho, none of the student teachers achieved an A grade at COSC20 in any of three core subject areas, and few received
B or C grades. Most achieved E grades or lower (62% in English, 66% in maths, and 39% in science). Most of the student teachers in Malawi had passed their English and mathematics at JCE21 but very few (less than a third) had taken MSCE22 in English and out of these only a quarter had gained a grade 6 or higher. Approximately a fifth of the Malawian student teachers had taken mathematics and science MSCE, with a sixth in mathematics and a third in science gaining a grade 6 or higher. No student teacher in the Trinidad and Tobago cohort achieved less than a grade 3 in English CXC, with the majority achieving either a
e
grade 1 or 2. The pattern of results was similar for grades achieved in mathematics and
m
science. A third of the student teachers also had A-level qualifications. Overall, the student
f
teachers in Trinidad had substantially higher educational qualifications than the student
r
teachers in the other three countries.
d e There was very little difference between the achievement of the male and female student
e
teachers in Trinidad. In Ghana, the women had achieved similar results in English, whilst the men achieved better results in mathematics and science. The male and female student teachers in Lesotho achieved similar results in English at COSC, but men did better than women in both mathematics and science at this level. A similar pattern was found in the grades achieved by the Malawian trainees, with men having higher grades than women at
MSCE.
The overall picture is that most trainee teachers achieved relatively low results at the end of their secondary school career, leaving them underqualified for higher education. Teacher training colleges, it seems, take the next tranche down from the universities.
4.2.7 School Experience of the Student Teachers
e
The training programmes are for serving teachers in Trinidad and Tobago and Malawi so all
s
the respondents had taught before. In contrast, in Lesotho and Ghana few had any teaching
s
experience and were direct entrants from schools (Table 4).
t
Senior School Certificate of Education
General Certificate of Education, regarded as equivalent to SSCE
20
Cambridge Overseas School Certificate
21
Junior School Certificate after two years secondary. Over 80% of all candidates pass this examination.
22
Malawi School Certificate of Education
18
19
.
D
DFID
45
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Synthesis Report - Researching Teacher Education: New Perspectives on Practice,
Performance and Policy
4 Who Becomes a Primary Teacher?
C
Table 4: Teaching experience of student teachers for each country
Country
Ghana
Never Taught
Less than one year
Between
Between
More than
1 and 2 years 2 and 3 years three years
77.5%
14.4%
6.5%
1%
Lesotho
70%
16%
11.6%
2%
/
Malawi
1.7%
/
18.2%
15%
66.5%
Trinidad
/
< 1%
< 1%
60%
39%
1
< 1%
2
3
These profiles highlight radical differences in the experiential base that student teachers
4
bring to training. Though in all cases the trainees are on initial training courses leading to a
5
first professional qualification, in Malawi and Trinidad and Tobago most are experienced but untrained teachers. Other MUSTER studies (e.g. Quamina-Aiyejina et al, 1999; Stuart and
6
Kunje, 2000; Stuart, 1999) indicate that recognition of prior experience is not a prominent
7
feature of course design, and is often not recognised in the structuring of college-based
8
work. Nor is it used systematically as a criterion for selection, except in the sense of requiring
9
a minimum period as an untrained teacher which is not assessed.
1
1
This section has given an overview of some of the characteristics of those currently in training in four of the MUSTER countries. It draws attention both to what these are and to
F
some of the similarities and differences found between the groups in different countries.
s
These provide a reminder for subsequent discussions and analysis that contexts do differ, and
t
that the age, gender, religious affiliation, home background, prior educational qualification,
m
and amount of teaching experience of new trainees vary widely. These characteristics are
d
often very different from those manifested by trainee teachers in the UK and USA, where
A
much of the theorising and advice on teacher education reform in anglophone countries
d
originates.
r o 4.3
d
Trainees’ Perceptions of Teaching and the Teaching Profession.
b
The student teachers’ responses to statements about teaching and the teaching profession
c
add another dimension to the biographical information that the students have supplied. The responses give some insight into the attitudes that these trainee teachers bring with them when they enter training. This data is illustrative of how the particular samples responded.
Eleven statements were identified which were common across the four country surveys.
These are listed below along with their abbreviations.
2
t
2
2
a p a i 2
2
h t p i 46
DFID
23878 DFID Book 49 Synthesis 1/5/03 12:28 pm Page 87
Synthesis Report - Researching Teacher Education: New Perspectives on Practice,
Performance and Policy
4 Who Becomes a Primary Teacher?
Common Statements23 Across Country Samples – Entry Questionnaires
1. The most important thing a teacher can do is teach pupils facts that they need to know
(Facts)
2. School pupils learn more from listening to the teacher than from asking questions
(Listen)
3. Teachers cannot do much to improve the academic performance of low achieving students (Slow lrn) s 4. Children need to be divided into ability groups to be taught well (Grouping)
a
5. Primary pupils cannot understand English so teachers have to use another language most of the time (Lang)
t d 6. Corporal punishment should be available in schools (Punish)
t
7. Teachers are born not made (Tchrs born)
d
8. My friends think I am fortunate to be training to be a school teacher (Fortune)
g
9. Teaching is a very difficult job to do well (Difficult)
10. I would rather teach in a secondary school than a primary school (Pref Sec)
11. I would rather have gone to University than Teacher Training College (Pref Uni)
n o Figure 6 shows the means for responses to these common statements24. For all the
.
statements there was an opportunity for the trainees to indicate on a Likert26 scale whether
d
they strongly agreed (1), agreed (2), disagreed (3) or strongly disagreed (4). In Figure 6
,
mean scores can very between 1 (everyone strongly agreeing) to 4 ( everyone strongly
e
disagreeing). The mid-point mean score is therefore 2.5 (as many agreeing as disagreeing27).
e
A non-parametric (Kruskall Wallis) test was used to find out whether there was a significant
s
difference in the trainees’ responses to the statements between the four countries. The results were significant for all eleven statements at the p
RESEARCHING TEACHER EDUCATION:
NEW PERSPECTIVES ON PRACTICE,
PERFORMANCE AND POLICY
Multi-Site Teacher Education
Research Project (MUSTER)
Synthesis Report
Keith M Lewin and Janet S Stuart
March 2003
23878 DFID Book 49 Synthesis 1/5/03 12:28 pm Page 2
Synthesis Report - Researching Teacher Education: New Perspectives on Practice,
Performance and Policy
Educational Papers
Department for International Development: Educational Papers
N
This is one of a series of Education Papers issued by the Policy Division of the Department
For International Development. Each paper represents a study or piece of commissioned research on some aspects of education and training in developing countries. Most of the studies were undertaken in order to provide informed judgements from which policy decisions could be drawn, but in each case it has become apparent that the material produced would be of interest to a wider audience, particularly those whose work focuses
N
on developing countries.
Each paper is numbered serially, and further copies can be obtained through DFID
Education Publication Despatch, PO Box 190, Sevenoaks, TN14 5EL, UK – subject to
N
availability. A full list appears overleaf.
Although these papers are issued by DFID, the views expressed in them are entirely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent DFID’s own policies or views. Any discussion of their content should therefore be addressed to the authors and not to DFID.
N
N
Address for Correspondence
Centre for International Education
University of Sussex Institute of Education,
Falmer,
Brighton,
Sussex
BN1 9RG _ UK
T
+44 +1273 678464
E
cie@sussex.ac.uk
F
+44 +1273 678568
W www.sussex.ac.uk/usie/cie
© Keith M Lewin and Janet S Stuart
March 2003
DFID
N
23878 DFID Book 49 Synthesis 1/5/03 12:28 pm Page 3
Synthesis Report - Researching Teacher Education: New Perspectives on Practice,
Performance and Policy
Educational Papers
No.1
t d e y l s SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS IN
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES:
A SUMMARY OF THE
RESEARCH EVIDENCE.
D Pennycuick (1993)
ISBN: 0 90250 061 9
No. 2 EDUCATIONAL COST-BENEFIT
ANALYSIS.
J Hough (1993)
ISBN: 0 90250 062 7
D o f n No.3
REDUCING THE COST OF
TECHNICAL AND
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION.
L Gray, M Fletcher, P Foster, M King,
A M Warrender (1993)
ISBN: 0 90250 063 5
No. 4 REPORT ON READING
ENGLISH IN PRIMARY
SCHOOLS IN MALAWI.
E Williams (1993) Out of Print –
Available on CD-Rom and
DFID website
No. 7 PLANNING AND FINANCING
SUSTAINABLE EDUCATION
SYSTEMS IN SUB-SAHARAN
AFRICA.
P Penrose (1993)
ISBN: 0 90250 067 8
No. 8 Not allocated
No. 9 FACTORS AFFECTING
FEMALE PARTICIPATION
IN EDUCATION IN SEVEN
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES.
C Brock, N Cammish (1991)
(revised 1997).
ISBN: 1 86192 065 2
No.10 USING LITERACY: A NEW
APPROACH TO POSTLITERACY METHODS.
A Rogers (1994) Out of Print –
Available on CD-ROM and
DFID website. Updated and reissued on No 29.
No.11 EDUCATION AND TRAINING
No. 5 REPORT ON READING
ENGLISH IN PRIMARY
SCHOOLS IN ZAMBIA.
E Williams (1993) Out of Print –
Available on CD-Rom and
DFID website
FOR THE INFORMAL
SECTOR.
K King, S McGrath, F Leach,
R Carr-Hill (1994)
ISBN: 1 86192 090 3
No.12 MULTI-GRADE TEACHING:
See also No. 24, which updates and synthesises No.’s 4 and 5.
No. 6 EDUCATION AND
A REVIEW OF RESEARCH
AND PRACTICE.
A Little (1995)
ISBN: 0 90250 058 9
DEVELOPMENT: THE ISSUES
AND THE EVIDENCE.
K Lewin (1993)
ISBN: 0 90250 066 X
DFID
23878 DFID Book 49 Synthesis 1/5/03 12:28 pm Page 4
Synthesis Report - Researching Teacher Education: New Perspectives on Practice,
Performance and Policy
Educational Papers
No.13 DISTANCE EDUCATION IN
ENGINEERING FOR
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES.
T Bilham, R Gilmour (1995)
Out of Print – Available on CD-ROM and DFID website.
No.19 GENDER, EDUCATION AND
DEVELOPMENT - A PARTIALLY
ANNOTATED AND SELECTIVE
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
C Brock, N Cammish (1997)
Out of Print – Available on CD-ROM and DFID website.
N
N
No.14 HEALTH & HIV/AIDS
EDUCATION IN PRIMARY &
SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN
AFRICA & ASIA.
E Barnett, K de Koning,
V Francis (1995)
ISBN: 0 90250 069 4
No.15 LABOUR MARKET SIGNALS
& INDICATORS.
L Gray, AM Warrender, P Davies,
G Hurley, C Manton (1995) Out of
Print – Available on CD-ROM and DFID website.
No.20 CONTEXTUALISING
TEACHING AND LEARNING
IN RURAL PRIMARY
SCHOOLS USING
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIENCE.
P Taylor, A Mulhall (Vols 1 & 2)
(1997) Vol 1 ISBN: 1 861920 45 8
Vol 2 ISBN: 1 86192 050 4
N
N
No.21 GENDER AND SCHOOL
ACHIEVEMENT IN THE
CARIBBEAN.
P Kutnick, V Jules, A Layne (1997)
ISBN: 1 86192 080 6
No.16 IN-SERVICE SUPPORT FOR A
TECHNOLOGICAL APPROACH
TO SCIENCE EDUCATION.
F Lubben, R Campbell,
B Dlamini (1995)
ISBN: 0 90250 071 6
No.17 ACTION RESEARCH REPORT
ON “REFLECT” METHOD OF
TEACHING LITERACY.
D Archer, S Cottingham (1996)
ISBN: 0 90250 072 4
No.18 THE EDUCATION AND
TRAINING OF ARTISANS FOR
THE INFORMAL SECTOR IN
TANZANIA.
D Kent, P Mushi (1996)
ISBN: 0 90250 074 0
DFID
No.22 SCHOOL-BASED
UNDERSTANDING OF
HUMAN RIGHTS IN FOUR
COUNTRIES: A
COMMONWEALTH STUDY.
R Bourne, J Gundara, A Dev,
N Ratsoma, M Rukanda, A Smith,
U Birthistle (1997)
ISBN: 1 86192 095 4
N
N
No.23 GIRLS AND BASIC EDUCATION:
A CULTURAL ENQUIRY.
D Stephens (1998)
ISBN: 1 86192 036 9
N
No.24 INVESTIGATING BILINGUAL
LITERACY: EVIDENCE FROM
MALAWI AND ZAMBIA.
E Williams (1998)
ISBN: 1 86192 041 5No.25
23878 DFID Book 49 Synthesis 1/5/03 12:28 pm Page 5
Synthesis Report - Researching Teacher Education: New Perspectives on Practice,
Performance and Policy
Educational Papers
No.25 PROMOTING GIRLS’
Y
E
EDUCATION IN AFRICA.
N Swainson, S Bendera, R Gordon,
E Kadzamira (1998)
ISBN: 1 86192 046 6
No.32 SECTOR WIDE APPROACHES
TO EDUCATION.
M Ratcliffe, M Macrae (1999)
ISBN: 1 86192 131 4
No.33 DISTANCE EDUCATION
M
No.26 GETTING BOOKS TO SCHOOL
PUPILS IN AFRICA.
D Rosenberg, W Amaral, C Odini,
T Radebe, A Sidibé (1998)
ISBN: 1 86192 051 2
PRACTICE: TRAINING &
REWARDING AUTHORS.
H Perraton, C Creed (1999)
ISBN: 1 86192 136 5
No.34 THE EFFECTIVENESS OF
.
No.27 COST SHARING IN EDUCATION.
P Penrose (1998)
ISBN: 1 86192 056 3
TEACHER RESOURCE
CENTRE STRATEGY.
Ed. G Knamiller, G Fairhurst (1999)
ISBN: 1 86192 141 1
No.28 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
AND TRAINING IN TANZANIA
AND ZIMBABWE IN THE
CONTEXT OF ECONOMIC
REFORM.
P Bennell (1999)
ISBN: 1 86192 061 X
No.35 EVALUATING IMPACTS (OF
EDUCATION PROJECTS &
PROGRAMMES).
Ed. V McKay, C Treffgarne (1999)
ISBN: 1 86192 191 8
No.36 AFRICAN JOURNALS –
No.29 RE-DEFINING POST- LITERACY
IN A CHANGING WORLD.
A Rogers, B Maddox, J Millican,
K Newell Jones, U Papen,
A Robinson-Pant (1999)
ISBN: 1 86192 069 5
No.30 IN SERVICE FOR TEACHER
DEVELOPMENT IN SUBSAHARAN AFRICA.
M Monk (1999)
ISBN: 1 86192 074 1
A SURVEY OF THEIR
USAGE IN AFRICAN
UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES.
A Alemna, V Chifwepa,
D Rosenberg (1999)
ISBN: 1 86192 157 8
No.37 MONITORING THE
PERFORMANCE OF
EDUCATIONAL
PROGRAMMES IN
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES.
R Carr-Hill, M Hopkins, A Riddell,
No.31 PRODUCTION OF LOCALLY
GENERATED TRAINING
MATERIALS.
I Carter (1999)
ISBN: 1 86192 079 2
J Lintott (1999)
ISBN: 1 86192 224 8No.38
DFID
23878 DFID Book 49 Synthesis 1/5/03 12:28 pm Page 6
Synthesis Report - Researching Teacher Education: New Perspectives on Practice,
Performance and Policy
Educational Papers
No.38 TOWARDS RESPONSIVE
SCHOOLS – SUPPORTING
BETTER SCHOOLING FOR
DISADVANTAGED CHILDREN
(case studies from Save the Children).
M Molteno, K Ogadhoh, E Cain,
B Crumpton (2000)
ISBN: to be confirmed
No.39 PRELIMINARY
INVESTIGATION OF THE
ABUSE OF GIRLS IN
ZIMBABWEAN JUNIOR
SECONDARY SCHOOLS.
F Leach, P Machankanja with
J Mandoga (2000)
ISBN: 1 86192 279 5
No.40 THE IMPACT OF TRAINING
ON WOMEN’S MICROENTERPRISE DEVELOPMENT
F Leach, S Abdulla, H Appleton,
J el-Bushra, N Cardenas, K Kebede,
V Lewis, S Sitaram (2000)
ISBN: 1 86192 284 1
No.41 THE QUALITY OF LEARNING
AND TEACHING IN
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES:
ASSESSING LITERACY AND
NUMERACY IN MALAWI AND
SRI LANKA.
D Johnson, J Hayter,
P Broadfoot (2000)
ISBN: 1 86192 313 9
No.42 LEARNING TO COMPETE:
EDUCATION, TRAINING &
ENTERPRISE IN GHANA,
KENYA & SOUTH AFRICA.
D Afenyadu, K King, S McGrath,
H Oketch, C Rogerson, K Visser (1999)
ISBN: 1 86192 314 7
No.43 COMPUTERS IN SECONDARY
N
SCHOOLS IN DEVELOPING
COUNTRIES: COSTS AND
OTHER ISSUES.
A Cawthera (2001)
ISBN 1 86192 418 6
No.44 THE IMPACT OF HIV/AIDS ON
THE UNIVERSITY OF
BOTSWANA: DEVELOPING A
COMPREHENSIVE
STRATEGIC RESPONSE.
B Chilisa, P Bennell, K Hyde (2001)
ISBN: 1 86192 467 4
N c No.45 THE IMPACT OF HIV/AIDS ON
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY
EDUCATION IN BOTSWANA:
DEVELOPING A
COMPREHENSIVE
STRATEGIC RESPONSE.
P Bennell, B Chilisa, K Hyde,
A Makgothi, E Molobe,
L Mpotokwane (2001)
ISBN: 1 86192 468 2
No.46 EDUCATION FOR ALL:
POLICY AND PLANNING LESSONS FROM SRI LANKA.
A Little (2003)
ISBN: 1 86192 552 0
No.47 REACHING THE POOR -
THE COSTS OF SENDING
CHILDREN TO SCHOOL
S Boyle, A Brock, J Mace,
M Sibbons (2003)
ISBN: 1 86192 361 9
A
D
DFID
N
23878 DFID Book 49 Synthesis 1/5/03 12:28 pm Page 7
Synthesis Report - Researching Teacher Education: New Perspectives on Practice,
Performance and Policy
Educational Papers
No.48 CHILD LABOUR AND ITS
IMPACT ON CHILDREN’S
ACCESS TO AND
PARTICIPATION IN PRIMARY
EDUCATION - A CASE STUDY
FROM TANZANIA by H.A Dachi and R.M Garrett
(2003)
ISBN: 1 86192 536 0
Other DFID Educational Studies Also Available:
REDRESSING GENDER INEQUALITIES IN
EDUCATION. N Swainson (1995)
FACTORS AFFECTING GIRLS’ ACCESS TO
SCHOOLING IN NIGER. S Wynd (1995)
EDUCATION FOR RECONSTRUCTION.
D Phillips, N Arnhold, J Bekker, N Kersh,
E McLeish (1996)
NOW AVAILABLE – CD-ROM containing full texts of Papers 1-42
AFRICAN JOURNAL DISTRIBUTION
PROGRAMME: EVALUATION OF 1994 PILOT
PROJECT. D Rosenberg (1996)
TEACHER JOB SATISFACTION IN
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES. R Garrett (1999)
A MODEL OF BEST PRACTICE AT LORETO
DAY SCHOOL, SEALDAH, CALCUTTA.
T Jessop (1998)
LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES FOR ALL.
DFID Policy Paper (1999)
THE CHALLENGE OF UNIVERSAL
PRIMARY EDUCATION.
DFID Target Strategy Paper (2001)
CHILDREN OUT OF SCHOOL.
DFID Issues Paper (2001)
All publications are available free of charge from DFID Education Publications
Despatch, PO Box 190, Sevenoaks, TN14 5EL, or by email from dfidpubs@eclogistics.co.uk
DFID
23878 DFID Book 49 Synthesis 1/5/03 12:28 pm Page 8
Synthesis Report - Researching Teacher Education: New Perspectives on Practice,
Performance and Policy
Foreword: The Multi-Site Teacher Education Research Project
This Research Report synthesises the findings from a four-year programme of research on
M
Teacher Education supported by DFID. It is focused on insights from Ghana, Lesotho,
a
Malawi, and Trinidad and Tobago. The research in South Africa is presented in a separate
E
book.
p t The research was co-ordinated from the Centre for International Education at the
c
University of Sussex. Participative workshops were used at different times in the project to
a
develop the framework for the research, design data collection and analysis methods, and
i
consolidate research findings into a range of publications. Principal Researchers were identified in each country who convened country research teams to undertake the research.
B
This created ownership, grounded research activity in national contexts, and contributed to
t
building future research capacity.
a b The dissemination of research insights from MUSTER is taking many forms. Thirty
f
Discussion Papers have now been produced and are available from the MUSTER Website
j
(http://www.sussex.ac.uk/usie/muster). These include country baseline studies, along with many analytic sub-studies by research team members. A special double issue of the
T
International Journal of Educational and Development containing 13 articles has been published (May 2002). Contributions have also been made to a special edition of the
M
International Journal of Educational Research on Teacher Education. Other outputs include
o
a book on Changing Patterns of Teacher Education in South Africa: Policy, Practice and
w
Prospects; a collection of Teacher Educators’ Resource Materials developed from MUSTER
R
research; various locally published research reports, and individually published articles in different academic journals. Five national workshops have been organised for policy makers
•
and practitioners to disseminate findings directly to communities of stakeholders in each
•
country. MUSTER research has also been presented at various international conferences
•
including the Oxford Conference and the U.S. Comparative and International Education
•
Society. Four country reports (Ghana, Lesotho, Malawi and Trinidad and Tobago) are being
•
published as DFID Research Reports. A CD-ROM will be made available of the major
MUSTER publications.
F
s
Keith Lewin and Janet Stuart
P
S
a t D
O i A
i
DFID
23878 DFID Book 49 Synthesis 1/5/03 12:28 pm Page 9
Synthesis Report - Researching Teacher Education: New Perspectives on Practice,
Performance and Policy
Acknowledgements n MUSTER has depended on the collaborative endeavours of a large number of researchers
,
and the co-operation of many teacher educators, teacher education students, Ministries of
e
Education, and training institutions. To all these actors we express our gratitude. Most particularly the research has relied centrally on the efforts, insights, skills, and persistence of the research teams and the Principal Researchers, often working under difficult
e
circumstances with many competing pressures on their time. The range of research products
o
and their quality is testimony to the immense amount of work and goodwill that all those
d
involved have committed to MUSTER.
e
.
Beryl Clough was an unstinting, conscientious, committed and caring Project Secretary for
o
the MUSTER project who cheerfully coped with all its crises, deadlines and financial aberrations. Sadly she passed away before the completion of the Project and is sorely missed by all involved. This report, and the other outputs from MUSTER, have benefited greatly
y
from her dedication, sense of duty, and willingness to go the extra mile. We hope it does
e
justice to her memory.
g e The Researchers
n e MUSTER research was co-ordinated from the Centre for International Education, Institute
e
of Education at the University of Sussex in partnership with five link institutions each of
d
which convened research teams to collect and analyse data. The institutions and the Principal
R
Researchers were:
n s •
The Institute of Education, University of Cape Coast, Ghana (Dr. K.Akyeampong)
h
•
The Institute of Education, National University of Lesotho (J.P.Lefoka)
s
•
The Centre for Educational Research and Training, University of Malawi (D.Kunje)
n
•
The Faculty of Education, University of Durban-Westville, South Africa (Dr.M.Samuel)
g
•
The School of Education, University of the West Indies, Trinidad and Tobago (Dr.
J.George).
r
D
Four Sussex faculty co-ordinated the MUSTER research providing advice, direct research support in–country, and assistance with data analysis and report publication. These are
Professor Keith Lewin, Dr Janet Stuart, Dr David Stephens (1997-1999), and Dr Yusuf
Sayed (1999-2001). Dr Julie Coultas (Research Officer 1998/1999) assisted with statistical analysis and advice to parts of the research. Three doctoral students have been attached to the project and have worked with the relevant country teams – Alison Croft (Malawi),
Dominic Furlong (Ghana) and John Hedges (Ghana). John Hedges also acted as a Research
Officer (2000/2001) to support the dissemination programme. Each country has organised its research teams differently. A full list of research teams in each country is included in
Appendix 1.
DFID
ii
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Synthesis Report - Researching Teacher Education: New Perspectives on Practice,
Performance and Policy
Contents
Acknowledgements
i
Abbreviations
v
Preface
vi
3.4 Some Key Issues
4 Who Becomes a Primary
34
37
Teacher? viii 4.0 Summary
37
1 Introduction
viii
4.1 Introduction and Overview
38
2 On Policy Challenges and
viii
4.2 Characteristics of the
3 On Selection and Admission
xiii
4.3 Trainees’ Perceptions of
4 On the Curriculum for Initial
xiv
Executive Summary
Priorities
Training
5 On Colleges
xviii
6 On Structures
xix
7 On External Assistance
38
Student Teachers Entering College
46
Teaching and the Teaching
Profession.
4.4 Images, Experiences and Role
50
Identity
xxii
8 Some Scenarios for the Future xxv
8.1 Scenario 1: More of the
xxv
Same – Roosting Egrets xxvi Evolution - Weaver Birds at Work
8.3 Scenario 3: Radical Reform – xxviii
Soaring Eagles xxxi 1 Researching Teacher Education
1
57
5 The Curriculum of Teacher
Education
5.0 Summary and Overview
8.2 Scenario 2: Managed
9 Concluding Remark
4.5 Concluding Discussion
61
61
5.1 Introduction
62
5.2 Overview of Curriculum
65
Structures
5.3 Aims and Objectives.
67
5.4 Content
68
5.5 Teaching and Learning
74
Materials and Resources.
1.1 Introduction
1
5.6 Pedagogy
76
1.2 The Research Partners
4
5.7 Assessment
78
1.3 The Research Process
5
5.8 Concluding Discussion
79
1.4 Themes and Variations
6
1.5 Reporting and Dissemination
6
6 Teaching Practice and
83
of Findings
1.6 Overview of Report
School Based Training
7
6.0 Summary and Overview
83
6.1 Introduction
2 Doing the Research
2.1 The Research Questions
9
9
84
6.2 Case-studies of Traditional
85
Teaching Practice
2.2 The Research Process
11
6.3 School-based Teacher Training 90
2.3 Research Methods
12
6.4 Concluding Discussion
2.4 Reflections on the Research
17
Process
96
7 What Happens After Training?: 99
Induction and Beyond
3 The MUSTER Project
25
7.0 Summary and Overview
3.1 Introduction
25
7.1 Introduction
3.2 Overview of the Teacher
25
7.2 What Happens to NQTs after 101
Education Systems
3.3 The College Context.
iii
99
100
Leaving College.
31
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Contents - Continued
7.3 Induction
102
7.4 How NQTs Value their Course104
10.9 On Selection and Admission
184
10.10 On the Curriculum for Initial 185
Training
7
7.5 How Others Evaluate the
10.11 On Colleges
188
7
7.6 Evidence of Attitude Changes 109
10.12 On Structures
190
7.7 Career Ambitions
113
10.13 On External Assistance
194
7.8 Concluding Discussion
114
10.14 On the Prospects for Reform
196
10.15 Scenario 1: More of the
197
7
7
D
106
NQTS
Same – Roosting Egrets
8 Teacher Educators in Colleges 117
8.0 Summary and Overview
117
8. 1 Introduction
118
8. 2 Data Sources
119
8. 3 Characteristics of College Staff 119
10.16 Scenario 2: Managed
197
Evolution - Weaver Birds at Work
10.17 Scenario 3: Radical Reform –
200
Soaring Eagles
10.18 Concluding Remark
205
8.4 Tutors’ Views and Perspectives 124
8.5 Concluding Discussion
9 Supply, Demand, Efficiency
129
207
List of MUSTER Researchers by Country
133
and Costs
9.0 Summary.
Appendix 1
Appendix 2
133
209
Other Publications
9.1 Context
134
Appendix 3
9.2 Four Contrasting Case
136
National Conferences
Studies – Supply, Costs and
Demand
210
References
211
217
219
9.3 Case-study 1: Ghana
137
MUSTER Discussion Paper Series
9.4 Case-study 2: Lesotho
145
MUSTER Research Reports
9.5 Case-study 3: Malawi
152
9.6 Case-study 4: Trinidad and
160
9.7 Concluding Remarks
162
10 Insights from MUSTER and
169
Ways Forward
10 Introduction
Tables
1 Characteristics of student
Tobago
169
10.1 Characteristics of Teachers
169
10.2 Teacher Education Curricula
171
10.3 The Practicum: Teaching
173
Practice and School-based Training
40
teacher samples in the four countries. 2 Educational qualifications of
44
parents of student teachers
3 Percentage of student teachers
44 whose father/mother is a teacher
4 Teaching experience of student 46 teachers for each country
5 Proportions of contact time
69
suggested for each subject area
10.4 Post-Training Issues
175
6 Comparisons of backgrounds
10.5 Teacher Educators
177
of college tutors and career trajectories 10.6 Supply, Demand, Efficiency
178
and Costs
136
Teacher Education
10.7 MUSTER Key Issues
179
10.8 On Policy
180
DFID
7 Profile of financing for
120
8 Future demand for teachers
142
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Contents - Continued
9 Comparisons of costs between 144
conventional and ‘In-In-Out’
(US$)
10 Primary teacher projections
151
over 5 years
11 MIITEP programme outline
153
12 Distribution of costs per
156
student over two years
13 Comparison between
157
different modes of training
14 Teacher demand
161
15 Some possible training modes 193
Figures
1 The Muster Matrix
10
2 Forms of teacher training
26
programmes in four countries
3 Length of college and school-
26
based training in four countries
(2000)
4 Factors shaping teacher
30
education systems
5 Age profiles of teacher trainees 39
by country
6 Trainees Perceptions Measured 48
by 11 Survey Items
7 Structural patterns: the place
85
of the practicum
8 Entry, Exit and NQT
110
Perceptions - Lesotho
9 Entry, Exit and NQT
111
Perceptions - Malawi
10 The evolution of recurrent
138
expenditure in Ghana
11 Evolution of recurrent
146
expenditure in Lesotho
12 Evolution of recurrent
154
expenditure in Malawi
13 The Three Phases of teacher
202
development
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Abbreviations
BAGET
Bachelor of General Education and Training
BTC
Blantyre Teachers’ College
CIE
Centre for International
Education
COSC
MANEB
MDG
MIITEP
MOE
Malawi National
Examinations Board
Millennium Development Goals
Malawi Integrated In-service
Teacher Education Project
Ministry of Education
Cambridge Overseas School
Certificate
MSCE
CPD
Continuing Professional
Development
Malawi School Certificate of
Education
MSSSP
CXC
Caribbean Examinations
Council
Malawi Schools Support Systems
Project
DEO
District Education Officer
DEP
Diploma in Education
(Primary)
DFID
DO
DPTE
Department for International
Development
District Officer
Diploma in Primary Teacher
Education
MUSTER
NQT
NTTC
NUL
Multi-site Teacher Education
Research
Newly Qualified Teacher
National Teacher Training
College
National University of Lesotho
OJT
On the Job Training
PEA
Primary Education Advisor
PRESET
Pre-service Education for
Teachers
DRT
District Resource Teacher
EFA
Education For All
PTC
Primary Teachers Certificate
ESL
English as a Second Language
PTR
Pupil-teacher Ratio
Free Compulsory Universal
Basic Education
SPSS
Statistics Package for Social
Sciences
Free Primary Education
SSCE
Senior Secondary Certificate of
Education
FCUBE
FPE
GCE
General Certificate of
Education
GER
Gross Enrolment Ratio
GES
Ghana Education Service
GNP
Gross National Product
GTZ
Gesellschaft fur Technische
Zusammenarbeit
ICT
IJED
INSET
JC, JCE
JSS
JUSSTEP
DFID
Information and
Communication Technologies
International Journal of
Educational Development
In-service Education for
Teachers
Junior Certificate of Education
Junior Secondary School
Junior Secondary School
Teacher Education Project
SSR
Staff-Student Ratio
SSS
Senior Secondary School
TDC
TP
Teachers Development Centre
Teaching Practice
TPP
Teaching Practice Preparation
TTC
Teacher Training College
UCC
University of Cape Coast
UDE
University Department of
Education
UNDP
United Nations Development
Programme
UDW
University of Durban-Westville
UPE
Universal Primary Education
UT
UWI
Untrained Teacher
University of the West Indies
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1
T a A i d p H
m d s t M c a
2
d c a
N
T
c s t
C
m i s
2
I t t i h
1
G
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Executive Review: Researching Teacher Education: New
Perspectives on Practice, Performance and Policy
1.
Introduction
The MUSTER research project has undertaken extensive empirical studies of different aspects of primary teacher education as it is practised in Ghana, Lesotho, Malawi, South
Africa1 and Trinidad and Tobago. The variety, richness and nuances of the data and its interpretation cannot be captured in a single global summary. This would do violence to the differences in context and culture, the variations in inputs, processes and outcomes, and the profile of needs that each teacher education system seeks to meet.
However, it is possible to offer some synthetic observations which have germinated from the many sub-studies and which highlight some emerging priorities for teacher education and development that resonate across the case-study countries, and perhaps for those confronting similar challenges. This executive review therefore focuses on cross-cutting issues, and invites the reader to pursue individual themes in the main text of this report, and in the various
MUSTER publications. In particular the four country reports published by MUSTER offer comprehensive analyses of each system and reach specific conclusions and recommendations at national level (Akyeampong 2001, Lefoka and Sebatane 2002, Kunje, Lewin and Stuart
2002, George and Quamina-Aiyejina 2002). Each has been the subject of a national dissemination workshop. MUSTER research in the fifth country, South Africa, has been consolidated and published as a separate book (Lewin, Samuel and Sayed 2003). In addition a special double edition of the International Journal for Education and Development (Vol 22,
Nos 3 and 4) carries fourteen contributions by MUSTER authors (Stuart and Lewin 2002).
This review is organised in six sections. The first section identifies a range of key policy challenges for teacher education, and details emerging priorities. The next three sections sequentially reflect on insights and issues concerned with the selection and admission of trainees, the initial teacher education curriculum, and the characteristics of teacher education
Colleges. This leads to a discussion of structures for initial training and some alternative models. The fifth section develops an analysis of the roles external assistance can play in improving quality and effectiveness. Section six briefly outlines some developmental scenarios that arise from the cross-case analysis undertaken within MUSTER.
2.
On Policy Challenges and Priorities
In Ghana, Lesotho, and Malawi the challenge posed for teacher education by national targets for enrolment and pupil-teacher ratios for primary schooling is immense. None of these systems can produce enough new teachers to meet projected demand. Each needs to increase the output of trained teachers several-fold (Lewin 2002). In Ghana output would have to increase three or four times if all children were to be enrolled at primary level and
The bulk of the South Africa work is published in Lewin, Samuel, Sayed (2003) and this report focuses largely on
Ghana, Lesotho, Malawi, and Trinidad and Tobago.
1
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Executive Review taught by trained teachers. In Lesotho, more than five times current output is needed.
I
Projections of demand in South Africa suggest substantially rising demand for teachers
B
(Crouch with Lewin 2001) which is very sensitive to the demographic impact of
r
HIV/AIDS. Demand is rising as the numbers entering primary teacher training have fallen
s
to minimal levels. Malawi has already adopted a mixed-mode approach to training that is
E
relatively low cost and high volume which could meet demand with imaginable levels of
w
expansion. However, quality is widely questioned, the programme cannot be delivered as
L
originally intended, and places are unlikely to be filled without recruiting from those
E
completing just two years of secondary schooling (Kunje and Chirembo 2000, Stuart and
M
Kunje 2000). Trinidad and Tobago is the only case where demand is well within the capacity
t
of training institutions. Here there is a window of opportunity to invest in quality
t
improvement and extending the role of colleges into professional support pre- and post-
(
training, something that is largely absent in the MUSTER countries.
p n Though the detail is complex, the MUSTER conclusions are clear. The Millennium
s
Development Goals (MDG) relating to education cannot be met unless the supply of
E
teachers is adequate to keep pupil-teacher ratios within reasonable limits, and the quality of
p
their training is sufficient to result in minimum acceptable levels of pupil achievement. The
t
costs of existing methods of training are such that simple expansion of existing capacity is
e
often not financially viable. Improvements in efficiency and effectiveness are needed that can
C
lower costs and expand output within sustainable budgets. It may also be necessary to
o
consider alternatives to two or three years full-time, pre-career training. Traditional teacher
c
education programmes are heavily ‘front-loaded’ with most investment at the beginning of
a
a teaching career. Their unit costs can exceed those of university education and may be 50
c
or more times the annual cost of a primary school place. If the average length of teachers’ careers is declining, as it is in some cases as a result of HIV/AIDS, and if the numbers which
I
have to be trained are much larger than current capacity, teacher education programmes with
d
lower costs are needed. The alternative is to revise MDG targets for universalising access and
c
achieving gender equity in primary schooling.
p t MUSTER has explored the process and practice of teacher education across a range of
d
countries in great detail. Several common threads emerge related to policy issues, which are
p
outlined below.
p
T
First, the simple observation is that across the MUSTER countries policy on primary teacher education is fragmented, incomplete, and more often than not simply non-existent. Despite
T
the obvious importance of policy on teacher education to the achievement of nationally and
s
internationally agreed goals to universalise primary schooling, improve quality, and enhance
o
equity in access and retention, the development of coherent, medium term, financially sustainable teacher education policy, tailored to meet the demand for new teachers, has been
T
widely neglected.
d
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Executive Review
.
In Ghana, College reform has not been a priority since FCUBE (Free Compulsory Universal
s
Basic Education) was announced. The recent introduction of the ‘In-In-Out’ programme to
f
replace three-year fully residential training has not evolved from a considered strategy to
n
supply the number of teachers needed to meet the objectives of FCUBE. A Teacher
s
Education Task Force has now been established, as a sequel to the MUSTER national
f
workshop, and time will tell if it will succeed in the development of an integrated policy.
s
Lesotho continues to train far fewer teachers than it needs to implement Free Primary
e
Education (FPE). It has also established a Task Force on Teacher Education to build on the
d
MUSTER research and has ambitions to develop a strategic plan. Malawi has grappled with
y
the implications of its FPE programme and has attempted to meet the need for trained
y
teachers through the innovative Malawi Integrated Inservice Teacher Education Programme
-
(MIITEP) programme of mixed college- and school-based training. The suspension of this programme, with the consequence that no new teachers were enrolled in training for more nearly three years, reflects the absence of national teacher education policy and of any real
m
sense of urgency to address the problems of initial training. The recent creation of a Teacher
f
Education Division within the Ministry, the inclusion of teacher education more
f
prominently in the Policy and Investment Framework, and the agreement on the funding of
e
three extra MIITEP cohorts are positive signs. Trinidad and Tobago policy on teacher
s
education has no clear locus of control or chain of accountability. Unlike other Eastern
n
Caribbean States, where partnerships exist between Ministries, Colleges and the University
o
of the West Indies, responsibilities are ill-defined, as is policy. The MUSTER national
r
conference has developed some momentum to resolve this unsatisfactory situation (George
f
and Quamina-Aiyejina 2002) and created an opportunity to revitalise the college system and
0
capitalise on its strengths.
’ h It is self-evident that national planning must directly address questions of teacher supply and
h
demand, quality, curriculum and deployment. To be plausible such policy needs to have
d
clarity about its goals (what are the skills and competencies newly trained teachers should possess?), methods (how are these to be acquired?), costs (what resources are needed?) and timescale (how long will it take to achieve the desired outcomes?). If such policy is
f
developed alongside the evolution of sector-wide agreements with external development
e
partners, as is the case in several of the MUSTER countries, then it should be an integral part of the process which produces agreed spending plans and identifies performance goals.
This has yet to become a reality.
r e The first priority is therefore for policy makers to actually develop policy which has national
d
standing and is integrated into the medium term planning process. There are a number of
e
other priorities which can be identified.
y n D
The second issue is to recognise that what is possible and sustainable is constrained in different ways in the different countries. Most simply put, any medium term policy has to
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Executive Review recognise the realities imposed by demography (which determines the numbers of pupils and
m
hence teachers needed each year), teacher attrition (retirement, alternative career choices,
m
the impact of HIV/AIDS), and enrolment rate targets (achieving and sustaining universal
l
enrolment up to a specified grade level). It also has to start from existing training capacity
t
and recognise the constraints of infrastructure on the rate at which output might grow in
c
quality and quantity. Our analyses indicates how different the situations are in the different
f
countries, and also draw attention to some of the constraints and opportunities imposed by history, politics and finance. In three of the countries the choice is between mass methods
F
that could produce trained teachers in sufficient quantity to meet demand, and those which
c
might improve quality but would limit the number of pupils with access to teachers with any
r
training at all. The MUSTER analyses of supply and demand, and of efficiency and costs,
r
need refinement, periodic up-dating, and integration into frameworks for policy at national
p
level.
l
A third area of policy concern relates to the mechanisms through which teacher education
F
is resourced, and its performance monitored. Typically budgetary systems use historic
T
budgeting loosely related to actual or projected student numbers. The arrangements vary,
t
but none of those we have explored seem sufficient to provide a stable financial environment
t
conducive to the efficient management of colleges. Where budgetary allocations are
r
unpredictable, release of funds irregular, and auditing and accountability weak, it is difficult
C
to see how consistent development can take place. Under these circumstances it is also
t
unlikely that training institutions can develop their own medium term strategic planning and
c
gain the commitment of their staff to a common set of goals. Training systems are not large
s
and complex in comparison with school systems. It should be possible to include teacher
(
education budget lines in Medium Term Expenditure Frameworks and ensure that what is
l
allocated is disbursed regularly. Given the relatively small number of institutions involved
c
there is no obvious reason why they should not stand in a direct relationship with a Ministry
m
department and budget. Where we have observed the effects of decentralising the budget to
a
intermediary levels, this seems to introduce an unnecessary layer of bureaucracy and delay.
i
MUSTER research has not identified existing funding mechanisms which reward efficiency
S
and penalise waste. Neither, as noted above, is funding generally linked to any formula
b
related to the number of students, or their successful graduation. It is also true that salary
i
costs per student (predominantly lecturers’ salaries) vary across training institutions within
n
the same country, largely as a result of variations in student-teacher ratios. This suggests that
q
norms on staffing are seldom applied, resulting in under-staffing of some institutions and
a
over-staffing of others. It is also significant for costs that the average size of training
n
institutions is often small, and falls below 500 trainees in many cases. This is often smaller
i
than the size of typical secondary schools and many primary schools. Economies of scale are available if it is possible to increase average size and distribute fixed costs across more
F
trainees. Expenditure on learning resources in training institutions is often minimal and no
r
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Executive Review d mechanisms seem to exist to ensure that learning resources are replenished at some
,
minimum level. No ring-fencing or other procedures are used to protect spending on books,
l
learning aids etc., with predictable results. There are many mechanisms that could be used
y
to regularise the flow of funds and create at least some incentives to increase efficiency. These
n
could improve the chances that training institutions will develop cumulatively within a stable
t
financial environment that could offer better value for money.
y s Fourth, boarding-related costs are high and often the largest element of training institution
h
costs. These costs may be necessary and can be efficiently managed. The policy questions
y
revolve around the length of time boarding is essential, and whether any element of cost
,
recovery should be introduced. The latter is especially relevant where trainee teachers are
l
paid stipends as untrained teachers from which they would otherwise have to fund their own living costs.
n
Fifth, policy on initial teacher education should be linked to that on subsequent In-service
c
Training (INSET) and Continuing Professional Development (CPD). This is generally not
y,
the case. However effective initial training is, it leads into the stage of ‘newly qualified
t
teacher’ (NQT), a critical period when new teachers require support and guidance and often
e
receive little systematic induction. Training institutions should play a full role in INSET and
t
CPD, since these activities should cross-fertilise and feed back into more effective initial
o
training. In principle, an ‘initial’ qualification is precisely that, and not a terminal stage in a
d
career ladder. The balance between the time and money spent on initial training and
e
subsequent INSET and CPD is a critical policy question. If most investment is front-loaded
r
(i.e. at the beginning of a teacher’s career), if teacher attrition is high and rising, if career
s
lifetimes as primary teaches are shortening, and if substantial effort is to be directed to
d
changing school practice through direct support for whole school development, then it may
y
make sense to shorten periods of initial training in favour of more training inputs for NQTs
o
as their careers develop. Amongst other things, this has the benefit of directing more investment of training resources towards those on the job and likely to remain so.
y
Sixth, none of the countries within MUSTER (with the exception of South Africa), has
a
begun to address the question as to whether non-government resources have a role to play
y
in expanded and more effective teacher education. Historically much was provided through
n
not-for-profit non-government institutions. It may or may not be the case that these
t
questions should be reopened. Where resources are a major constraint on teacher education,
d
and internal efficiency of public institutions is low, some forms of public-private partnership
g
need to remain among the options. The detailed case that might be made for partnerships
r
is necessarily located within each system and may or may not be attractive.
e e Finally, it seems to us, the constructive and effective development of teacher education
o
requires direct association with Ministerial authority, clear lines of administrative control and
D
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Executive Review accountability, and strategic delegation of some measure of autonomy to training
t
institutions, at least in professional arenas. The latter would seem essential if teacher
b
education institutions are to move away from patterns of organisation and operation which
o
closely resemble secondary schools, to become professional development institutions working to facilitate the learning of adults and their induction into new roles as self-
T
confident, competent and creative young professionals.
i o The policy problems we have identified in MUSTER suggest that at their core are several
n
causes. First, primary teacher education policy has often been seen as an afterthought to
h
policy on Education for All and the MDGs, neither of which foreground teacher education
d
issues . It is almost as if it is a residual concern that has had to be addressed in the wake of
p
policy on universalising schooling, which has had a much higher public profile and much
t
catalysis for development agencies. Second, the locus of control over teacher education has
s
been ambiguous, and is often a subsidiary function within a department of a line Ministry.
f
Third, and partly as a result, resources have not flowed in ways consistent with demand for
d
newly trained teachers. Fourth, key stakeholders (parents, teachers unions, educational
c
administrators, college lecturers) have been slow to assert the importance of re-
w
conceptualising teacher education in the wake of primary curriculum reform and universal
a
access, as also have been some other development partners.
a
m
3.
On Selection and Admission
4
Policy on trainee selection is generally poorly articulated and lacking any evidence base.
Predominantly trainees are selected as a result of meeting minimum academic requirements.
T
Other selection methods – interviews, aptitude tests, language tests – are rarely used and are
q
not consistently applied. Yet we can find no studies of the predictive validity of such selection
s
methods. The attempts MUSTER made to test this do not show that school-leaving
i
achievement scores are good predictors of college performance. It is widely argued that
t
academic selection criteria should be raised to increase the quality of trainees. This is unwise
s
unless there is confidence that these are good predictors of subsequent performance. It is
p
unrealistic where there simply are not enough minimally qualified applicants in the pool
n
currently available, which is the case in some countries. Two policy implications flow from
r
this. First, there is a case for considering whether selection should include things other than
f
academic results from secondary school examinations and, if so, what procedures are viable and cost-effective. Second, where academic achievement levels are thought to be too low,
F
the question is whether content upgrading in subjects should be a priority at training
b
institution level, or whether some sort of access programmes at school level might be more
h
effective (school costs are generally much less than college costs). We note that in two of our
l
case-study countries (Malawi and Trinidad and Tobago), trainees are appointed as untrained
t
teachers before initial training. In principle this provides an extended opportunity to assess
m
suitability and to base selection on performance as an untrained teacher. However, since
l
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Executive Review g trainees are already appointed to the teaching profession, and links between the experience-
r
based programme and the training institutions are weak or non-existent in the two cases, this
h
opportunity is largely lost. It does not have to be.
s f- The second set of issues relates to the characteristics of those selected. The detailed data indicate many factors that shape the starting points from which the trainees progress. Some of these may be thought fairly obvious (e.g. low levels of academic qualification), others are
l
not so obvious (e.g. the range and extent of previous experience as teachers, the relatively
o
high ages of some entrants). MUSTER has also provided insights into attitudes and
n
dispositions to teachers and teaching which can be used to inform the management of
f
professional learning. Trainees do not enter training with no preconceptions, but many. How
h
they learn, what they internalise, and how motivated they are to remain teaching in primary
s
schools, are all bound up with these cognitive and affective qualities. It is these that, at least
y.
from one point of view, frame the ‘zones of proximal development’ which trainers can use in
r
delivering the curriculum. Yet neither curriculum developers nor tutors seem to take
l
cognisance of what students bring with them, or to seek to understand it more fully. In the
-
worst cases training proceeds on assumptions about the characteristics of those trained which
l
are demonstrably false. The first step in ameliorating these problems is to acquire information and insight about the trainees, however they have been selected. It is their characteristics that matter in defining their learning needs and shaping the curriculum process.
4.
On the Curriculum for initial training
.
.
The MUSTER analyses of teacher education curriculum issues lead to many insights into the
e
quality and relevance of material for existing programmes. The picture these paint is one that
n
suggests that investment in curriculum development is long overdue and that much which
g
is currently available falls short of what is needed and what is possible. Large parts of the
t
teacher education curriculum seem to have been adapted from the academic curricula of
e
school or university, rather than designed for adult learners or for the acquisition of
s
professional knowledge and skills. They seldom recognise the role of relevant experiences,
l
nor the different motivation and learning styles of adults. The curriculum needs to be
m
reconceptualised, but in ways that keep in touch with local context and realities. The
n
following are points for consideration.
e
w,
Firstly, the curriculum must be matched to the needs of the learners, recognising areas of
g
both strength and weakness. Primary trainees are usually a ‘mixed ability’ group; they will
e
have done different subjects at high school, and a number may well have been ‘slow
r
learners’. Many may find maths and science particularly difficult. The subject courses must
d
take this into account, by such means as setting, providing remedial support, self-study
s
materials, or whatever is needed. This could include subject upgrading to school-leaving
e
level through recognised and effective distance learning methods.
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Second, a fresh look has to be taken at all the traditional components. Curriculum
a
developers have to be realistic about what can be achieved within the given time, taking
p
account of the age, experience and academic level of the entrants. Many programmes seem to assume that everything has to be taught during initial training, and consequently most of
F
the curricula we analysed are grossly overloaded. The resulting stress on both tutors and
o
students tends to lower morale and lead to less efficient teaching and learning.
u e The curriculum should be slimmed down to concentrate on helping the student acquire
i
relevant core skills and competences, and the basic subject knowledge needed at that stage.
i
This might mean less focus on the subject as a traditional discipline, and more on
a
understanding the main concepts from a learner’s viewpoint, as expressed in the terms
t
science education, language arts education, etc. In so doing, students are likely to come
‘
to a clearer and more useful, if narrower, understanding of the subject itself, as well as the
g
primary school syllabus. The languages of instruction should have a special place in the training of primary teachers, especially where lower primary is taught in the vernacular and
T
upper primary in English. Trainees need to be fully fluent and competent in both, and to
T
understand the strengths as well as the difficulties of bilingualism.
o a Such a slimmed-down curriculum should, however, include key frameworks drawn from
a
psychology and sociology about how children learn, how individuals differ, and about the
t
role of schools in the society. This is a problem area. Firstly, ‘foundations’ courses often try
w
to teach far too much of the theory. Secondly, the texts and the research on which they are based are often drawn exclusively from rich country contexts. There is an urgent need here
F
for both research and curriculum development to bring theories developed elsewhere into
p
dialogue with local cultural practices and the students’ own experiences of growing up. The
u
aim should be to compare what is considered universal with what is culturally specific and
o
contextual, so that students come to understand themselves and their pupils more clearly.
c
Then, taking a problem-solving approach to their work, the young teachers are better
b
equipped to deal with the realities of their classrooms .
p a Third, the role of the personal in professional education has to be recognised. Trainees do
p
not come empty-handed, they bring much baggage in the form of images, ideas and
k
experiences about teaching. One task for the tutors is to help them unpack and articulate these, so some can be thrown away, others refashioned or replaced. This does not require
S
special techniques or resources, but it does imply an open approach from the tutors, and the
p
use of methods such as autobiographical essays, role-play and discussion, to elicit memories
p
and allow attitudes to be re-examined.
b c This links to the need for the whole curriculum to pay more attention to the ‘affective side’.
It is paradoxical that while most trainee teachers and their tutors rate personal attitudes and interpersonal skills as key characteristics of good primary teachers, the training curriculum xv DFID
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m g allows little space or opportunity for fostering personal growth and attitudes conducive to professional responsibility.
m f Fourth, the processes by which the curriculum are delivered need to be rethought. Theories
d
of professional learning stress how public propositional knowledge, situational understanding, and personal experience have to be brought together.
Such theories
emphasise the importance of practice, and of reflection on practice, in developing skills. New e information, ideas and skills have to be used before they are fully understood and
.
internalised. Therefore, preparing and developing teachers means providing them with
n
appropriate inputs of relevant knowledge, information and concepts stage by stage. Learning
s
to apply and use the ideas and skills needs support, coaching and constructive feedback, thus
e
‘scaffolding’ the learning. Therefore learning to teach requires extensive opportunities for
e
guided practice in a conducive environment.
e d This highlights the role of the school. For practical reasons, most training programmes have
o
Teaching Practice in one or two large blocks, or during an internship year, often at the end of the course. Yet shorter, alternating, periods of time on and off campus are more effective, as they allow new information, ideas and skills to be internalised gradually through
m
application and practice; equally, the experiential knowledge gained from attempting to
e
teach can be thought about and refined before the next trial. This is difficult logistically
y
when colleges are residential and/or in rural areas.
e e Fifth, attention must be paid to modes of assessment. Written terminal exams have a role to
o
play but should be complemented by assignments linked to practice in schools which might
e
use the classroom as a resource. Ghanaian experience suggests this is difficult, both because
d
of conservative attitudes, and because alternative methods are thought to be too time-
y.
consuming to be used with large numbers of students. However difficult, new attempts must
r
be made to find more appropriate methods of assessing professional learning and professional competence. In particular, the assessment of TP is often just a ritual, sometimes a farce. Aims in some systems (e.g. South Africa) to provide more holistic assessment of
o
performance in an authentic environment, based on demonstrated competences integrating
d
knowledge, skills and attitudes are laudable, but difficult to achieve.
e e Sixth, we suggest that curricula need to be more precisely designed for specific contexts –
e
preparing teachers for bilingual teaching, large classes, few resources etc – for specific school
s
phases e.g. lower or upper primary, and for specific groups of trainees, such as experienced but unqualified teachers, or school leavers. One practical approach might be a more modular curriculum, where trainees took those subjects and contents they needed, but care would be
.
needed to ensure integration and coherence.
d
m
D
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Finally, we suggest that in any teacher education curriculum the overall aims and desired
5
outcomes need to be clarified, so that everyone is aware of the kind of teacher they are trying to produce – whether this be framed in terms of an effective instructor engaged to deliver a
T
given curriculum efficiently, or in terms of a more autonomous professional expected to
a
exercise their own judgement reflectively. The curriculum strategy then needs to be
s
consistent with these aims and outcomes, and stakeholders should be supported in
e
understanding and carrying out their roles in achieving it.
i s There are some general dimensions to curriculum problems raised by the MUSTER
P
research. Amongst the most important are:
p c The lack of mechanisms for curriculum development, evaluation and renewal.
a
None of the MUSTER countries have systems for teacher education curriculum
A
development; as a result it is ad hoc and sporadic.
a
Teacher Education and Structural Change.
I
Educational reform focused on schools often proceeds in advance of reforms in teacher
o
education curricula. In principle teacher education should lead rather than lag behind wider
s
reforms, so that new entrants can be prepared to adopt new curricula and teaching methods.
t
It is, however, unrealistic to expect new teachers to be focal points for change as new
s
members of the profession in junior positions. There are risks, exemplified in some of the
i
MUSTER countries, that reforms that simultaneously seek to transform pedagogy,
w
curriculum content, and the organisation of learning and teaching, may over-stretch
i
infrastructure and capacity for change.
C
Cross-Cultural Borrowing and Innovation.
M
International borrowing is inevitable and often useful for the development of teacher
s
education. However, models and theories developed in one context should not be imported
p
uncritically to others. Some aspects will resonate more easily across cultures than others.
r
Teacher education curricula are needed that, while sometimes using cross-national insights
s
as points of departure, also build on local teacher knowledge, experience, and examples of
t
good practice, in order to develop culturally relevant and effective teaching strategies. If
o
innovations are to work, they need to be grounded and contextualised, and to make sense to those expected to carry them out. Moreover, strategies for innovation should recognise
S
the importance of establishing a favourable climate of opinion to adopt new practices.
I
Innovations that are pushed from the centre, rather than pulled by effective demand from
w
communities of practice, will always be more difficult to sustain.
a t p t i
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On Colleges
g a The college systems that MUSTER has explored have their specific histories which draw
o
attention to the contributions they have made to educational development in the past. The
e
strong impression from MUSTER data is that whatever the historic impact of teacher
n
education institutions had been, those which we researched were no longer playing key roles in the development of their national education systems. There was little evidence that most staff were engaged directly in curriculum development, either at school level or in Colleges.
R
Professional links with school system were often fragile or non-existent and practising primary teachers were conspicuous by their general absence from activities organised in the colleges. Many colleges can be characterised by physical and intellectual isolation and many appeared held down by the weight of tradition, by lack of vision, and poor management.
m
Any reconceptualisation of teacher education has to consider whether colleges have a role, and if so, what that role should be.
In principle training institutions could be ‘powerhouses of change’ responsible for a number
r
of different facets of teacher education: initial training, INSET, training of trainers for
r
school- and district-based support, curriculum development, research, development of
.
teaching materials, etc. As developmental institutions distributed geographically across
w
school systems, they should be ideally situated to be centres of support, inspiration and
e
innovation not only for new teachers but for NQTs and experienced teachers as well. If this
y,
were to become a reality then a number of issues need consideration, which necessarily differ
h
in detail in different cases. These include:
College governance.
Most colleges exist uneasily in an ill-defined area between Ministries, higher education, and
r
schools. Forms of governance need to be identified that support an academic and
d
professional atmosphere, and which might encourage the development of cultures of
.
research on practice linking staff and programmes into problems of school development and
s
students’ achievement. This may imply some form of University affiliation to provide access
f
to expertise, enhance the status of training institutions, and expand the intellectual horizons
f
of staff.
e e Staffing.
.
It is essential to develop a cadre of professional teacher educators, who are capable of
m
working both within and outside the institution in creative and innovative ways. This implies
D
a pay and career structure that recognises the kinds of work they do and the responsibilities they carry. It should be policy to recruit primary trainers from experienced and committed primary teachers and provide the necessary academic upgrading, or if taking secondarytrained teachers, to provide appropriate orientation including a period observing/teaching in primary schools. Gender issues must be borne in mind to ensure women candidates are
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c
implies induction programmes for new recruits, and regular opportunities for continuing
p
professional development, including where appropriate post-graduate degrees. Teacher
o
educators should be expected to work with and in schools and carry out research, to keep
c
up to date with international developments and to help adapt these to local conditions.
2
Links with Schools.
C
Colleges need to establish closer relationships with schools. We found few examples of good
o
practice. Possible partnership arrangements include: selected ‘professional development’
n
schools, near or on the campus; the linking of initial training of students to the professional
i
development of the co-operating teachers; the use of trained mentors to undertake part of
c
the supervision and assessment, etc. Tutors could spend in schools time teaching, training,
a
or doing research; equally, experienced teachers could be seconded to colleges for specific
i
tasks.
f
College Strategic Planning.
U
A strategy of ‘whole college development’ is attractive. Such an approach would require a
d
senior management team with a clear vision of change and administrative support and
t
resources to carry it out. This presupposes medium term policy on teacher education and
l
confirmation of the role colleges can play. It also assumes the existence or appointment of
b
groups of tutors prepared to commit themselves to their own professional development and
k
that of the training system.
d
6.
S
On Structures
m
Teacher education systems develop within national contexts which condition their form.
w
New ideas for methods and structures have to recognise the realities of differing needs,
a
circumstances and resources. Suggested improvements have to be formulated within the
H
assumptions, processes and expectations of the wider national education system. There is
s
thus no ‘one-size-fits-all’ solution to the problems of teacher education MUSTER has
p
explored. However there are some structural questions that recur across systems. The basic
s
structural issues for teacher education systems revolve around where training should take
a
place, how long it should take, and what, if anything, should happen before and after periods
i
of initial training leading to certification.
t
‘
There are three common options as to institutional location. These are colleges of
n
education, university education departments, or in schools. In reality the choices between
s
these locations are not free. College-based systems for primary training are common in many
c
low income countries and reflect how training systems have developed. Colleges are often
i
the only post-secondary institutions in their geographic area and may be associated with
t
post-secondary opportunities for particular groups who have a political stake in the
h
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g
political decisions are taken to adopt another arrangement. South Africa has taken the step
r
of making all initial training university-based or affiliated with universities. However, the
p
circumstances under which this has come about are unique (see Lewin, Sayed & Samuel
2003).
College-based systems may have advantages in terms of local location linked to communities
d
or clusters of schools, a focus on a single profession and a responsiveness to educational
’
needs, a role in pre-service and in-service education, and lower costs than tertiary level
l
institutions. Our research suggests that these potential advantages are not necessarily
f
converted into realities. They also have to be balanced against the risks of parochialism
,
associated with the local (especially when colleges are rural and physically and intellectually
c
isolated), the limits of expertise and insight associated with training institutions divorced from research, and the high costs that may be associated with small size.
University-based training offers the prospect of inputs from staff with high levels of
a
disciplinary expertise, connection to insights from research relevant to learning and
d
teaching, multi-disciplinary perspectives, and superior teaching resources associated with
d
large-scale institutions. On the other hand critics suggest that university-based training may
f
be a long way removed from the issues of practice in primary schools, high levels of academic
d
knowledge in disciplines are largely irrelevant, and tutors’ career advancement is likely to depend more on research recognition than training competence.
School-based training has become increasingly common in rich country systems. There are many good pedagogic and professional development reasons why training located in the
.
work environment is potentially attractive because of its direct links with practical problems,
,
advice from successful teachers, and socialisation into professional norms and standards.
e
However, the basic assumptions of school-based training – namely that there are sufficient
s
schools to offer appropriate training environments and enough qualified teachers to act as
s
professional mentors to trainees – are often difficult to meet in low income countries. Most
c
schools may not be appropriately resourced as training sites, lacking both qualified teachers
e
and enough teaching and learning materials. Nor do staff necessarily see their role as
s
including training new teachers and they are unlikely themselves to have any training as trainers. Under these circumstances, school-based training may simply become a form of
‘sitting by Thabo’, with new teachers simply copying what is done around them whether or
f
not this is good practice. The MIITEP experience does suggest that with enough support,
n
some elements of school-based training are possible even in very resource-poor
y
circumstances. But expectations of what can be achieved have to be realistic: serious
n
investment has to be made in print-based handbooks and manuals for trainees and for
h
trainers, while field-based peripatetic resource persons and selected members of school staff
e
have to be trained in supervision and support.
D
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School-based training is generally associated with various forms of distance education, as it
t
is in MIITEP. Distance education methods are attractive because they allow teachers to be
m
trained while on the job, which saves the costs of replacement. It should also reduce the
a
direct costs if a proportion of the training is self-instructional and based on print or other
d
low cost media. However, the problems of distance learning are well known. For primary
p
teachers in rural Africa there are particular problems. The materials have to be at the right language level for ESL learners and cover a wide range of topics, as the trainees may have
T
access to few other printed resources. In so-called predominantly ‘oral’ cultures students
o
may find book-based learning particularly difficult; aural media such as radio programmes or
b
audio-cassettes may be more effective, if the technology is available and motivation can be
d
maintained. Video is much more expensive, and unlikely to be as cost-effective as
o
alternatives. Though new information technologies based on computers and the internet
o
appear to offer many potential benefits, these are yet to be demonstrated in practice in mass
e
systems of teacher education in Africa. They have high initial costs and carry risks of rapid
a
obsolescence of hardware and software. Regular face to face contact with peers and a tutor
q
are likely to remain essential components of training, albeit supplemented by other methods.
7
The questions of how long training should take and what should happen before and after the period of initial training are important, but as with the question of where training should
S
be located there is no single answer. A wide range of possibilities can be imagined some of
a
which are shown below.
p s Modes of Training
p
Mode 1
Conventional full-time college-based training preceded by no experience
i
Mode 2
Conventional full-time college-based training preceded by pre-course experience and followed by mentored induction into schools
e
Mode 3
Untrained teaching experience followed by conventional full-time college-based training
q
Mode 4
Mentored pre-training experience followed by conventional full-time college-based training and mentored induction into schools
Mode 5
Mentored pre-training experience followed by a short period of conventional college-based training followed by school placement with INSET support
T
Mode 6
Mentored pre-training experience followed by alternating short periods of conventional full-time college-based training followed by mentored induction into schools
t
Mentored pre-training experience followed by wholly school-based training on the job leading to mentored distance support
f
Mode 7
p o t i m r There are many other possible mixes which carry different resource and cost implications.
We can note four key observations. First, extended full-time institutional training is only one
T
of many options. Second, what comes before and what comes after core periods of training
e
may be just as important as what occurs in the core, though rarely is it systematically
d
considered as part of the training process. Thirdly, there is no necessity for core periods of
s
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e
mixed-mode methods, which make use of distance education and learning while working,
e
are clearly options which have potential cost advantages. The resource implications of
r
different approaches can only be identified when their component parts are specified in
y
particular country contexts.
t e The analytic questions related to future policy and practice focus on which of these (and
s
other possible modes) are feasible, relevant to short to medium term needs, and are likely to
r
be cost-effective. Is a new and different balance of inputs attractive to meet new needs and
e
disquiet over both costs and effectiveness of existing patterns of delivery? There are
s
opportunities to reconsider how investment in teacher education and training is best
t
organised and delivered, given the shortfalls in teacher supply generated by enrolment
s
expansion, the new emphasis in many countries on changing curricula to improve pupils’
d
achievement, the consequences of financial constraints, and the importance of improving
r
quality and effectiveness.
.
7.
On External Assistance
r d Several issues stand out from the MUSTER research for those who provide external
f
assistance. First, a number of points have already been made relating to the formation of policy on teacher education. Where teacher education, and more broadly the education system as a whole, is partly externally financed, it is incumbent on agency representatives to promote a strategic approach to teacher education and ensure it is appropriately considered in medium term planning. Where such policy does not exist it should be encouraged and the evidence base for its development supported. International development targets related to primary education and the EFA agenda cannot be realised without an adequate supply of qualified and competent teachers. Teacher supply is the main constraint on the achievement of these goals in a good number of the poorest countries.
The second point is that evidently it is not sufficient to make external finance available either through projects or as part of more general budgetary support. Availability is not the same thing as disbursement; disbursement is not the same thing as resources reaching end users in ways that result in valued outcomes. Where teacher education institutions are starved of funds (resulting in erratic and often very low salary payment, near zero allocation to learning materials, and lack of maintenance to the point where facilities are closed for long periods), regeneration of effective training systems is impossible.
. e The third point is that judgements do have to be made in the round about the profile of
g
external assistance whether within a sector plan or without. More specifically, assistance
y
directed to school level designed to improve access, retention and quality has to include
f
support for teacher development, since it is teachers who determine, more than anything
D
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F
system, and its institutions, is a core question. Initial training of itself is always unlikely to
w
result in the transformation of teaching and learning in schools in the short term: new
t
teachers are likely to be less skilled than experienced teachers, their organisational status is
o
such that they have less influence on curriculum and school policy and practice, their
t
numbers are small compared to those established in the profession etc.. Nevertheless, new
c
teachers, and the institutions that train them, are in principle one of the few vectors for
t
introducing new practices to improve pupil learning. Others may exist or be developed (e.g.
T
teachers’ centres and peripatetic advisory teachers). So a key question for those who provide
i
external assistance is whether to include initial training institutions in development plans or
s
to by-pass them in favour of direct support into the school system. A strategy of benign
p
neglect of colleges, which does seem by implication to have been followed in some cases,
r
seems an opportunity missed. Unless of course the judgement is made that such institutions
d
really have reached the point where they are largely ineffective and not amenable to
o
significant reform.
a
Fourth, external support has a comparative advantage in some spheres but not in others.
S
Most obviously, subsidy of development budgets for capital assets (predominantly buildings)
F
may be the only way in which physical capacity can be expanded. Like other forms of
p
assistance this can, of course, result in plant which is suited to purpose with appropriate
s
durability and recurrent costs; it may also be poorly designed, expensive and difficult to
o
maintain with local resources. Technical assistance is the other common form of support.
s
This also needs to be tailored to purpose. Few believe that agency support of staff directly
o
delivering services is cost-effective. More attractive is expert assistance with curriculum
t
development, especially in those areas of the curriculum that are most internationalised (e.g.
a
mathematics, science, international languages). This can also give access electronically or
a
otherwise to networks which allow developers to share their experience across institutions
t
and countries. Such international experts need to work very closely with national experts
p
with a view to creating sustainable capacity in the future. This is sometimes easier said than achieved. External support for learning materials production as well as development can also
F
be useful. Views may differ on the value of supporting low volume, low quality domestic
f
production of print material (which often has a high import content), rather than buying in
s
from the lowest cost international provider. The fact is the latter may be considerably
o
cheaper and more cost-effective, but it requires foreign exchange. External assistance is often
c
the only source of staff development for college staff, especially where this involves periods
e
spent outside the country acquiring new skills and evaluating different approaches to
p
training. Training institutions generally account for a small proportion of the education
i
budget and relatively small amounts of external assistance can have a substantial impact on
n
their quality. Their staff ought to be aware of the most recent developments in their fields
r
of study elsewhere and be able to adapt and develop these sensitively and realistically for local
s
use.
t
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o
well as salary benefits. Inevitably this means that curricula in action are heavily influenced by
w
the form and content of the assessment system. MUSTER research identifies this as an area
s
of general weakness. Different arrangements exist in different countries for the setting,
r
taking and marking of assessment tasks and various rubrics are followed that can include
w
continuous assessment, project work, and assignments alongside the fairly universal fixed-
r
time closed-book written examinations and the assessment of teaching practice by tutors.
.
There is evidence that much assessment is narrowly limited and excludes many things
e
identified in curricular materials as valued learning outcomes. Professional knowledge and
r
skill are rarely reliably assessed and much teaching practice evaluation is ritualised to the
n
point where it is unlikely to be valid and reliable. Assessment and certification techniques
,
require expertise and systematic application. External assistance can and should make a
s
direct contribution to the development of reliable and valid examination systems with the
o
objective of ensuring curriculum relevance, technically robust selection, and cost-effective assessment. .
Sixth, the management of many teacher education systems and their institutions is weak.
)
Few systems provide training or support for senior management who are likely to have been
f
promoted from teaching positions. None of the colleges we undertook research in had a
e
strategic medium term plan, and as far as we can establish none had been asked to produce
o
one. If they had it is likely they would have needed assistance. Management information
.
systems were also lacking, with basic information often incomplete or simply not collected
y
or retained. The extent to which management expertise, procedures and systems can be
m
transferred across systems depends on differences in organisational culture, infrastructure
.
and resources, and levels of institutional autonomy. However, much is known about more
r
and less efficient and effective management, and external assistance can help such knowledge
s
to be shared in ways which are sensitive to what will and will not make a difference within a
s
particular system.
n o Finally, the list of possibilities for constructive assistance would not be complete without a
c
further observation. Innovation almost invariably requires resources. Poorly financed
n
systems under pressure rarely have these available. Crisis management informs action more
y
often than tested solutions to problems of learning and teaching. External assistance can be
n
crucial to develop work that would otherwise not occur. It can and does also support
s
experiments with innovative curricula and alternative delivery systems, some of which may
o
promise cost-effective methods of meeting expanded demand. This has to be seen as what
n
it should be. It is development support for limited periods beyond which such innovations
n
need to become self-sustaining. If this is not so, then such assistance begins to resemble
s
recurrent budgetary support, which needs a different kind of justification. It should be
l
support for innovations grounded in the systems to which they are applied, not simple
D
transplants of blueprints developed elsewhere for different purposes.
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8.
Some Scenarios for the Future
8
Teacher education appears to be one of the most conservative parts of many education
M
systems. It seldom is the source of curriculum innovation, theorised pedagogy, or radical
r
reconceptualisations of professional learning. It often lags behind schools in the adoption of
s
new practice and patterns of learning and teaching. This is a signifier that political will and
p
bureaucratic courage may be needed for the implementation of real changes designed to
i
improve efficiency and effectiveness. The case of South Africa, where changes in teacher
s
education were part of more general system-wide transformation, is instructive but unique
d
(see Lewin, Samuel & Sayed 2003). There the will and the vision has existed to challenge
a
old orthodoxies, wasteful resource allocation, and ineffective training methods.
s s The MUSTER research leads to much food for thought about future patterns of teacher
s
education. One way of encapsulating some of the possibilities is to formulate some possible scenarios. Three portraits are developed in the main text. These are summarised below.
T a 8.1
c
Scenario 1: More of the Same – Roosting Egrets
2
T
More of the Same (MOS) is what will happen in the absence of coherent development policy
o
and medium term strategic planning. The strengths and weaknesses will remain, inertia will
a
define curricula and learning experiences, working practices will continue to deliver the curriculum at current levels of efficiency, and increased output will be difficult to achieve
M
where it is needed at sustainable levels of cost.
d
This scenario is only attractive if there is a reasonable balance between supply and demand
I
for new teachers and the quality of training is regarded as appropriate. The former only
P
applies in Trinidad and Tobago, and the latter in none of the MUSTER countries.
T
O
For all the reasons MUSTER has highlighted – e.g. the changing characteristics of new
p
entrants, the gulf between curricular content and process and the realities of schools coping
r
with post-EFA surges in enrolments, the lack of innovation in colleges designed to promote
e
closer professional interactions with schools, the lack of systematic support for induction of
c
NQTs – MOS is not really an option. It is however the default condition and the most likely
p
outcome unless energy, commitment and resources are directed towards the challenges
MUSTER has identified.
C
T
c c t
3
2
t s Egrets are birds of habit that return to the same spot each evening to roost day in day out.
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8.2
Scenario 2: Managed Evolution - Weaver Birds at Work3
n
Managed evolution is a real possibility where medium term policy (identifying goals,
l
resources, implementation modalities, and time-scale) can be realised and integrated into
f
sectoral plans for education. This is a prior condition since without such policy, updated
d
periodically to reflect changing needs, development cannot be purposefully managed. It
o
implies prioritisation of teacher education as a critical arena for support, manifested through
r
secure forward planning of resource allocation over a long enough period to allow
e
development plans to come to fruition. It also assumes that teacher education has a defined
e
and effective locus of control within Ministry of Education structures (e.g. Departmental status with Director level representation). Though there may be potential in decentralising some aspects of teacher education, this may be premature if existing institutions have weak
r
self-management capacity, small size, and common needs.
e
The incrementalism implied in this scenario invites strategic thinking which identifies those aspects of teacher education that impinge on quality, efficiency and effectiveness and which can be changed without radical reforms and which have gains which outweigh their costs.
These may or may not be sufficient to develop systems in ways which respond to the volume y of demand for new trained teachers. They may lead to revised time-scales for the
l
achievement of EFA and MDG targets.
e e MUSTER identifies a raft of incremental changes that have more or less applicability to different systems. These include:
d
Improved selection and preparation for initial training
y
Pre-training teaching experience as an untrained teacher is common. Only in Trinidad and
Tobago is this institutionalised as an On-the-Job Training Scheme. The development of
OJT-like schemes has several attractions – trainees can be selected partly on the basis of their
w
performance over time, rather than initial academic qualification; trainees contribute to
g
reducing teacher shortages through the work they do; managed OJT schemes could greatly
e
enrich the skills and competencies of those entering training. At the same time, pay and
f
conditions of service need to be improved to the point where they can attract and retain
y
people with appropriate qualities.
s
D
Curriculum Development
Teacher education curricula suffer in varying degrees from fragmentation. In most systems curricula are not developed dynamically or incrementally, neither are they suffused with contributions from teacher educators at college level. Written materials for trainers and for trainees are in short supply and often derived from a variety of sources which lack coherence
Weaver birds in their many varieties both follow set patterns to build nests and display astonishing ingenuity in adapting to different sites with different local conditions to construct efficiently durable nests which all differ in detail but serve the same purpose.
3
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Executive Review or consistency in approach. Revitalised teacher education systems could transform this
T
situation through systematic and cumulative approaches to developing and enriching the
T
curriculum and its learning materials base at college level, and through coherent national
m
level programmes to generate more relevant core materials within an agreed framework.
d s Changed Working Practices
a
Working practices in teacher education differ widely. However, MUSTER data indicates that
f
there is considerable scope to improve quality through more effective management focused on trainees’ learning experience. Training institutions need to be much more demand-led,
C
in terms of being responsive to the needs of trainees, rather than to the preferences, priorities
T
and familiar practices of those who work in them. In many cases lecturing to large groups of
a
up to 100 is favoured, though it is not necessary where student-staff ratios are below 20:1.
p
Few colleges make much use of experienced teachers drawn in to inform discussions about
p
pedagogy, class management, and curriculum realities. Even fewer college staff spend
i
periods in schools in a professional development role which could help inform their college-
a
based teaching.
a
Teaching Practice
8
All the MUSTER training systems include periods of teaching practice in schools. This can have high costs associated with supervision by college tutors. Trainees’ experience of
R
teaching practice suggests that it can be very valuable, but that for many learning is not
f
coherently managed, and supportive supervision is not consistently available. There is little
a
clear thinking on what learning outcomes can and cannot be achieved through existing
o
patterns of teaching practice, most of which have not undergone any fundamental
e
reappraisal since they were first introduced. There is considerable scope for improvements,
p
such as integrating teaching practice much more closely and extensively with college work, re-evaluating the merits of college-based micro-teaching and other methods of acquiring
S
professional skill which can be more resource-efficient than largely unsupported teaching practice, and arranging teaching practice placement and support more effectively.
R
C
Infrastructure and Learning Materials
o
Most colleges in MUSTER countries have poor physical facilities and infrastructure, few
t
learning materials, and underutilised space as a result of periods of neglect. They are
s
nevertheless frequently the only post-secondary institution in an area with a concentration of educational professionals, and thus the only source of advice and support to practising
A
teachers. Impoverished facilities compromise the effectiveness with which training can be
w
conducted and have a depressing effect on morale. Relatively small investments could
b
transform at least some of these institutions into much more vibrant, accessible and attractive
a
professional development nodes with outreach capabilities.
i t 4
a
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Executive Review s Teacher Educator Staff Development
e
The college lecturers are a neglected resource. Their main needs are: better personnel
l
management, deployment and induction, and a clearer career structure linked to staff development and promotion opportunities, which would attract, motivate and retain suitable tutors. These things are achievable without excessive costs, but require different approaches to staff development which could improve morale, create incentives and rewards
t
for improved performance, and attract new talent into the profession.
d
,
Changes in approaches to learners
s
Teacher educators may need to develop or rediscover culturally appropriate ‘visions’ of what
f
an effective teacher is. They should provide opportunities for growth and development of
.
personal attributes that can help trainees become confident and competent in their diverse
t
professional roles. Student teachers need to be treated as adult learners and helped to study
d
in more independent and proactive ways, so they experience themselves new ways of learning
-
and teaching; they need to learn to reflect in ways that enable them to improve the quality and effectiveness of their teaching.
8.3
Scenario 3: Radical Reform – Soaring Eagles4
n f Radical reform requires vision, courage and persistence to reshape teacher education in
t
fundamental ways. It will usually require substantial investment up-front before benefits are
e
apparent, and the conversion to new approaches of those embedded in the comfort zones
g
of the old. It is the most exciting but the most risky option as entrenched interests rarely
l
embrace new practices without strong incentives; such changes are usually linked to wider
,
political reforms.
, g Some possibilities here are:
g
Reprofiling the structure and length of training
Conventional teacher education systems are heavily front-loaded in terms of the investment of resources i.e. most if not all the resources are committed to pre-career full-time residential w training. Where demand is high long periods of pre-career training will be expensive and
e
slow to produce large numbers of new teachers.
n g Alternatives which provide shorter periods of introductory training, followed by periods of
e
work as assistant teachers, and interspersed with subsequent training inputs building on the
d
base acquired from school experience, could be both more efficient (those who are trained
e
are on the job, therefore costs are lower), and more effective (theory and practice are placed
D
in dialogue, college-based work has to respond to real problems and skill needs). It is therefore possible to conceive of training which is ‘drip fed’ over time rather than provided
Eagles cover large distances with remarkable skill and adapt to different environments with apparent ease, flexibly applying themselves to the problems of survival in different and changing environments.
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Executive Review in a single long period pre-career. There are many possibilities of detailed configurations
p
which could include short intensive (e.g. 3 months) residential training, vacation workshops,
(
complementary distance learning support, local cluster groups to support trainee teachers on
k
the job etc. If this were linked to incremental progression up the career structure – e.g.
a
trainee teacher, assistant teacher, junior teacher, fully qualified teacher – it could provide
t
incentives to stay with the programme and accumulate skills and competence.
c c A variant of this approach could seek to move the locus of training activity to schools, as is
t
the case in many high income countries. Conceptually it is easy for this to appear attractive.
s
However, MUSTER empirical evidence draws attention to some important stumbling blocks. These include: the scarcity of school locations representing good practice relative to
T
the numbers of trainees, the shortage of those likely to possess mentoring skills at school
T
level and their willingness to invest substantial time in the activity, and the difficulties of
r
moderating the school-based experience and ensuring appropriate and valid assessment and
c
certification. Circumstances will differ and it may be that some of these problems can be
p
overcome. In the short to medium term it is possible to imagine movement towards more
m
school-based training through alternating periods of On-the-Job training and college-based
i
work.
i t Mixed-mode training programmes, which combine college-based work with different types of distance learning, already exist. MIITEP in Malawi is an example. The research on
S
MIITEP indicates the many difficulties that exist in realising the technically coherent model
c
in practice where infrastructure is weak. MUSTER countries do not currently use modern
t
information and communication technology (ICT) in teacher education. The reasons for
E
this in the African countries are self-evident. The costs are high, connectivity is low, and
a
relevant content is yet to be created. This situation may change over the next decade. Until
o
it does it will remain the case that print material offers far more durable opportunities for
q
support for training at a distance, though of course it lacks the interactivity that ICTs could
s
potentially provide .
a
5
b
A different conceptual model of learning to teach
e
Many of the curricula we analysed seemed premised on the idea that if students are given
l
enough knowledge and skills at college these can be applied unproblematically, like ‘recipes’,
d
to any classrooms. A more useful model is one that sees teaching as interactive problem-
e
solving, requiring a thoughtful and reflective approach to practice. Thus learning to teach means acquiring not only knowledge and skills, but also a situated understanding of pupils and how they learn, along with repertoires of skills and strategies for dealing with unique
C
C
and ever-changing circumstances. The aim of the training should be the development of
A b 5
Interactivity is only of value where it suits the purpose (i.e. it provides a pathway to desired learning outcomes), and is available at affordable price levels. Interactivity that requires responses from people can quickly become very expensive in staff time, or simply inoperable when the volume of messages requiring considered response overloads the capacity to respond. xxix
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Executive Review s professional reasoning ability, rather than the acquisition of pre-defined behaviours
,
(Akyeampong 2001). Such a model requires an epistemological shift towards a view of
n
knowledge that recognises the value of teachers’ personal, experiential and craft knowledge
.
as well as the public propositional knowledge offered in college. For such a different model
e
to take root will require time, debate, and professional development among lecturers, curriculum developers, MOE personnel, and the wider educational community. This is consonant with the new more learner-centred and constructivist-based approaches to
s
teaching and learning in many reform programmes for school curricula, and could be a more
.
suitable preparation for them.
g o Transforming College Practices
l
Two radical suggestions emerge from MUSTER data. First, none of the colleges in the
f
research have strong and free-flowing professional links with schools. They play little role in
d
curriculum development and implementation at school or any other level, and seldom
e
provide central resources for teachers’ INSET and CPD. With a different mandate,
e
managerial commitment, and appropriate resources they could become developmental
d
institutions with substantial outreach to schools. Their staff could acquire responsibilities to improve learning and teaching at school level directly as well as through the training of teachers. s n Secondly, and even more radically, college lecturers could be appointed on different types of
l
contracts than those which prevail. Most college staff are drawn from the ranks of practising
n
teachers in mid-career. For many this becomes their occupation through until retirement.
r
Employment practices usually privilege those with higher levels of academic qualifications
d
and this can have the effect of excluding those with extensive primary experience in favour
l
of those who have taught at secondary level and who are more likely to have degree level
r
qualifications. The staffing of a developmental college might not look like this. It could be
d
staffed by experienced and effective teachers, given appropriate professional development, and seconded from primary schools for, say, five year periods. Permanent college staff could be required to work in schools periodically to give them relevant and recent experience and ensure that their training activities were closely grounded in the realities of schools and
n
learning problems. With imagination groups of staff could be periodically tasked with
,
development activities related to curriculum implementation, improving training
-
effectiveness and supporting the induction of NQTs.
h s e
Changing the Relationships between Content and Professional Skills and
Competences.
f
All the college systems MUSTER has researched have difficulties in striking an appropriate
D
balance between up-grading content skills in subjects (and in the medium of instruction), and developing pedagogic and professional skills. Most attempt both simultaneously with more or less successful integration. Where the entry level characteristics of trainees suggest
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Executive Review that subject-based knowledge and skill, or language fluency, are inadequate, the radical
•
choice may be to develop pre-course bridging programmes focused specifically on these.
This could be in the training institution. But it could also be undertaken in nominated secondary schools given this task. The latter is likely to be more cost-effective. If initial training programmes really could assume students’ mastery of basic content and language skills, then they would be free to focus sharply on professional and pedagogic competencies.
A Flood of Materials
Learning material for trainee teachers and NQTs located within national contexts in
MUSTER countries is scarce. Yet print material is relatively cheap, durable and can be
•
immensely helpful to those starting teaching in school environments where good practice may not be common and informed advice is difficult to come by. Colleges, which could and should be a major source of such material, often do not produce text material in volume and are unable to ensure trainees leave with a portfolio of supporting manuals, enrichment materials etc. This problem is more readily resolvable than textbook supply to all children since the numbers are much smaller. The radical proposition may not sound radical – flood
•
the trainee teachers with quality support materials. It is radical in the sense that it has yet to be prioritised or realised in the systems we have researched.
9.
Concluding Remark
The last scenario has explored some of the more radical options available that would
W
challenge current practice and can provide an agenda for reform. In conclusion several
d
possibilities stand out that could make real differences. These include:
e p •
‘
programmes and school-based apprenticeship-like relationships (on-the-job training). If
t
this process was managed effectively it could become a step on a pathway to initial
a
qualification. The experience of working as a teaching assistant would discourage some,
s
reinforce the aspirations of others, and allow the unsuitable to be selected out.
•
More strategic use could be made of untrained teachers supported by orientation
t
Initial training could be organised in a more modularised way to allow training to be acquired as and when needed. Investment in skill and competency would be cumulative and could take place through a variety of routes (full-time, part-time, day release, residential, distance etc) and in a variety of locations (in school, at teacher centres, in colleges and universities). It would have to be linked to a progressive career structure that regulated promotion to different grades to experience, qualification level and competence. The important difference is that it would not be a single-shot qualification process but a continuous pathway leading to higher levels of competence.
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Executive Review l •
A staircase of training linked to posts of responsibility and rewards offers the
.
opportunity to embed the training process more firmly in the school and the learning
d
needs of its pupils. So also might the modularisation of the training curriculum. It would
l
make it possible for more training to take place in closer proximity to professional
e
practice both in space and time. It might allow possibilities for schools (and colleges) to
.
acquire some of the attributes of learning institutions. It could obviate the need for special induction and support of NQTs if a seamless web of Continuing Professional
Development began to develop which could include the induction of NQTs.
n e •
Teacher educators at all levels, whether school or college-based, need to have induction
e
and continuing professional development. This should ensure that they are aware of
d
recent developments, can judge whether these should be incorporated into training,
d
have perspectives that run beyond their direct experience, and have a rich range of
t
material to draw on to support and stimulate trainee teachers.
n d o
•
Colleges could then move away from being monotechnic institutions focused purely on residential long course qualifications, towards becoming dynamically integrated nodes of innovation, professional development activity, and advisory support. They could be challenged locally and nationally to make a real difference to learning in schools and the development of the human potential of the populations they serve.
d
Whether these kinds of proposals are feasible or desirable is necessarily a question for
l
different systems to address. It may be that incremental changes based on the kind of evidence that MUSTER has accumulated are both more attractive and more likely to gain political support. The teacher education systems MUSTER has undertaken research on are
n
‘not broken but they do need fixing’. If teacher educators are to retain public support for
f
their activities, if EFA and MDG targets are to be realised, and if new approaches to learning
l
and teaching which have developmental significance are to be adopted, then all the options
,
should be aired and considered judgements made about which will make a real difference to the next generations of learners and teachers.
e e , n e d n
D
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1
T
D
S
i
w d t t I p T r i
O
•
•
•
•
6
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Chapter One
1.1
1 The MUSTER Project
Introduction
The Multi-site Teacher Education Research (MUSTER) project grew from several roots.
During the early 1990s the Centre for International Education (CIE) at the University of
Sussex Institute of Education built up links with Universities in a number of low and middle income countries. Teacher education emerged as a common focus of interest. The consensus was that teacher education in many countries was under-theorised, practice was often not demonstrably effective, and existing systems were unable to deliver the numbers of qualified teachers needed at sustainable levels of cost to meet the demands imposed by commitments to Education for All. Consequently, in 1997 the CIE approached the UK Department for
International Development6 (DFID) with a proposal for a collaborative multi-country programme of research into teacher education.
The original proposal for the research identified two separate sets of reasons for such research into teacher education. One set was policy-related, the other was concerned with insights into the nature of teacher education.
On policy MUSTER noted that:
•
All countries have systematic arrangements in place for teacher education and allocate substantial resources to initial training in the belief that it enhances the quality of teaching and student achievement.
•
Despite this there is widespread evidence that achievement of students is unsatisfactory, and that teaching methods in schools are slow to change in ways that reflect approaches deemed to be effective. Though many factors are involved in low school achievement, one strategy is to improve the quality of training given to teachers before they begin teaching and enhance the support available for the development of professional skills in the first years of employment.
•
Little research has been carried out into the effectiveness of teacher education in most low income countries. Training programmes persist which are based on models developed by the former colonial powers. More recently contemporary models from the
UK, USA, Australia and New Zealand have been influential, though their impact and feasibility is largely untested in low income countries. Ministries and development agencies trying to devise more efficient and effective programmes have few locally-based research findings to guide them; nor do they have the capacity to assess formatively which strategies are working in the manner intended.
•
In high income countries, where teachers have to be qualified before their first employment, there are clear conceptual and practice differences between pre-service
(PRESET) and in-service (INSET). In many low income countries teachers begin working in classrooms with no training, and gain initial professional qualifications much
6
Formerly the Overseas Development Administration (ODA).
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1 The MUSTER Project later, if at all. In several Commonwealth Caribbean countries this pattern is effectively a policy. By default it is also the case in many African systems. The curriculum in many
Teacher Training Colleges (TTCs) and University Departments of Education (UDEs) in these countries often does not recognise and build on the prior teaching experience trainees possess.
•
It is extremely rare for the responsibilities for training to be shared with schools in which new teachers work in many parts of Africa. Little support is generally available for the professional development of unqualified and newly qualified staff. Mentorship
F
relationships are rarely formalised and the value of initial training may be compromised
e
by subsequent lack of access to advice and role models of good practice.
•
Teacher education budgets in most low income countries are heavily constrained. There are indications that costs can be very high relative to other forms of education and training. It is therefore important to generate indications of the costs of different patterns of initial teacher education and identify any areas where more can be achieved within sustainable budgets.
On the nature of teacher education MUSTER pointed out that:
•
The actual ways in which teachers acquire and use professional knowledge are not well understood. Over the last 15 years these have been conceptualised and discussed within
e
Empirical studies and theoretical conceptualisation associated with these developments
t
(e.g. teacher thinking, teacher reflection, the differences between novices and experts)
c
have revealed the complexity of the training task.
t
The great bulk of published studies have been carried out in high income countries (e.g.
t
UK, USA, Canada, Australia). There are some exceptions (e.g. Tatto et al 1991,
s
Lockheed & Verspoor 1991, Dove 1985, Avalos and Haddad 1981, World Bank 1978)
s
but these are limited in scope and now becoming dated. Superficially teacher education
•
T
a rapidly growing literature grounded in the experience of high income countries.
M
programmes in many low income countries have remained substantially unchanged since their development under colonial administrations. This is despite radically changed demands from school systems on teachers, often arising from Universal Primary
Education (UPE), the commitments to Education for All, and related reforms of the school curricula. In addition, the work of teaching is intimately bound up both with the teacher’s identity and sense of self and with the norms, values and expectations of the communities they serve. When these things change, some fundamental reappraisal grounded in context is needed.
•
Though attempts have been made to reform teacher education the limited evidence suggests that much has remained at the level of rhetoric rather than being implemented in teacher education institutions. The general theorising which can provide models and concepts for new practice has frequently not found its way into national teacher
2
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1 The MUSTER Project a education curricula. The reasons for this need to be identified in advance of further
y
)
efforts to promote more effective practice. These may differ from system to system.
•
e
Once consequence is that there is a need to identify which aspects of teacher education theory and practice developed in high income countries might be transportable, and which carry assumptions about the cultural roles of the teacher, pedagogic preferences,
h
and infrastructure availability that compromise their value and restrict their relevance.
e p From these premises and concerns, a research proposal was designed to look at teacher
d
education from four different but complementary aspects. These were to:
e
•
d t Identify who becomes a teacher, what images, experiences and motivations they bring with them, and how these change during training and induction.
•
d
Analyse the curricular processes by which new teachers acquire and learn to apply the understanding, skills and attitudes needed to become effective professional practitioners in their local schools.
•
Profile training college staff, their career structures and their working practices
•
Explore the varied patterns of initial qualification, and link these to considerations of supply, demand, costs, and benefits.
l n The overall aims were to reach conclusions that could improve the quality of initial teacher
.
education programmes through a better understanding of the processes, and to point
s
towards more effective and efficient methods of meeting demand within realistic resource
)
constraints. Part of the MUSTER problem diagnosis indicated that published research on teacher education was rarely grounded in the context of low income countries, and that
.
teacher education policy was almost never based on evidence derived from particular
,
systems. An additional goal therefore became to build local research capacity at each of the
)
sites chosen for the research, to catalyse subsequent work which could continue after
n
MUSTER was complete and contribute to the development of evidence-based policy.
e d In summary MUSTER had ambitions to:
y e •
enhance understanding of how new teachers acquire the knowledge, skills and attitudes
e
needed to teach in different systems, and identify the professional learning experiences,
e
including teaching practice, which are most useful and valuable to new teachers given
l
the qualities that they bring with them to initial teacher education.
e
•
categorise different types of pre-service provision leading to initial qualification in each
d
system and profile their institutional bases, identify patterns of overall costs and costs
d
per qualified teacher, and consider implications for efficiency, effectiveness and the
r
prospects of meeting demand in sustainable ways.
D
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1 The MUSTER Project
•
build research capacity in-country focused on issues in teacher education using both
l
quantitative and qualitative techniques, and strengthen the resource base of young
u
researchers with field experience through in-project training.
M c 1.2
The Research Partners
D
The choice of research sites grew out of already established links7 between the Centre for
T
International Education (CIE) and the other educational research institutions listed above.
In Malawi, joint research had already been carried out with untrained teachers (Stuart and
•
Kunje 1997). A CIE link visit to Trinidad coincided with the decision of the UWI School of Education’s Research Committee to focus, inter alia, on teacher education. The Institute
•
of Education at the National University of Lesotho was interested in working more closely with the National Teacher Training College, whose Director wished to encourage research among his staff. Researchers at both ends of the link with the Institute of Education at Cape
•
Coast University in Ghana had been involved in the reform of teacher college curricula. The
South African link developed from a long-standing relationship with the Faculty of
•
Education at the University of Durban-Westville and its associated policy and research centres, which fed into the development of new approaches to teacher education designed
•
to meet the challenges posed by the transformation to democracy and the deconstruction of apartheid. •
Ghana, Lesotho, Malawi, and Trinidad and Tobago all have single national teacher education systems that are centrally controlled and relatively homogenous. In these locations
T
it was possible to undertake studies within a common framework with some comparative
B
elements. In South Africa the 1990s were a period of dramatic transition. Teacher education
a
was diverse, fragmented, and undergoing radical change. For these reasons it became clear
O
that MUSTER research needed to take a different form. The scope of the research was
C
broadened to capture some of the diversity that existed and a network of researchers was convened from other institutions including the Universities of the Western Cape,
O
Witwatersrand, and Pretoria. Though several references are made to the South African
d
research in this report it is not reported in detail. A separate book is available that synthesises
q
the fruits of the research in South Africa (Lewin, Samuel and Sayed 2003).
d p 1.3
s
The Research Process
The Sussex team made a formal proposal to DFID after preliminary contacts had been made
P
with potential link partners, and Principal Researchers identified. When this was agreed
1
contracts were drawn up between Sussex and the other institutions. The first task for each
s a 7
The Higher Education Links scheme run by the British Council had at various times supported staff exchanges between
CIE and all the other institutions.
4
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1 The MUSTER Project h local research team was to conduct a Baseline Study on the current state of teacher education
g
using secondary sources. These were presented at the first MUSTER workshop at Sussex in
March 1998, where an overall research design was developed collaboratively building on the concerns listed above.
During this two-week workshop common research elements emerged across the countries.
r
These included needs to focus on:
. d •
l e •
y
teacher
•
e f enquiry into the teacher education curriculum as locally conceptualised and implemented, exploring inputs, experiences, and outcomes
•
h d a sequential consideration of the stages through which trainees pass – enrolment in training, the training process, and induction into the first years of teaching as a trained
h e teacher preparation for the basic cycle of formal education (generally primary, but in some cases including junior secondary)
a profiling of institutions which provide initial teacher education, the staff who deliver the curriculum, and their professional needs and career trajectories
•
f
analyses of supply and demand, and their implications for costs and financing of sustainable systems for teacher education
•
an awareness of gender in the professional and institutional aspects of training, and how gender issues are addressed in the training and induction process.
r s These concerns, together with the original themes, were distilled into four Strands –
e
Becoming a Teacher, Curriculum Issues, College Issues, and Costs and Resources. Each was
n
approached through questions in the three sequential Arenas – Inputs, Processes, and
r
Outputs. A grid was developed to locate research questions within each stand and arena (see
s
Chapter 2).
s
,
On the basis of the grid of questions each country team began to design sub-studies, and
n
develop research instruments along common lines agreed at the workshop. A mixture of
s
quantitative and qualitative methods were used to complement each other, enhance both depth and breadth, and allow corroboration of insights. During the next 9 months country plans were finalised and work was begun on sub-studies within each country. These were supported from Sussex through in-country visits and through the e-mail network.
e
Progress was reviewed at the second MUSTER workshop in Durban, South Africa, in July
d
1999. This provided the opportunity for the research teams to consolidate draft reports on
h
sub-studies, identify gaps, discuss data analysis, design instruments for further data collection,
D
and plan the completion of sub-studies and country reports which would synthesise findings.
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Performance and Policy
1 The MUSTER Project
In July 2000 the researchers convened for a further workshop at Sussex. This was focused
C
on refining draft reports of further sub-studies, editing the Discussion Papers which were
T
being produced, and planning the country reports. Time was also allocated to sharing ideas
J
about the main issues and findings that had emerged from the research. A dissemination
T
strategy for MUSTER was developed which included an extensive publication programme,
p
a website, and a series of national level policy-orientated symposia. Preliminary work was undertaken to plan these and attract stakeholders. The symposia were held during 2001 and
1
2002 and each attracted key decision makers. The MUSTER principal researchers met as a group for a fourth time during the South African and Lesotho symposia, and for a fifth
T
meeting around the Oxford International Education Conference in September 2001, which
t
hosted an additional session based on MUSTER findings.
s i 1.4
w
Themes and Variations
s
7)
There were local variations to the overall pattern outlined above. This was deliberate and reflected the specific circumstances of each system and the enthusiasms of the researchers to
T
explore in more depth particular issues. Thus, in addition to the core research programme
d
based on the research matrix questions, a variety of sub-studies were conceptualised (see
c
Chapter 2 for examples). Three D. Phil. studies were developed to address specific questions
b
in very considerable detail. John Hedges explored issues to do with the induction and
e
posting of new teachers in Ghana, focusing on problems and issues confronting new teachers
t
in rural locations. Dominic Furlong developed research on financing teacher education in
p
Ghana using data collected across the College system. Alison Croft studied the training and
q
development of infant teachers in Malawi, focussing particularly on how teachers use the
C
local culture and environment effectively in resource-constrained classrooms.
s u 1.5
o
Reporting and Dissemination of Findings
The first method of dissemination was to create a MUSTER Discussion Paper series. These
T
are listed at the end of this volume and are available free on the MUSTER website. This series
o
included the Baseline Studies written at the beginning of the research period as well as many
c
other thematic contributions. MUSTER Country Studies (Ghana, Lesotho, Malawi and
r
Trinidad and Tobago) which synthesise findings at a country level, are published as DFID
Research Reports. The South African material is published by Heinemann as a book. Other documentary outputs are extensive and are indicated in Appendix 2.
Alongside the publication programme five national workshops have been organised for policy makers and practitioners to disseminate findings directly to stakeholders in each country. The first of the national dissemination workshops took place in April 2001 in
Maseru and in Pretoria. It was possible to schedule the MUSTER researchers to meet for a fourth time as a group at these conferences. This provided the opportunity to update progress towards completion of the research and plan the contributions to the Oxford
6
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1 The MUSTER Project d Conference. The Malawi national workshop took place in November 2001 in Lilongwe, the
e
Trinidad and Tobago workshop in January 2002 at UWI, and the Ghana dissemination in
s
July 2002 in Accra. These workshops were well attended and resulted in a variety of national
n
Task Groups being established to take the ideas from MUSTER forward into policy and
,
practice. (See Appendix 3 for details).
s d 1.6
Overview of Report
a h This Research Report is organised in three parts. In the first part Chapter 2 elaborates on
h
the key research questions that shaped the empirical work, and details aspects of the research strategy and the design, the development and use of the research methods chosen, and includes some reflections on the research process. Chapter 3 outlines the contexts within which the research was undertaken and provides an overview of their teacher education systems to locate subsequent discussion of research findings.
d o The second section consists of six thematically-based chapters exploring the findings from
e
different parts of MUSTER. These Chapters are broadly organised around the strands that
e
constituted the MUSTER planning framework. Chapter 4 explores the characteristics of
s
beginning teachers and their perceptions and motivations. Chapter 5 analyses the teacher
d
education curriculum. Chapter 6 takes this analysis further and focuses specifically on
s
teaching practice, since this is widely regarded as one of the most useful and one of the most
n
problematic areas of the training curriculum. Chapter 7 examines what happens when newly
d
qualified teachers enter the school system, and what might be the impact of the training.
e
Chapter 8 synthesises insights into the training institutions, their organisation and their staffing. Chapter 9 addresses questions of supply and demand, costs, and resource utilisation, and highlights the prospects for achieving development goals at sustainable levels of cost using existing training methods.
e
The last section (Chapter 10), in summarising findings across the MUSTER data, comments
s
on policy options for the future under a number of headings that include selection questions,
y
curriculum issues, college development potentials, support for newly qualified teachers, the
d
role of external assistance, and the implications of resource demands for future training.
D r r h n a e d D
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t u w a •
•
•
•
F
R t a a C f c
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Chapter Two
2.1
2 Doing The Research
The Research Questions
The original questions in the proposal emerged from discussions during link exchange visits, international debates on Teacher Education, the particular interests of the Sussex Team, and suggestions from the DFID. At the first MUSTER workshop much brainstorming went on.
This produced inter alia a list of ‘really interesting questions’ that invited enquiry because they were ones which team members felt were both important and currently poorly understood in each system. What finally emerged was a selection of key questions based on what could realistically be researched in each country with the resources available. It was agreed that the research would aim to:
•
Identify who becomes a teacher, what images, experiences and motivations they bring with them, how these change during training and induction, and how they relate to the role and identity of the teacher.
•
Analyse the curricular processes by which new teachers acquire and learn to apply the understanding, skills and attitudes needed to become effective professional practitioners in their local schools.
•
Gain a deeper understanding of the training colleges, their development and organisation, and the career patterns and perspectives of their staff.
•
Explore the varied patterns of initial qualification, costs, and benefits in the context of supply and demand for teachers
Four Strands - Becoming a Teacher, Curriculum Issues, College Issues, and Costs and
Resources - and three Arenas - Inputs, Processes and Outputs – were used to collect together research questions which could be used to guide sub-studies. The grid developed and changed over time and was modified in the light of insights from the baseline studies, and by operational constraints. A simplified version (Fig.1) is presented here and linked to
Chapters of this report where research questions included in this version are addressed. The full range of research questions and sub-questions exists within the Discussion Papers which capture data from the various sub-studies in more detail.
DFID
9
8
10
Resources
Costs and
Colleges
Curriculum
Becoming a teacher
Arena 1: Inputs
Arena 2: Process
and demand for primary teachers? (9)
configured? (9)
for training institutions
o How are budgets and other resources
Arena 3: Outputs
training? (7)
! What is the experience of NTQs after
retrospect? (7)
! How do trainees value their training in
training? (7)
intentions change as a result of
! How do Trainees’ attitudes and career
young teachers? (8)
of knowledge skills and attitudes by
✻ How do they perceive the acquisition
their work? (8)
✻ How do teacher educators perceive
the curriculum realised? (6)
• How are the practical elements of
How are they profilrd? (9)
o What are the costs of training and
resources? (9)
efficiency in the allocation of
sustainable? (9)
training and are the costs
o What is the future demand for initial
the development of college staff? (8)
✻ What needs should be prioritised for
of the graduating NQTs? (7)
of the knowledge, skills and attitudes
• What are the competencies, in terms
objectives achieved? (7)
• How is the curriculum delivered? (5) • How far are stated aims and
(5 and 6)
! How do trainees value their training?
programmes? (5 and 6)
! How do Trainees experience training
o What are the national levels of supply o What are the indicators of internal
available for teacher educators? (8)
development programmes are
✻ What induction and professional
and how? (8)
✻ Who becomes a teacher educator
assumptions? (5)
what are the underlying pedagogic
• What is to be taught, and how, and
influenced it? (5)
curriculum developed and what
• How was the teacher education
are these culturally located? (4)
expectations and experiences and how
! What do they bring in terms of images,
characteristics do they have? (4)
! Who becomes a teacher and what
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2 Doing The Research
Figure 1: The Muster Matrix: An Overall View of Arenas and Strands8
2
M
c
c
d
r
B
s
m
s
w
e
T
Numbers in brackets refer to Chapters where the questions are discussed.
DFID
a
s
J
R
t
g
c
D
T
d
e
a
S
o
u
a
i
f
e
s
s
t
a
m
( )
yp
( )
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2.2
The Research Process
MUSTER was conceived as a collaborative multi-site research project that would maintain a core agenda of common research themes. It was also designed to allow the special circumstances and concerns of national researchers to be reflected in variations to a common design and extension into themes specific to particular countries. Some key features of the research process are worth highlighting.
Baseline studies: these were developed to profile the current status of teacher education systems, identify research literature, official reports, curriculum documents and planning material on teacher education, and analyse the key issues that were of most concern in each system. These baseline studies served the purpose of providing a focus on an initial task that was of itself useful (in most cases no recent reviews of teacher education policy and practice existed), and which could provide the basis for the detailed exploration of the issues raised.
The baseline studies provided an evidenced counterpoint to assumptions and assertions about the nature and quality of teacher education circulating amongst communities of stakeholders (e.g. see Kunje and Chimombo 1999, Quamina-Aiyejina et al 1999) Lefoka,
Jobo, Khiba et al 2000, Akyeampong and Furlong 2000).
Research Matrix: MUSTER developed a grid of core research questions around which there was a consensus. Fig. 1 shows a simplified version of this matrix. This two-dimensional grid identified four strands and three arenas. It was used to guide the development of country research plans and the sub-studies designed to explore the major research questions.
Detailed plans identified the data collection methods that would be used for each sub-study.
The framework went through several iterations and proved a useful heuristic tool to focus discussion and develop particular components of the research; in the event data relevant to each cell was collected and analysed in all the countries, albeit in different degrees of depth and breadth.
Sub-studies: the research plans that were developed were deliberately segmented in terms of sub-studies. These were configured as research projects with specific foci that could be undertaken and written up in a fairly self-contained way. There were several reasons for this approach. First, some members of the research teams had little experience of acting as independent researchers. Sub-studies enabled individuals and groups to take responsibility for particular pieces of research of manageable scale which could be guided by more experienced researchers. Second, the intention was to build up from the sub-studies to synthetic research reports that would address the larger research questions. Using substudies reduced the risk that a particular aspect of the MUSTER research would not come to fruition (if a sub-study could not be completed, there would at least be several others to address related research questions). Third, the completion of sub-studies provided milestones against which to judge the progress of the research and offer more support if
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2 Doing The Research deadlines were slipping or quality needed enhancing. Many of the sub-study reports were produced in good draft form early on and circulated as part of the MUSTER Discussion
Paper series; some were later refined into journal articles.
Local Variations: certain studies were undertaken at some sites and not others, as noted above. This allowed the important differences in the significance of different research questions in different contexts to be captured. It also gave more ownership of parts of the research to the research teams and allowed space for local agendas. The local variations
T
included a study of On-the-Job Training Scheme in Trinidad and Tobago, an analysis of
u
patterns of assessment for teacher education in Malawi, detailed observations of college
T
classes in Lesotho, and a wider survey of trainee teacher attitudes in Ghana. In the case of
(
South Africa the research team decided first to focus on the experience and developmental
s
initiatives of UDW, one of the major providing institutions that was historically
d
disadvantaged. Subsequently the scope of the research was widened to include consideration
l
of the four most important pathways to becoming a teacher – college-based training,
r
university training, distance programmes in public institutions, and franchised arrangements
w
with private sector providers.
w i Symmetrical and Sequential Design: the research was planned to move from baseline studies which provided an overview of recent developments in teacher education and the
T
issues these raised, through detailed research sub-studies, back to a synthetic country report
e
which could have an evidenced basis for conclusions it reached about practice and policy.
m
This country report, and its findings, could then be used during the dissemination process,
e
along with those aspects of more detailed work relevant to future planning. Finally, the substudies and the country reports could be used to create comprehensive and synthetic
2
research reports at country level and above.
Q
Communications: MUSTER Principal Researchers were linked into a network of
e
communication through e-mail which allowed frequent sharing of insights, research
Q
instruments and support for data analysis and for report writing. The co-ordinators visited
o
the research sites to support the design, development and analysis of data, and individual
c
researchers visited Sussex for periods of writing and reflection. The MUSTER workshops
s
provided opportunities to consolidate products, share insights, and collaboratively plan
A
future activities.
c a 2.3
c
Research Methods
c
MUSTER used a wide range of research methods, drawing on both quantitative and
a
qualitative techniques of data collection and analysis. This was designed to gain as full a
a
picture as possible of the complex issues. There were also cultural reasons for using a variety
l
of approaches. As one principal researcher put it:
12
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2 Doing The Research e …. The socio-political values of African societies and the attitudes they promote
n
present those researching into the lives and experiences of its people with a different set of methodological challenges. This reality required the picking and choosing of a combination of research approaches, across what is often seen as the methodological
d
divide of qualitative and quantitative research [….] to enhance the validity of findings
h
and their interpretation. (Akyampong et al 2000: 4)
e s There was a tension between collecting data that would be directly comparable across sites
f
using common instruments, and wanting to respond to the local situation in different ways.
e
The process of designing instruments collaboratively was commenced at the first workshop
f
(March 1998). The Sussex team subsequently drew up research memoranda for the different
l
strands, containing draft instruments that could be adapted locally. In the case of survey
y
data, draft instruments were developed which had a high degree of commonality. This was
n
largely retained after piloting, though in some cases particular wording was modified to
,
reflect local variations in expression and interpretation to enhance construct validity. There
s
was more variation in the methods used to acquire qualitative data, though broad themes were agreed which were then explored through interviews, focus groups etc. These varied in the detail of their realisation.
e e The main data collection methods, how they were applied, and any special features that were
t
employed to meet specific circumstances are indicated below. Where appropriate we link
y.
methods to particular strands and arenas. More detailed accounts of the methods used in
,
each case are available in the relevant Discussion Papers.
c
2.3.1 Surveys
Questionnaires were used to collect data on student teachers at the points of entry to and f exit from their training course, and from Newly Qualified Teachers (NQTs). The Entry
h
Questionnaire contained sections on biodata (age, sex, family background, schooling etc),
d
on memories of schooling, expectations of college, and career plans, using a mixture of
l
closed and open-ended questions. A final section contained a number of Likert-type
s
statements about pedagogy, the role and status of teachers, and other professional issues.
n
Although the open-ended questions produced rich data, they proved difficult and timeconsuming to code and analyse. The Exit and NQT questionnaires were therefore drawn up at the Durban workshop to a closed-response format so they could be quickly analysed by computer, using SPSS. They contained a similar section on biodata, evaluations of the college experience including Teaching Practice (TP), careers plans, and for NQTs items
d
about induction and early experiences in school. A revised list of Likert items was developed
a
and included. Because of the time scale, these surveys were cross-sectional rather than
y
longitudinal, with different cohorts being surveyed.
D
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In Lesotho (one college) and Trinidad and Tobago (two colleges) it was possible to survey
i
trainees from each training institution. In Malawi, two Colleges were sampled out of six, and
w
in Ghana four out of thirty eight. Overall the entry samples included 400 student teachers
u
in Ghana, 90 in Lesotho, 176 in Malawi, and 299 in Trinidad. These samples have their
r
limitations, particularly as regards gender. Over two-thirds of the student teachers in the
r
samples in Lesotho, Malawi, and Trinidad and Tobago were female. In Ghana only about a
s
third were female. In Ghana and Lesotho these proportions were broadly consistent with the
o
intake in previous years. However, in Trinidad and Tobago, and in Malawi, the samples had
j
an over-representation of females when compared to the overall proportions enrolled in
c
training. In Malawi this was due to the fact that one of the colleges used in the sample was
d
all female. In Trinidad and Tobago the reason appears to be because of differential response
c
rates between males and females. Further information on the samples can be found in
MUSTER country reports and discussion papers (e.g. Akyeampong and Lewin 2002,
2
George, Mohammed et al 2001, Kunje et al 2001, and Lefoka, Molise et al 2001).
T
Similar, though slightly smaller, samples were used for the Exit questionnaire. Administering
w
questionnaires in the colleges to entering and exiting students ensured fairly high response
b
rates. The NQTs were more difficult to contact and responses were lower: data was collected
s
from 134 respondents in Ghana, 64 in Lesotho and 64 in Malawi. The Lesotho team drew
c
up a separate questionnaire to elicit views on teaching practice from 120 recently returned
(
third-year students.
e t A predominantly closed-item questionnaire was used in Ghana, Malawi and Lesotho for
u
college tutors. It requested information on qualifications and career paths, views of the college, its curriculum and their students, and contained a Likert item section inviting
2
agreement or disagreement with a range of statements, many of which paralleled those given to students.
T
w
The main strength of the surveys was to capture broadly comparable data across the different
e
countries. This was particularly useful in analysing the origins, characteristics and attitudes
I
of those entering teaching. The Likert sections enabled us to make some tentative estimates
a
about how far attitudes might be changed by training (Akeayampong and Lewin 2002,
g
Coultas and Lewin 2002).
t g The researchers were aware that many of the survey respondents indicated quite high levels of satisfaction with aspects of the teacher education curriculum although interviews often
2
revealed more general discontent. These sometimes contradictory results had to be interpreted carefully. There was a general consensus that questionnaires may be seen as
T
‘official’ instruments, and respondents did not wish to criticise the colleges because of
t
traditions of respect for elders and for those in authority, and this could have led to patterns
o
of response that exaggerated levels of satisfaction. Judgements were made to mediate the
o
14
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2 Doing The Research y interpretation of responses accordingly. Another problem was language; all the instruments
d
were designed in English – the medium of instruction. After piloting there were
s
uncertainties that respondents understood all the questions in the same way as the
r
researchers, and further attempts were made to try to improve wording and presentation to
e
reduce this problem. In addition there were problems with the administration of some
a
survey instruments. In some cases student respondents were under pressure from exams or
e
other events and were unwilling to devote time to questionnaires; in other cases it was
d
judged more productive to collect some data using other methods since levels of
n
cooperation were problematic. These difficulties were recognised in the interpretation of
s
data and the decisions made on sampling which were designed to be as representative as
e
circumstances allowed.
n
,
2.3.2 Interviews
These were used widely in a variety of forms wherever the research teams felt comfortable g with this approach. Key informants in colleges and Ministries were interviewed for
e
background information, and to provide views on policies. Semi-structured interviews with
d
samples of college tutors were used in the four sites to elicit both information about their
w
careers, and their perspectives, attitudes and beliefs about their work in preparing teachers
d
(see Stuart et al 2000). In Trinidad and Tobago the experience of teaching practice was explored in depth using interviews with college tutors, students, principals and cooperating teachers in the schools (see George, Worrell et al 2000, parts 1 and 2). Similar methods were
r
used there to explore the views of NQTs (Morris & Joseph, 2000).
e g 2.3.3 Focus Groups
n
These were used in a limited number of places for specific purposes. In cultural contexts where much respect is given to those in authority, the one-to-one interview may not always t elicit full and open answers, especially where there is a large perceived power distance.
s
Interviewing students in groups proved useful, encouraging respondents to speak out, and
s
allowing for alternative views and underlying assumptions to emerge. For example, in Ghana
,
groups were used effectively with NQTs to discuss their first year of teaching, and also with trainees about their TP (see Akyeampong et al 2000). Similarly in Malawi and Lesotho small groups of students in college were brought together to give their views on the curriculum.
s n 2.3.4 Observations
e s These were used both in college lecture halls and school classrooms. Tutors were observed
f
teaching in all four sites, most extensively in Lesotho, where eight tutors were observed 3
s
or 4 times each, and in Malawi, where 16 tutors, drawn from two colleges, were each
e
observed once. In Ghana and Trinidad and Tobago smaller samples were observed. No
D
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2 Doing The Research schedules were used, but observers noted down key points of the classroom events and
2
processes with as much detail as they could, in some cases supplemented by tape recordings.
D
Classroom observations were used in all the studies of NQTs, albeit with small samples (6
s
in Lesotho, 8 in Trinidad and Tobago, 11 in Ghana.), again using simple notes. Small
a
numbers of untrained teachers were also observed to give some insight into differences. In
a
Malawi NQTs were observed using the standard TP assessment instrument to explore how
s
far their teaching differed from those of their untrained colleagues.
t
2.3.5 Combining classroom observation with interview
2
In several of the studies in both colleges and schools observations and interviews were used
I
together to try to elicit teachers’ and tutors’ views about their work in more depth. The
t
shared experience of the lesson provided a context for the interview; more deliberately, the
G
interviewer could use incidents from the lesson to probe some of the underlying assumptions
s
and reasoning (e.g. Croft 2002a). The importance of taking time to build up rapport and
l
trust was emphasised in interactions between researchers and respondents (See Hedges
2002a). In the Trinidad and Tobago TP study, the researchers observed not only the lessons
2
but also the post-lesson conferences, and then interviewed students and tutors. Such forms of triangulation enabled researchers to gain a more holistic view of the processes by drawing
S
out the participants’ meanings (George, Mohammed, et al 2001).
a t r
2.3.6 Autobiographical essays and student diaries
a
These were used to supplement the Entry Questionnaire. A small sample of students (18 in
g
Ghana, 27 in Lesotho, 20 in Malawi, 16 in Trinidad and Tobago) were asked to write about
a
good and bad experiences of schooling, their best and worst teachers, and their current hopes and expectations. The essays were coded and analysed qualitatively by theme, along
2
with the open-ended questions on similar topics in the entry questionnaire. They provided very valuable information on the kinds of images and experiences of schooling and of
A
teachers that trainees bring to their training.
s
(
A small group of trainees in Lesotho were given diaries in which to write comments about
o
their classes, what they were learning, and their problems. Language, time and the
s
unfamiliarity of diary keeping made this difficult to sustain, but some rich insights were
y
obtained that cast a new light on students’ lives.
E a a c r
m
16
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2 Doing The Research d 2.3.7 Document analysis
.
Documents were used extensively. The Baseline studies were compiled from secondary
6
sources. Past student files were accessed where appropriate. Curriculum documents were
l
analysed using Eraut’s (1976) scheme that identifies aims and objectives, content, pedagogy,
n
and teaching-learning materials to see whether they form a consistent curricular strategy. In
w
some sites exam papers were also analysed to ascertain the coverage of syllabus topics and the cognitive demands made.
2.3.8 Tests
d
In the four sites tests in Maths and English were drawn up using items from, or similar to,
e
the local school-leaving examinations which are used for college entrance. In Malawi and
e
Ghana pedagogical knowledge tests were also devised. These tests were administered cross-
s
sectionally to entering and exiting cohorts since it was not possible to follow cohorts
d
longitudinally.
s s 2.3.9 Financial analysis and modelling supply and demand
s g Statistical analysis was undertaken based on school census data, national planning reports and budgetary allocations. This was supplemented with data collected at institutional level to establish patterns of expenditure. Interviews were conducted with those with financial responsibilities at different levels. Supply and demand was modelled using simulations adapted for each country to derive projections of future needs linked to national policy
n
goals. This was used to profile budgetary demand and ascertain whether current methods
t
and costs of training were likely to prove sustainable.
t g 2.4
Reflections on the Research Process
d f A project as large as MUSTER inevitably experiences dilemmas and difficulties as well as successes. Many things did not go according to plan and many adjustments had to be made
(Lewin and Stuart 2002). During the fieldwork Lesotho experienced political unrest and
t
occupation by SADC troops. For much of the research period MIITEP in Malawi was
e
suspended as government and agencies negotiated over funding. At the end of the third
e
year, South Africa finally announced a new national policy to incorporate Colleges of
D
Education into the higher education system, ending a period of uncertainty and confusion about policy on the location of initial training. In Ghana elections created uncertainties about the implementation of the ‘In-In-Out’ system in 2001. An election was announced to coincide with the Trinidad and Tobago national dissemination workshop, causing it to be rescheduled. At Sussex staff changes occurred which had to be accommodated, and new members of the team had to be inducted into the MUSTER research.
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2 Doing The Research
Towards the end of the project we set up various structures to enable all participants to
t
reflect on the project and identify aspects of the experience that might inform future
a
collaborative research of a similar kind.9 The comments below are drawn from some of these
q
reflections.
a t o
2.4.1 Collaboration and participation
a
The original proposal for the research was made from Sussex on the basis of general
c
discussions that emerged from various academic link programmes maintained by CIE with the five partner countries. This followed from the nature of the DFID research
O
commissioning process at the time. Thus, the first research framework that emerged was not
s
a product of formal collaboration for this purpose, but a distillation of issues and questions
a
that had arisen as teacher education issues were debated with colleagues within the link
t
programmes. Ideally, perhaps, a developmental proposal should have been made at the
u
outset to allow a detailed research framework to be developed through a systematic process
a
of collaboration designed with this in mind. This would have involved perhaps six months
v
to a year of preparatory work in partnership with colleagues in the link institutions, and the provision of funds for exploratory work in advance of a joint proposal. This strategy may be
M
an option for future research funding. As it was, outline approval for MUSTER was obtained
c
with a list of possible collaborators. Research fellow positions were advertised and the final
g
list of collaborating partners was agreed in consultation. It took more than six months to
p
firm up partnerships, make the necessary appointments, and draw up draft research
n
contracts.
p
w
Thus staff at Sussex initiated the project, negotiated the outline proposal, and became the
F
fund holders accountable to DFID for the research products. In practice, this meant that
r
Sussex, together with DFID, agreed a time-table for products in consultation with the
t
researchers, and disbursed funds against the achievement of agreed milestones in the form
s
of research reports. This was judged a more appropriate way to proceed than the alternative
w
of payments linked to detailed accounting of fieldwork activity10. The latter would have
t
created a considerable administrative overhead and not necessarily guaranteed timely
w
completion of work.
d
As a result of its origins, and the arrangements for accountability for funds, there were some
A
perceptions that MUSTER was hierarchically organised from the centre and ‘product-
c
driven’. The latter is in part true and is arguably appropriate for commissioned research
s
intended to inform policy and practice within a finite time scale. Products are needed and
e
completion of research reports can be the most problematic and time-consuming element of
u
9
For example, we held a full team discussion during the July 2000 workshop, which was taped and transcribed; the D.Phil research students invited the Principal researchers to individual semi-structured interviews about their experiences of the project; June George wrote a short article for the issue of Perspectives that Michael Samuel was editing (an example of
South-South collaboration).
10
Local budgets were subject to the accounting rules of the collaborating institutions.
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2 Doing The Research o the research process. However, MUSTER was intellectually driven by the research questions
e
agreed at the first joint workshop, and the products arose from exploration of these
e
questions. The administrative organisation of MUSTER was partly shaped by the nature of accountability to DFID. Overall responsibility for delivery rested with Sussex and through the project co-ordinators with the sub-contracted research groups. This meant that the coordinators, without the help of paid support staff, had to become managers and administrators of the project as well as undertaking the research. At times this resulted in
l
considerable stress.
h h Other approaches are conceivable, and might be considered in future. They would have to
t
satisfy needs to maintain accountability, manage the quality and timely delivery of products,
s
and be administratively efficient. MUSTER researchers did recognise that the structure of
k
the project had some advantages. Thus one comment was that ‘the project structure pushed
e
us to draw on our reserves and make that extra effort’ in meeting agreed deadlines. Perhaps
s
a less structured approach would have resulted in more slippage in the completion of the
s
various sub-studies.
e e MUSTER established an email network for communication early in its life. At first
d
communications developed with most information flowing outwards from the centre. This
l
generated a reciprocal flow of responses back to the centre. News from the remote sites was
o
passed on to other sites, with limited communication along the ‘rim’ of the network. The
h
notable exceptions occurred at the annual workshops where face-to-face interaction was possible. To enhance the flow of ideas among the researchers, drafts from the different sites were made available electronically, and each site was provided with a laptop computer.
e
Facility with new technology varied, as did infrastructure and back-up services, with the
t
result that sometimes communication failed for significant periods. It also became clear that
e
the volume of work produced across the five sites was such that there were problems in
m
simply keeping up to date with developments in all the sites. Sometimes it seemed that there
e
was not enough time to download and read all the material available. Later on, as a result of
e
the experience of the team meetings, and in particular the dissemination workshops, there
y
was more sharing, and mutual learning grew. If funds had permitted it would have been desirable to rotate meetings around all the five sites.
e
A steering committee was set up which included a ‘critical friend’ who was invited to
-
comment periodically on the progress of the research. This proved very helpful and various
h
suggestions were taken on board. DFID advisors were also kept in the picture about
d
emerging work and were invited to comment on drafts and attend workshops. This proved
f
useful throughout MUSTER.
l
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2 Doing The Research s 2.4.2 Research design and building research capacity
n
MUSTER experienced some tensions from the outset that are common to many multi-site
r
research projects. One the one hand there was a firm commitment to be responsive to the
M
research interests and enthusiasms of the principal researchers and their teams. Context and
o
priorities differed, as did the history, content, and process of teacher education. It would
t
have been ill-advised if not impossible to ignore this in designing the research in detail. On
r
the other hand, there was an ambition to address common issues to highlight aspects of
T
practice, policy, and possibilities that would not necessarily appear from single country
f
studies. Not least there was an aspiration to address teacher education issues at the international level, and develop dialogue with those working in development agencies and
2
governments on externally assisted Education for All programmes.
M
At the first workshop it proved possible to identify common questions and approaches to
t
data collection for parts of MUSTER. As a result some sub-studies followed similar
t
pathways for data collection and analysis. Alongside this other sub-studies were devised
e
which were specific to particular sites. Adopting this approach was one of the factors that
o
led to MUSTER growing in scope. Had it elected to focus only on the national without
s
regard to cross-national perspectives, or alternatively adopted a single standard set of
e
questions and research instruments, it would have been less complex. But neither of these options seemed appropriate since either alone would overlook what were generally agreed
T
to be important perspectives, not least because of the interactions between national and
f
international aspects of teacher education curriculum, policy and practice.
m p The discussions around the development of the research framework encouraged researchers
h
to use a range of data collection and analysis techniques that included those with both
K
qualitative and quantitative characteristics. This meant that to different degrees the
f
researchers had to use methods they were already familiar with and to acquire
f
understanding and skill with those that were new to them. Support for this was provided
t
from Sussex through in-country visits, email, and the opportunities that arose for
r
researchers to spend periods of time at Sussex. The researchers also shared experiences with colleagues in-country and across the MUSTER team. Technical advice was provided from
I
Sussex when unavailable locally.
t a Developing higher level research skills is time-consuming. Intuitively such skills are best
d
developed with a mixture of systematic study and involvement in the real world of
a
application. MUSTER attempted in some measure to both undertake high quality research,
t
and to develop skills in the process. It has succeeded to a degree evident in the various
w
outcomes and considerable volume of publications by a wide range of authors. In an ideal
W
world many facilitating factors would have been present – a supportive national
c
environment for research, a critical mass of researchers at PhD level, adequate technical
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2 Doing The Research support in-country, release time for researchers, substantial infrastructure to underpin national level data analysis, interpretation, and the production of high quality draft research e reports. In the nature of the project not all these things were present at each site. The
e
MUSTER infrastructure helped partly compensate for this and generated solutions to many
d
of the problems that arose. It also drew attention to the implications of adopting approaches
d
to policy that are more, rather than less, evidence-based. The reality is that the collection of
n
robust evidence rigorously collated is often a time-consuming and skill-intensive activity.
f
Though the costs can be high, they remain small in relation to the costs of misguided policy
y
founded on assumption and casual empiricism.
e d 2.4.3 Resources
MUSTER supported a wide range of research activity across six sites for four years. Though o the funding made available was substantial, it was nevertheless very modest when compared
r
to the resources currently allocated to teacher education in each country and to the size of
d
external support for Education for All programmes. These of course depend at least in part
t
on adequate teacher supply and teacher quality for their success. More could have been well
t
spent. Lessons can also be learned from how the project resources might be utilised more
f
effectively in future.
e d The MUSTER contracts were largely made with the institutions, not with individuals. The
d
funds provided were intended to include payment for the time of lead researchers and team members, and to cover direct costs of fieldwork, data analysis, report production etc. As a principal researcher noted ‘One of the difficulties in doing research in a setting that doesn’t
s
have a rich culture of research is finding appropriate blocks of time in which to do the work’.
h
Key individuals often carried heavy teaching and/or administrative loads and responsibilities
e
for other projects. Most of the collaborating institutions did not have formal arrangements
e
for release time for research projects though funding was provided for this purpose. Where
d
they did, norms and practice varied widely. This created difficulties both for principal
r
researchers, and for team members, when the time needed was not necessarily forthcoming.
h
m
It was assumed that all the participating institutions would contribute some ‘institutional’ time and other resources to the enterprise, since the research would benefit the institutions and their staff in terms of capacity building and research profile. All in fact did this in
t
different ways, but there was general agreement among all the researchers, including those
f
at Sussex, that ‘the amount of time that was funded was nothing like the amount of time
,
that was put into it’. The project’s success was due to the great efforts that everyone made
s
well over and above the personal and institutional contributions originally envisaged.
l
Without these non-costed contributions the MUSTER project would have been
l
compromised.
l
D
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2 Doing The Research
The institutions all had different ways of handling research money. These sometimes clashed
o
with the project framework established. Thus in general resources were provided against the
o
completion of agreed products e.g. the baselines studies, drafts of sub-study reports, and the
r
full country reports. Internal accounting systems often refused to advance money for
a
research expenses until funds had been transferred notwithstanding the existence of a
t
contract. In spite of some degree of flexibility, in one case it was said the Institution ‘lost money through MUSTER though it gained in reputation’. Sussex itself waived research
2
student tuition fees and thereby supported MUSTER research financially. Our experience draws attention to the need to share expertise in research management, not least the fact that
F
accounting systems designed primarily to handle university general business (e.g. student
r
fees, government subsidies, staff salaries etc.) can be dysfunctional for research contracts.
•
2.4.4 Benefits and burdens
There was no doubt that the project constituted a steep learning curve for all involved, from
•
which everyone gained in terms of professional development. Some of the benefits mentioned frequently by the researchers were:
•
-
skills in managing research projects
-
working with other academics, sharing ideas, getting feedback
-
gains in academic confidence, especially in writing skills
-
a broadening, or refocusing, of research and career interests
S
•
There were many indications that the associated institutions had gained in terms of:
-
enhanced local and international reputation
-
research publications, especially where Discussion Papers, or articles based on them,
•
were made available locally
-
expanding the numbers involved in research to include new and inexperienced
•
researchers
For the research students based at Sussex, being part of a larger project removed some of the isolation of doctoral research, and working in collaboration with a local institute and its
•
staff during fieldwork enriched both their data and the personal experience. The ‘hidden costs’ to the local institution for hosting such students were, however, considerable, and while many were generously absorbed in a spirit of collaborative activity, in future such costs should be recognised and factored in.
Not surprisingly, given the scope of MUSTER and the dynamic ways in which its emphases changed, some reflections suggested that the project became too ambitious and covered too much ground. The initial enthusiasm generated research agendas that were sometimes out
22
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2 Doing The Research d of proportion to the resources and time available. Everyone mentioned experiencing periods
e
of pressure and stress, especially as deadlines for workshops approached. It was generally
e
recognised that much had been learned and that there were many benefits both individually
r
and to the institutions, though the personal costs in terms of tension and overload had at
a
times been substantial.
t h 2.4.5 Some suggestions for the future
e t From all this, certain lessons can be learnt. Certain aspects worked well and can be
t
recommended. For example:
•
A sequential development of publications, from Baseline Studies to Discussion Papers, and the setting of milestone targets, linked to sub-studies which can be written up for articles and integrated into the final reports.
m
•
s
An overall research design flexible enough to guide the studies and frame the broad research questions, which also allows more precise and context-specific questions to be identified. •
A Steering Committee, which can serve many purposes, particularly that of providing feedback and suggestions at a distance from the day to day management of the research.
Some suggestions for those undertaking similar projects include:
•
Recognising the need to involve Principal Researchers in the design of the research at the earliest possible stage and if financially possible hold full team meetings at all the research sites.
•
,
Trying to ensure that there is at least one full-time researcher at each site for most, if not all, of the research period, whether this is the Principal Researcher or a member of one of the research teams.
d
•
Accepting that if there is an explicit commitment to build research capacity in a sustainable way, additional time and resources are required to guide and support inexperienced researchers as they learn on the job; this needs to be incorporated into the
f s budget.
•
n d s
Matching funding arrangements to take into account the financial regulations and norms of the receiving institutions, to the extent these are consistent with sponsors’ requirements and the progress of the research.
•
Negotiating clear and transparent agreements about the contributions of partners, that recognise what they can realistically do with the resources available.
s o t
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3
T c h a e v d c b l t b e
A
T i i c g a t
3
T t c i s
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Chapter Three
3.1
3 The MUSTER Project:
Context and Emerging Issues
Introduction
This chapter presents background information needed to set the MUSTER research in context. The teacher education systems in the MUSTER countries differ for complex historical, political, cultural and demographic reasons. All share influences that arise from the activities of missionaries and colonial governments in the formative stages of teacher education in each country. In all cases the systems are now government-controlled, with varying degrees of residual relationships with groups who played a role in the founding of different training colleges. The training institutions exist within different policy and curriculum regimes, and have been subject to more or less developmental support since being assimilated into state education systems. It is the national contexts that determine the level of supply and demand for new teachers, and the nature of new entrants recruited into training. The characteristics of the different training systems are explored in a series of baseline studies (Ghana - Akyeampong and Furlong, 2000; Lesotho – Lefoka, Jobo, Khiba et al, 2000; Malawi - Kunje and Chimombo, 1999; Trinidad and Tobago - QuaminaAiyejina et al, 1999) and in other MUSTER discussion papers.
The first section describes the current system of training primary teachers, gives contextual information on relevant aspects of the school systems, and notes some of the concerns identified in the Baseline Studies. The second section describes some of the features of the colleges where the training takes place. These include their historical origins, aspects of governance and control; and some of the physical and environmental features that can have an impact on teaching and learning. The final section identifies some key issues that shaped the MUSTER research.
3.2
Overview of the Teacher Education Systems
The training systems in Ghana, Lesotho, Malawi and Trinidad and Tobago vary in terms of the entry level qualifications required, the length and location of training, the type of certification, and the mode of delivery. Figure 2 shows the contrasting patterns. Figure 3 illustrates graphically the length of training and the division of time between college and school-based activity.
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3 The MUSTER Project: Context and Emerging Issues
Figure 2: Forms of teacher training programmes in four countries
s
Country
Ghana
Lesotho
g
Entry level
5 O level credits
4 COSC credits JC or MSCE
+ 2 yrs work
5 CXC passes,
On Job Training
+ 2yrs work
q
Malawi
Trinidad & Tobago
4
S
Length
3 years11
3 1/2 years
2 years
2 –5 years
a
Location of
Training
Teacher T.
College
Teacher T.
College
TTC + schools Teacher T. College
o
Diploma
Certificate
Certificate
Qualification Certificate
Awarded by
MOE
NTTC
MOE
Pre-service,
Residential
Pre-service,
Residential
In-service,
Mixed
o
MOE
Mode of training o
In-service.
G i u
w
Figure 3: Length of college and school-based training in four countries (2000)
p n In Sec Sch
3
Ghana
c
1-semester upgrading
T
Lesotho
c
Untrained Teachers
c
Malawi
d p On the Job Training
t
Trinidad & Tobago
Pre Training
Year 1
Year 2
Year 3
3
Full Time Residential
T
Full Time Non-Residential
L
School-based Training
t a c
3.2.1 Ghana
Ghana has only one mode of initial teacher education. Thirty-eight colleges (seven male,
t
one female, and the rest mixed) provide three-year full-time post-secondary training. All the
t
colleges except one are residential and all prepare teachers for primary and junior secondary
7
level with options to specialise. Since 1993 the number of trainees has increased by over 50%
p
and in 1998 20,400 were enrolled, of whom 38% were female. Average enrolment in
a
colleges was about 500 students, covering a range from 240 to 910. About 1,050 college
f
12
C
After the research started Ghana shifted to an In-In-Out system of two years in College and one year in school based training. 12
There are thirty eight state-run colleges and three private colleges.
11
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3 The MUSTER Project: Context and Emerging Issues staff are employed, giving an average staff-student ratio of 20:1. Two-thirds of staff are graduates and over 80% are male. Formal entrance requirements for training are: a minimum qualification (Ghana GCE ‘O’Level – 5 Grade Es or better; Senior Secondary Certificate –
4 Credits and one other pass), an interview, and a common college entrance examination.
Some trainees with the minimum requirements may enter college via ‘protocol’ arrangements that may circumvent normal entrance requirements. A recent reform (2001) of the teacher education system has introduced an ‘In-In-Out’ system whereby the third year of training will be located in schools rather than in the Colleges. This is in the early stages of implementation.
Ghana is committed to universalising primary education and enrolments have been increasing. Primary gross enrolment rates appear to be around 79%. The proportion of untrained teachers has been falling to below 20%, with large regional variations. There is widespread concern with low levels of pupil achievement that are partly attributed to the poor quality of teacher education. Expenditure on teacher education has been rising and now accounts for about 6% of total recurrent expenditure on education which itself is about
35% of all government spending. The cost per trained teacher is about five times GNP per capita. There is an on-going debate in Ghana about the most suitable course structure and curriculum for preparing teachers for primary schools, and in particular how such schools can be used as training sites. There are also concerns about the colleges and the professional development of their staff. Currently the large classes, heavy staff workloads, and traditional practices of the colleges seem to militate against innovations aimed at raising the quality of training. 3.2.2 Lesotho
The National Teacher Training College (NTTC) is the only teacher education college in
Lesotho. It trains primary and junior secondary level teachers on different courses. Initial training has evolved through a variety of programmes but is being consolidated into a three and a half year residential programme, the Diploma in Education, Primary (DEP). Total college enrolment has been maintained at about 80013 on various programmes including
,
those for in-service and post-service up-grading. The total numbers enrolled in initial
e
training for primary have fluctuated between 300 and 400 in the recent past. Typically, over
y
70% of trainees are female. The effective staff-student ratio is about 1:14 on primary programmes. More than 95% of the 44 College staff in the Primary Division hold degrees
n
and about two-thirds were female in 1998. Selection onto the DEP requires a minimum of
e
four credits (one of which must be in English) and a pass in Cambridge Overseas School
D
Certificate. NTTC also interviews some candidates.
13
This includes part time students and is therefore not a full time equivalent figure.
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3 The MUSTER Project: Context and Emerging Issues
Gross enrolment rates at primary level are over 100% and are greater for girls than boys. The
i
proportion of untrained teachers in primary schools has remained around 25% over the last
t
five years. The college output of less than 150 new teachers a year has been insufficient to
e
reduce this proportion. The introduction of free primary schooling from 2000 is increasing
r
enrolments thereby increasing demand for teachers. Lesotho allocates between 2% and 3% of the recurrent education budget to NTTC and commits over 30% of government
3
resources to education as a whole. The cost per trained teacher is over ten times GNP per capita. T e Major issues in Lesotho concern the status and characteristics of the NTTC as the only
w
teaching training college, how the college curriculum can be rationalised and upgraded, how
8
teacher quality can be enhanced, and how output can be increased.
a u t
3.2.3 Malawi
o
Since 1997 pre-service college-based training for primary level in Malawi has been
m
suspended to allow for large numbers of untrained teachers to be trained through the
Malawi Integrated Teacher Education Programme (MIITEP). This system provides for one
T
term in College, four terms in supervised teaching practice, and most of a term in College
n
preparing for and taking final examinations. The programme is run in all six primary colleges
O
(two are single sex) which together enrol cohorts of about 2,500 students at a time, three
a
times a year when fully operating. Six cohorts were enrolled between 1997 and 1999 with
e
each college taking between about 400 and 600 students per cohort three times a year.
r
About 42% of MIITEP trainees are female. Nominal staff-student ratios vary between 1:11
t
and 1:21. About a quarter of staff appear to be graduates and about 35% are female.
MIITEP trainees are drawn from the ranks of untrained teachers who constitute perhaps half
T
of all teachers. Most of those enrolled (65%) have been Junior Certificate of Education
o
(JCE) holders (two years secondary schooling), though the stated policy is to recruit those
t
with the Malawi Secondary Certificate of Education (MSCE) (four years secondary).
p
Candidates are selected from the MIITEP database and are not interviewed or tested. The
t
MIITEP programme was suspended in 1999 for nearly two years whilst negotiations took place concerning continued external support.
Malawi implemented Free Primary Education (FPE) in 1994 resulting in an increase in enrolments from about 1.8 million to 3 million primary pupils. Currently Malawi allocates about 4% of its educational expenditure to teacher education and about 30% to education as a whole. The cost per trained teacher in MIITEP is about three times the GNP per capita.
Important issues in Malawi are concerned with training and upgrading enough teachers to meet the needs created by FPE for more teachers. The MIITEP school-based system seeks to share training between the colleges and the schools but this is problematic given the poor
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3 The MUSTER Project: Context and Emerging Issues e infrastructure, stringent resource constraints, and volume of demand. Challenges for
t
training include the extent to which it can prepare trainees for very large classes which can
o
exceed 100 in the lower grades of primary schools, and whether the MIITEP system can be
g
refined to make it more efficient and effective at sustainable levels of cost.
t
3.2.4 Trinidad and Tobago
r
Trinidad and Tobago has two government colleges where most primary initial teacher education takes place. The Teacher’s Diploma is awarded after two years full-time study (39 y weeks) including periods of teaching practice. Total enrolments average between 700 and
w
800, split evenly between the colleges. About 30% of trainees are male. Staff-student ratios are about 1:13 and 55% of the tutors are female. Selection into the colleges is made from untrained teachers who have been working in schools for two to five years, most of entered teaching via the ‘On the Job Training’ apprenticeship programme. Students are employees of the Ministry of Education and receive full scholarships. Entrants to the teaching service
n
must have 5 CXC (Caribbean Examinations Council) passes or the equivalent ‘O’ Levels.
e e Trinidad and Tobago has achieved close to universal enrolment at primary level. The
e
number of primary students is projected to fall from 188,000 in 1995 to 163,000 by 2005.
s
Overall demand for teachers is therefore falling. However over 20% were untrained in 1997,
e
and opportunities exist to lower further the teacher-pupil ratio in primary schools from its
h
existing level of about 24:1. Teacher training accounts for somewhat less than 2% of the
r.
recurrent education budget which is 13% of total government expenditure. The cost of a
1
trained teacher is about three times GNP per capita.
. f There are concerns in Trinidad and Tobago that the college curriculum is outdated and
n
overloaded, and that it may not be effective in preparing teachers for the practical skills of
e
teaching. Entrants to college enter with experience, but this is not linked to the selection
.
procedure nor to the college curriculum Further, little is known about how the novice
e
teachers utilize their training or what impact they have on the schools.
k
n s s
o s r
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3 The MUSTER Project: Context and Emerging Issues r 3.2.5 Some cross-site comparisons
t
Cross-country comparisons of factors which shape the teacher education systems are shown
p
in Figure 4.
f
w
Figure 4: Factors shaping teacher education systems
Country
Population
GNP per Capita
Claimed Gross
Enrolment Rate at
Primary
Ghana
Lesotho
Malawi
Trinidad and
Tobago
L
18.7 million
2 million
10.1 million
1.3 ,million
u
US$390
US$570
US$200
US$4250
o
79%
108%
130%
99%
m
p
s
Rate of Growth of
Primary Age Cohort
4% possible falling to 3%
Declining 0 to –1.5%
+2% but may be falling
Declining –2% to –3%
T
Primary Enrolments
2,290,000
370,000
2,800,000
171,000
e
63700
8100
43400
7311
r
Pupil-teacher Ratio in
Primary
36:1
45:1
65:1
23:1
% Untrained teachers
13.5%
23%
40%-50%
23%
5%
5%-10%
10%-15%
3%
6
2
Primary Teachers
Primary Teacher
Attrition Rate
p
3
Number of Primary
Teacher Education
Colleges
38
1
(includes J.Sec) (includes some
Sec.)
Current Enrolments
20,400 (1998) 900 including 2500 per cohort,
Full time secondary and 3 cohorts/year part time when fully students operating
P
T
D e 791 (1999)
Full time
c e o
Lecturers
1044
43 (primary)
150
60
b
Student-staff Ratio in
College
19.5:1
14:1 in primary division 15:1
13:1
a
Annual Output of New
Primary Teachers
6000
150
7000 when fully operating
400
Ratio of Total Number of Primary Teachers to
Annual Output
10.6
54:1
6.2
18.2
s h r
3
Ghana and Malawi have relatively large populations and teacher education systems
T
compared to Lesotho and Trinidad and Tobago. The latter is a middle-income country
s
whereas the others are much poorer in terms of GNP per capita. Demand for new teachers
f
is high in three of the countries, but for different reasons. In Ghana the GER at primary is
t
still well below 100% and more teachers are needed to achieve Education for All (EFA)
o
targets for universal enrolment. It also has a high rate of growth in the school age cohort,
t
and teacher output must grow at least at this rate to maintain the current pupil-teacher
i
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3 The MUSTER Project: Context and Emerging Issues ratio, and more if untrained teachers are to be trained. In Malawi demand arises mostly from the growth in primary numbers, the need to reduce very high pupil-teacher ratios and n proportions of untrained teachers, and the very high rates of teacher attrition. During the four years MITTEP was in progress, the ratio of teachers in post to newly trained teachers was low (6.2:1) indicating a high level of effort in training.
Lesotho is different. It has high enrolment rates and low or negative cohort growth. Its primary pupil-teacher ratio is high, but not excessive, and about a quarter of teachers are untrained. The main factor creating demand for new teachers appears to be the very low output of the training system. The ratio of 65:1 teachers in post to output is insufficient to maintain the pupil-teacher ratio at current levels, and replace teachers who leave. This situation is deteriorating as enrolments increase and drop out declines as a result of FPE.
Trinidad and Tobago also has a negative rate of growth in the school age cohort. In this case pupil-teacher ratios and teacher attrition are low, and the output ratio of the teacher education system is more than sufficient to maintain enrolment rates at current pupil-teacher ratios. 3.3
The College Context.
Primary teacher training in anglophone Africa and the Caribbean mostly takes place in
Teacher Training Colleges (TTCs), while most secondary teacher education is in University
Departments of Education (UDEs). In Africa, colleges usually grew out of missionary-run education, though generally with national independence they came under government control. These colleges usually occupy an intermediate position between schools and higher education. They are often more like ‘glorified high schools’ than universities in their organisation, teaching environment and culture. Their physical location, layout and buildings place constraints on their operation and the opportunities to innovate. Colleges are mostly residential and are often situated away from towns. As a result there may be few schools nearby which can be used for teaching practice. These teacher education institutions have their own history, culture, ethos, practices, etc. and any programme of change must recognise these as a starting point.
3.3.1 Ghana
s
The first TTC in Ghana was founded in 1848 by the Basel Mission and many of the colleges
y
still have church affiliations. Others grew out of secondary schools; all are now government-
s
funded and have a common curriculum. Training colleges in Ghana have the appearance of
s
traditional secondary schools from the way they were built and their way of operating. Many
)
of them were started as missionary institutions to train ministers, catechists and later
,
teachers. Some of them were built as traditional secondary schools and were later converted
r
into colleges for training teachers. Their characteristic features include residential boarding
D
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3 The MUSTER Project: Context and Emerging Issues facilities, a dining hall, a daily timetable divided into periods of 40 minutes, classrooms with
r
seats arranged in rows and columns facing a chalkboard (seating between 40-50 students),
s
a small library, staff bungalows, an administrative block and playing grounds for sports
b
activities. Those with strong missionary roots have a chapel. Classrooms have no visual aids or storage facilities for keeping teaching and learning materials. Their science laboratories
M
appear to be poorly equipped and are too small. In one of the colleges studied, there was
t
only one laboratory for practical work in physics, chemistry and biology which could only
a
seat about fifty students. College libraries tended to be small and in one college it was
i
estimated that it could seat about 30 students at a time. In the case-study colleges, the
h
libraries’ newest collections appeared to be books donated under recent British aid programmes. Most of the books looked old and unused (Akyeampong 2001).
T
m
In the colleges there is an emphasis on discipline and moral training, often with daily
h
worship. Students have to undertake manual labour, such as weeding or sweeping the
d
compound. The strict rules and regulations, sometimes verging on the militaristic, are felt
D
by some trainees to be demeaning. ‘We are treated like primary pupils’ one said. This could
f
conflict with an aim of producing teachers ready to take responsibility and to make professional judgements.
3
The curriculum is developed and assessed by the Institute of Education at the University of
I
Cape Coast, under direction from the Teacher Education Directorate of the Ministry of
f
Education. College lecturers are involved to the extent that they sit on subject panels and
g
help mark the exams, but otherwise exercise little control, and are reported to see their role
c
simply as teaching what they are given.
c
J
l
3.3.2 Lesotho
w
The three main churches in Lesotho – Evangelical, Anglican and Catholic – all developed
l
their own TTCs for primary teachers which were located around the country. This
(
continued until 1975 when all primary and junior secondary training was centralised in a
B
new, secular, National Teacher Training College (NTTC) in Maseru. The NTTC aims were,
s
inter alia, to enhance national unity, modernise the curriculum and effect economies of scale
a
in training. The college was set up as with UNDP support and an American Director. The
A
decision to have an all-graduate staff had several implications: few lecturers could be taken
n
over from the old church colleges, so there was a sharp break with the past; expatriates staffed the college until Basotho were trained; and from the start the college aspired to
T
tertiary status.
t c After the UNDP project ended financial control was taken over by the MOE, while for
d
academic purposes the college became loosely affiliated to the National University of
a
Lesotho (NUL). The college controls its own curriculum and assessment, though final
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3 The MUSTER Project: Context and Emerging Issues h results have to be agreed by the university senate. Negotiations have been under way for
,
some years to give the institution financial autonomy as the ‘Lesotho College of Education’
s
but this is yet to become a reality.
s s Most of the teaching facilities date from the 1970s. The timetable is divided into one- and
s
two-hour slots, and teaching takes place in a lecture theatre or classrooms which have tables
y
and chairs rather than desks. The library has recently been improved, but laboratories are
s
inadequate for hands-on scientific experiments. Most students board, and until recently
e
hostel accommodation was a limit to enrolment.
d
Throughout its 25 years of existence, the college has depended greatly on foreign aid, first mainly American, and then Irish. The original Primary Teacher Certificate curriculum was y heavily influenced by the American educational thinking of the time, which emphasized skills
e
development, micro-teaching, and behavioural objectives. The development of the new
t
Diploma programme took place under Irish advice. The University of Bath had a recent link
d
for upgrading tutors to Masters degree level through a distance programme.
e
3.3.3 Malawi
f
In Malawi a number of small TTCs were also originally established by the missionaries. The
f
first government college was established in 1962; this became Blantyre TTC. After 1973 the
d
government took control over teacher education and through a process of amalgamation 13
e
colleges were reduced to six, of which two are still owned by the Catholic Church. The two colleges selected for MUSTER case-studies present both contrasts and similarities. St.
Joseph’s, an all-female Catholic-run college, stands 15 km. from a small town, in a rural landscape. It is one of the four colleges which in the late 1980s were substantially rebuilt with World Bank support and has impressive, spacious buildings, including halls, labs and
d
library, but is very poorly equipped with books and materials. Blantyre Teachers’ College
s
(BTC) is government-run, mixed sex, and is on the outskirts of the industrial area of
a
Blantyre. Its one-storey buildings, laid out in quadrangles, are 40 years old, the library is
,
small and understocked, there is no staff common room, the labs and technical workshop
e
areas are inadequate; the hostels are grossly over-crowded and have poor sanitary facilities.
e
At one time during the research the water supply failed and the college had to be closed, a
n
not uncommon event.
s o The teaching day is divided into six one-hour periods, with study time in the evenings, though lack of electricity in BTC prevented students from doing this. In both colleges, classrooms typically are set out in traditional style, with heavy wooden seat-desks that are
r
difficult to move. The few displays were tatty, with no evidence of student work. The total
f
absence of equipment and consumables made the labs inoperable.
l
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The teacher education curriculum is laid down by the Malawi Institute of Education, which is a part of the Ministry. Examinations are set and marked by the Malawi National
Examination Board, with the college tutors acting as markers. The MIITEP curriculum resonates with that of previous full-time residential programmes and dates back to reforms carried out in the 1980s with only minor adjustments to the aims to reflect recent social changes. It is skills-based, aiming to produce teachers who can deliver the curriculum effectively and obtain high levels of examination achievement from pupils.
3.3.4 Trinidad and Tobago
2
Primary Teacher Education in Trinidad and Tobago started with government and charitable initiatives dating back to the nineteenth century which first set up ‘normal’ schools and then a government teacher training college (TTC). Later denominational TTCs were set up, but the colonial government retained a measure of control. Alongside the colleges, for nearly
100 years (1870-1963) there was a system of school-based apprenticeship training, by which pupil-teachers gradually acquired qualifications while teaching (Quamina-Aiyejima et al
1999)
3
In the 1970s all the old TTCs were replaced with two government non-residential colleges, one in the north of the island and the other in the south. The campuses are spacious, with adequate buildings and reasonable resources, though the time-table and organisation are similar to those of a high school, with seven 45-minute periods per day and little free study time. The Board of Teacher Training is responsible for the curriculum, sets the exams in consultation with the college tutors, and moderates the results; there is, strangely, no link with the University of the West Indies. The college tutors, many of whom hold Masters degrees from the UWI, have been active in gradually altering and adapting the curriculum to suit new circumstances.
3.4
Some Key Issues
From the information presented and other insights from the MUSTER data collection a number of key issues can be identified which help frame subsequent discussion. In summary these are:
1.
4
Fundamental structural characteristics are important in determining key issues and future possibilities. Demographics shape teacher demand, and existing institutions determine current capacity. National indicators and targets (e.g. current and targeted
GERs, pupil-teacher ratios, % untrained teachers) and national wealth, (current and projected growth in GNP per capita and national resource allocation to education) circumscribe what is needed and what is financially sustainable. Thus, simply speaking,
Trinidad and Tobago has minor problems in matching supply and demand and can
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3 The MUSTER Project: Context and Emerging Issues h afford to do so. Ghana would need to train many more teachers if it were to raise its
l
primary GER and not see pupil-teacher ratios deteriorate. Malawi has very high teacher
m
attrition rates which create a large demand which, it appears, can only be satisfied by a
s
large scale, mixed-mode teacher education programme based in schools rather than
l
colleges for much of the training period. Lesotho trains small numbers of teachers at
m
relatively high costs which would be difficult to sustain if the current system were expanded to meet projected demand.
2.
Two of the countries (Lesotho and Trinidad and Tobago) have very small teacher education systems concentrated in one or two institutions. In principle this makes the
e
systems easier to research, and might make it easier to design and implement reforms to
n
improve quality. Ghana has a large system with considerable variation, and MUSTER
t
therefore could only research specific aspects in an illustrative way. The Malawi case
y
stands in the middle with a single system across 6 institutions, and a radically different
h
pattern of curriculum organisation.
l
3.
As systemic conditions have changed, so have the characteristics of those entering teacher training (Chapter 4 elaborates on this). The teaching profession no longer
,
enjoys the status it once had, salaries are relatively low, and conditions of service
h
perceived as poor. Young people apply to training colleges often as a last resort, lacking
e
the academic qualifications for university, and perhaps seeing it as a stepping stone to
y
other careers. Their characteristics, and the interaction between them and the training
n
process, are core concerns for the reform of teacher education systems. They are a
k
reminder of starting points for more effective training, building from the qualities,
s
perceptions and commitment of those available and willing to train as teachers. Once
m
training has been successfully completed NQTs acquire teaching jobs through a variety of mechanisms which range from being posted (Ghana, Malawi), to applying according to preference to schools or in response to advertised vacancies (Trinidad and Tobago).
In Lesotho much recruitment is through the Education Secretariats of the various churches. In all cases colleges appear to have little influence over the first appointment
a
and little systematic knowledge of where their graduates teach.
y
4.
Various changes, notably greatly increased enrolments in most of the countries as a result of Education for All commitments, and curriculum reform at school level to
d
develop improved materials and promote more effective teaching methods, have created
s
new challenges for teacher education. Teacher education curricula have been much
d
slower to change than school curricula. Key questions revolve around the structure and
d
content of the curricula, their appropriateness to new purposes and new audiences, and
)
the quality of their implementation. There are also questions about the relationships
,
between theory and practice, where and how practical skills are best developed, and
n
about the epistemological and professional theories that underpin the curricula.
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5.
College-based systems predominate across the MUSTER countries. History, both
4
colonial and post-colonial, has shaped the institutions that provide teacher education, leaving them poised somewhat anomalously between the secondary and higher
T
education sectors. These institutions have normative characteristics derived from their
p
past and mediated by established working practices. The college sector, often isolated
r
both professionally and geographically from other parts of the system, has been neglected, and teacher educators have generally not been recognised as a separate group
➢
in need of professional development. Practice has changed, or persisted, through
➢
interactions between piecemeal government policy initiatives, institutional traditions,
➢
and the qualities and motivation of teacher trainers.
4
6.
The content, quality and outcomes of teacher education are in significant part determined by the resources that can be mobilised. There are wide variations across the
A
countries in the levels of allocation to teacher education. Though some of the reasons
p
reflect underlying structural differences, others are not so easily explained. There may
•
be scope for increases in efficiency and effectiveness that make it easier to sustain teacher education systems which more closely approach satisfying demand for new teachers than is the case in several of the countries. Where demand greatly outstrips supply it may be
•
that more radical alternatives to conventional college-based programmes have to be
•
considered.
•
•
•
•
C
•
•
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Chapter Four h 4.0
4 Who Becomes a Primary Teacher?
Summary
, r This chapter presents data on the characteristics of trainee teachers, explores some of their
r
perceptions and aspirations, and provides some insights into their self-image and sense of
d
role identity. The main questions guiding these parts of the research were:
n p ➢ Who becomes a teacher and what are their academic qualifications?
h
➢ What do they bring in terms of images, expectations and experiences?
,
➢ How are these related to the cultural context?
4.0.1 Summary of findings
t e A survey of entering students across Ghana, Lesotho, Malawi and Trinidad and Tobago
s
produced the following picture:
y
•
Tobago all have taught for at least two years and are in their mid-twenties.
n e •
Primary trainees are predominantly male in Ghana and Malawi, and predominantly female in Lesotho and Trinidad and Tobago
e
D
In Ghana and Lesotho trainees are recruited soon after leaving high school, aged between 20-22; some may have taught for a year or two. In Malawi and Trinidad and
r
•
In all the sites most teachers claim affiliation to a Christian denomination; Muslims seem under-represented in Ghana and Malawi.
•
In multi-ethnic and multi-lingual societies, trainees come from different tribes speaking different mother-tongues, which may not match those of the children they teach.
•
Typically trainees have left school with relatively low academic grades, including poor achievement in English.
•
Family background data suggest that the majority are upwardly mobile, often being the first generation to enter post-secondary education. In Africa, many of the parents work outside the modern sector. A substantial minority, however, have parents and other family members who are teachers.
•
Their attitudes to teaching as revealed by Likert items vary somewhat with the country.
While no clear overall trends could be ascertained, some of the responses are out of line with college aims and expectations.
Complementary qualitative data suggest that:
•
Students have powerful memories of their own schooling. Positive aspects include academic success, sports and friendships, as well as teachers who helped them. Negative memories overwhelmingly focus on corporal punishment, to which they now have an ambivalent attitude.
•
Teachers are usually described in terms of personal characteristics, often using images of parent or counsellor, rather than in terms of cognitive or pedagogic skills.
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4 Who Becomes a Primary Teacher?
•
e
Studies in Trinidad and Tobago and Ghana indicate socio-cultural metaphors and myths
a
about the role of the teacher, which students may incorporate into their self-image.
4.1
(
being able to analyse clearly what made their methods successful.
•
Trainees are ready to model themselves on memories of their own teachers, without
5
F
Introduction and Overview
Any effective system of teacher education has to recognise and build on the characteristics and motivations that trainees bring to the profession when they enter training programmes.
Understanding what these characteristics are provides a basis for the development of curricula that address trainees’ needs and capabilities. It is also a reminder to teacher trainers that the backgrounds and aspirations of those entering training now may not be the same as in the past. Where this is so it invites consideration of how training content and methods should change to reflect new realities.
This chapter exemplifies how different methodological frameworks were used within
MUSTER. The questionnaires administered to entering students provided some systematic comparative data on age, sex, religion, ethnicity, prior experience, home background and academic achievement. The Likert items and open-ended sections of the questionnaires provided further insights to complement and deepen this information. Other methods semi-structured interviews, focus groups and autobiographical essays – were used to try to understand some of the ways in which early experiences of schooling might influence the ways trainees perceived themselves as teachers. The more qualitative studies were designed and implemented in different ways by the different researchers, and the interpretations were site-specific, the intention being to gain insights rather than draw comparisons. Chapter 2 has given more details of the methods and samples used.
The Chapter is organised in four parts. First, the characteristics of trainee teachers in four countries are outlined from the survey data. Second, the perceptions of trainees of teaching and the teaching profession are discussed using data from Likert items in the Entry questionnaire. Third, insights are drawn from qualitative data to illuminate some of the experiences and images of schools and teaching students bring to their training. The last section attempts to bring together insights from all the data sets to point up the implications
O
for policy and action.
L
T
4.2
Characteristics of the Student Teachers Entering College
A
t
4.2.1 Age
r
The average age of entrants to teacher education in the samples vary. Ghana (21 years) and
h
Lesotho (22.2 years) have the youngest entrants; Malawi (25.9) and Trinidad and Tobago
a
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4 Who Becomes a Primary Teacher? t (26.1) have the oldest. The most obvious explanation for this is that in the former cases most entrants are admitted directly from the school secondary system. In the latter most entrants
s
acquire teaching experience as untrained teachers before being accepted for training. Figure
5 and Table 1 show the age profiles.
Figure 5: Age profiles of teacher trainees by country
s
60
200
. f 50
150
40
s s 30
100
s
20
50
10
n
0
18.0
20.0
22.0
24.0
Ghana
c
26.0
28.0
30.0
0
d
17.5 20.0 22.5 25.0 27.5 30.0 32.5 35.0 37.5 40.0
Lesotho
Std Dev = 2.06
Mean =21.0
N = 390.00
Std Dev = 3.23
Mean =22.2
N = 88.00
s o 70
120
60
e d 100
50
40
80
e
60
30
2
40
20
20
10
r
0
22.0
24.0
Malawi
g y 26.0
28.0
30.0
32.0
34.0
36.0
Std Dev = 2.50
Mean =25.9
N = 172.00
0
22.0 24.0 26.0 28.0 30.0 32.0 34.0 36.0 38.0 40.0 42.0
Trinidad
& Tobago
Std Dev = 3.79
Mean =26.2
N = 277.00
e t s
Overall between 70% and 75% of teachers are between 19 and 22 years old in Ghana and
Lesotho, and the same proportions are between 23 and 27 years in Malawi and Trinidad and
Tobago.
Age may be significant for training in a number of ways. First, older trainees are more likely to likely to have some formal or informal experience of teaching, whether or not this is required for entry. Second, they are more likely to be married, or marry during training and
d
have direct or indirect experience of child-raising. Third, older trainees are more obviously
o
adult learners rather than young students arriving directly from school. Fourth, older
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4 Who Becomes a Primary Teacher? trainees may be more fixed in their views about teaching and teachers, and clearer about
4
their commitment to teaching as a career.
S p T
4.2.2 Gender
v
The proportion of male and female student teachers in the samples in each country is shown in Table 1. Over two-thirds of the student teachers surveyed were female in both Lesotho
T
(71%) and Trinidad and Tobago (67%). The reverse was the case in Ghana, where only one-
t
third of the student teachers were female. These figures are broadly in line with national
u
totals. The Malawi sample also had a very high proportion of female student teachers (84%),
l
but this was due to the inclusion of an all-female college; overall only 28% of MIITEP trainees have been women. Worldwide, the trend has been for primary teaching to become
4
largely feminised; it is interesting that in Ghana and Malawi this has not yet happened.
I
Table 1: Characteristics of student teacher samples in the four countries.
Country
Ghana
Male (%)
Female (%)
Total
Mean Age
w
Std Dev
e
265 (66.25)
135 (33.75)
400
21
2.06
g
Lesotho
26 (28.9)
64 (71.1)
90
22.2
3.23
(
Malawi
29 (16.5)
147 (67.2)
176
25.9
2.5
g
Trinidad
98 (32.8)
201 (63.6)
299
26.2
3.8
A r 4.2.3 Religious Affiliation
A
All the teacher education systems have been influenced by institutions originally established
e
by Christian denominations. Religious affiliation plays an important role in defining identity
c
in each country. In Ghana some colleges, particularly the most prestigious ones like
t
Presbyterian Training College and Wesley, retain strong religious affiliations, though the
o
system of 38 colleges is formally under the control of the Ministry of Education. Religiously-
G
based training colleges were amalgamated into a single secular institution in Lesotho in
l
1975. Two of the six colleges in Malawi remain affiliated to the Catholic church, though
p
formal control over the Colleges was taken by the government in 1973. In Trinidad and
c
Tobago most of the denominational institutions closed from the 1960s onward, while the government established Corinth and Valsayn Colleges on a secular basis.
T
C
The religious affiliation of Ghanaian student teachers in the sample was predominately
a
Christian with 36% Catholic, 16% Methodist, 15% other named denominations and 24%
C
who just classified themselves as ‘Christian’. Muslims accounted for 4% of the student
h
teachers, significantly less than their percentage of the population, perhaps reflecting the fact
G
that colleges in the sample were selected from the predominantly Christian South. In
d
Lesotho, the majority of Basotho student teachers were either Catholic (37%) or Lesotho
y
Evangelical Church (33%). About 16% were Anglican and a further 14% ‘other’. In Malawi
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4 Who Becomes a Primary Teacher? t 41% were members of the Church of Central Africa and 29% were Catholic. About 15% were
Seventh Day Adventists, and 3% Muslim. Again this is significantly less than the national proportion of Muslims, which may reflect different attitudes to education. In Trinidad and
Tobago 22% were Catholic, 19% Hindu, 16% Presbyterian, and 30% were distributed across various other Christian denominations; 6% were Muslim.
n o The religious affiliation of student teachers, and the denominational history of many of the
-
training institutions, carries implications for the training process. These are not simple to
l
unravel, but are likely to have some influence on student teachers’ attitudes towards
,
learning, and their role as teachers.
P e 4.2.4 Ethnic Group or Tribe and Language Spoken at Home
In three of the countries ethnic group is a signifier of difference. The exception is Lesotho which is ethnically (Basotho) and linguistically (Sesotho) homogenous. Ghana is the most ethnically diverse of the countries with 26 groups represented in the sample. The largest groups in the sample were Ashanti (51%), Fante (11%) and other Akan-speaking groups
(12%). The remaining 26% were distributed relatively evenly across the 20 other ethnic groups. The language spoken at home in the Ghanaian sample was predominately one of the
Akan languages. Twi accounted for 47%, other Akan languages 22%, and Fante 15%. The remaining 16% were distributed across 21 other languages.
Akyeampong and Furlong (2000) draw attention to the significance of language in teacher d education. They note that the first language spoken is not a criterion for admission and no
y
consideration is given to the native language of students during posting. Trained primary
e
teachers are expected to use the local language of pupils in grade 1 to 3. The great majority
e
of students sampled speak the Akan family of languages. However, there are four regions in
-
Ghana (and other areas within regions) where the vast majority of grade 1-3 pupils speak
n
little Akan (Volta, Northern Upper West and Upper East regions). If Akan speakers are
h
posted to these areas they will have to use English as a medium of instruction in
d
contradiction to the language policy of Ghana Education Service.
e
The student teachers in Malawi belonged to one of 9 tribes. The greatest numbers were
Chewa (28%), Ngoni (27%), Lomwe (22%), and the Tumbuka (18%). The language spoken y at home was predominately Chichewa (83%) even though only 28% of student teachers are
Chewa. The majority of Lomwe and Ngoni student teachers appear to speak Chichewa at
t
home. Chichewa and English are the two languages used in the school curriculum. As in
t
Ghana, there is an issue about the posting of teachers to areas which speak a language
n
different to the mother tongue of student teachers, since the policy is that the first three
o
years of primary should be taught in the mother tongue of pupils.
i
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4 Who Becomes a Primary Teacher?
Trinidad and Tobago classifies its population into one of five groupings, each of which has
A
much diversity. The majority of students in the sample were East Indian (56%), African
A
(24%), or mixed (17%). The school system is in English and all students are required to speak
C
it, though they may speak an English Creole at home.
q a 4.2.5 Home Background
p
The cultural capital that new entrants to teaching bring with them to the teaching profession
I
is broadly influenced by home background and the educational attainment of parents. There
t
is a wide range in the occupations14 given for the fathers of Ghanaian student teachers. The
o
majority indicated that their father was a teacher (21%), a farmer (18%), or a trader (14%).
c
The other most frequently mentioned occupations were civil servant, accountant, driver, and
f
minister in the Church. The range of occupations given for mothers was smaller. The largest
e
numbers of those responding (52%) indicated that their mother was a trader. About 14% of
6
mothers were teachers, and 13% farmers. The remaining 21% of respondents indicated that their mothers were nurses, seamstresses, housewives, and secretaries.
A q About 40% of the Ghanaian student teachers claimed their fathers had a post-secondary
l
qualification, of which 15% had degree level qualifications; and 21% said their fathers had a
h
secondary secondary school certificate (O or A Level). This compares to only about 10% of
s
the population who have similar qualifications. Most of the remainder had some secondary
n
schooling, and a small minority had only completed primary schooling or less. In contrast, only 24% of their mothers had a post-secondary qualification, and fewer than 2% were
I
graduates. About 13% had a secondary school certificate; about 35% had some secondary
w
schooling. The remainder had primary schooling or less. It is reasonable to conclude that
A
many beginning student teachers come from families with relatively well-educated parents,
m
though a significant minority do not.
a
w
In Lesotho half of the student teachers did not respond to the question about their father’s
h
occupation and one-third did not respond concerning their mother’s occupation15. The
t
fathers of the other student teachers were farmers (21%), miners (9%), and civil servants
(3%). Smaller proportions were teachers, drivers, skilled or unskilled workers and a few were
A
listed as not working. The most frequently mentioned occupation for mothers was either
o
housewife (21%) or teacher (18%). The remaining third were fairly evenly distributed across
p
a range of other occupations: hawkers, shopkeepers, civil servants, business people,
t
secretaries and farmers.
T
T
Occupational classification was problematic in all countries – labour markets and terminology differ and respondents may not be consistent in the use of particular categories. The data reported reflect judgements made in consultation with principal researchers based on answers to open ended questions.
15
An unknown combination of unwillingness to respond, and lack of knowledge of their father or his occupation, possibly related to historically high rates of male migration to work in South Africa.
14
42
DFID
L s 1
23878 DFID Book 49 Synthesis 1/5/03 12:28 pm Page 83
Synthesis Report - Researching Teacher Education: New Perspectives on Practice,
Performance and Policy
4 Who Becomes a Primary Teacher? s About 3% of the fathers of the Basotho student teachers had a degree level qualification.
n
About 17% had fathers with a Cambridge Overseas School Certificate (COSC) or a Junior
k
Certificate, a quarter had a primary leaving certificate and under a quarter had no qualifications. More of the mothers than fathers were qualified above secondary school level, although none of the mothers had a university degree. Over a third of the mothers had a primary leaving certificate, and 17% had no qualifications.
n
In Malawi about 19% did not respond to the questions about parental occupation. A further
e
third of the student teachers indicated that their father was a farmer (38%), a teacher (12%),
e
or a businessperson (10%). Others were clerical workers, drivers, field health assistants,
.
church ministers, clinical officers, nurse, engineers, a tailor, and a carpenter. There were
d
fewer occupations listed for the mothers than the fathers. The majority of their mothers were
t
either farmers (33%) or housewives (30%). About 6% had mothers who were teachers and
f
6% businesspersons.
t
About 11% of the fathers of the Malawian student teachers had a higher education qualification. Nearly a third had a secondary school certificate and a quarter had a primary y leaving certificate. A further 21% did not have any qualifications. Very few of the mothers
a
had a higher education qualification, and far fewer mothers than fathers had a secondary
f
school certificate. Over a third of the mothers had a primary leaving certificate and 39% had
y
no educational qualifications.
, e In Trinidad and Tobago the occupations of the fathers and mothers of the student teachers
y
were broadly categorised and ranged from higher professional to unskilled persons.
t
Approximately 16% did not respond to the question about their parents’ occupations. The
,
majority of the fathers were lower professional and managerial (15%), skilled workers (24%), and semi-skilled workers (12%). The remainder were fairly evenly distributed between those who were unskilled workers, unemployed, retired or deceased. Half of the mothers were
s
housepersons. A further 14% were lower professional or managerial (this category included
e
teachers), and a few were skilled, unskilled, retired, unemployed, or deceased.
s e A sixth of the fathers and the mothers had a higher education qualification. Just over a third
r
of the fathers and slightly more of the mothers had CXC/GCE16, a further sixth of both
s
parents of the student teachers had a primary school-leaving certificate, but more fathers
,
than mothers had no qualifications. About 15% of the student teachers in Trinidad and
Tobago did not respond to the question about their parents’ educational qualifications.
Thus the data suggests that about half of parents have no more than primary education in
Lesotho and Malawi. Ghana, and Trinidad and Tobago have higher proportions with secondary and above. The gender differences are consistent with known patterns of male
y
D
16
Caribbean Examinations Council certificate, equivalent to former General Certificate of Education at Ordinary Level
DFID
43
23878 DFID Book 49 Synthesis 1/5/03 12:28 pm Page 84
Synthesis Report - Researching Teacher Education: New Perspectives on Practice,
Performance and Policy
4 Who Becomes a Primary Teacher? and female educational achievement in these countries. Table 2 summarises the educational
I
qualifications of student teachers’ parents in the four countries.
r f Table 2: Educational qualifications of parents of student teachers
Father %
h
w
Mother %
Ghana Lesotho Malawi Trinidad Ghana Lesotho Malawi Trinidad and and
Tobago
Tobago
Post Secondary
40.117
6.6
11.4
16.1
23.8
15.6
1.7
16.1
Secondary School
47.6
16.7
31.8
35.5
48.8
18.9
9.7
40.1
Primary
3.0
25.6
24.4
16.4
7.5
36.7
38.6
15.1
None
8.0
22.2
20.5
16.1
18.0
16.7
39.2
12.0
No Response
2.0
28.9
11.9
16.0
2.0
12.1
10.8
16.7
s t B s a a t i c
It is clearly difficult to draw simple conclusions from these patterns. However, we can note
g
that in Ghana, Malawi and Lesotho large proportions of student trainees originate from
s
families where fathers and mothers are working in livelihoods outside the modern sector of
t
regular wage employment. The largest proportions of those who are in the modern sector
t
are usually in teaching (Table 3). In Lesotho mothers are in general better educated, and many are teachers, reflecting patterns of male employment and migration associated with the
T
mining industry. In Trinidad and Tobago much higher proportions are in skilled wage
t
employment than in the other countries, reflecting the different structure of the economy.
m t w
Table 3: Percentage of student teachers whose father/mother is a teacher
Country
% Father
Ghana
20.8
14
Lesotho
2.2
17.8
Malawi
11.9
6.3
n.a
g
% Mother
n.a.
Trinidad
M
T
t t 4.2.6 Educational Qualifications of Student Teachers
4
It is difficult to present the diversity of the educational experience and qualifications of the
T
student teachers in the four different countries. The examinations in the different countries
t
are often not equivalent and the levels of attainment differ across the sites. However it is
e
possible to make some general statements about the educational qualifications of the student teachers on entry.
1
1
2
These apparently high proportions result from the Ghanaian sample responding in terms of any post – O level secondary qualification including ‘A’ level, whereas the other samples responded in terms of further and higher education.
17
44
DFID
2
2
23878 DFID Book 49 Synthesis 1/5/03 12:28 pm Page 85
Synthesis Report - Researching Teacher Education: New Perspectives on Practice,
Performance and Policy
4 Who Becomes a Primary Teacher? l In Ghana the majority of student teachers only achieved an E grade in SSCE18 English, representing a bare pass. About 40% achieved a grade above E in GCE19 or SSCE. The results for mathematics were slightly more varied than the results for English, but again the majority had low grades for either SSCE or GCE. The range of grades for science examination results was greater than for English or mathematics. Some (9%) student teachers did not have a
d
science qualification, and others had low grades i.e. F or 9. In Lesotho, none of the student teachers achieved an A grade at COSC20 in any of three core subject areas, and few received
B or C grades. Most achieved E grades or lower (62% in English, 66% in maths, and 39% in science). Most of the student teachers in Malawi had passed their English and mathematics at JCE21 but very few (less than a third) had taken MSCE22 in English and out of these only a quarter had gained a grade 6 or higher. Approximately a fifth of the Malawian student teachers had taken mathematics and science MSCE, with a sixth in mathematics and a third in science gaining a grade 6 or higher. No student teacher in the Trinidad and Tobago cohort achieved less than a grade 3 in English CXC, with the majority achieving either a
e
grade 1 or 2. The pattern of results was similar for grades achieved in mathematics and
m
science. A third of the student teachers also had A-level qualifications. Overall, the student
f
teachers in Trinidad had substantially higher educational qualifications than the student
r
teachers in the other three countries.
d e There was very little difference between the achievement of the male and female student
e
teachers in Trinidad. In Ghana, the women had achieved similar results in English, whilst the men achieved better results in mathematics and science. The male and female student teachers in Lesotho achieved similar results in English at COSC, but men did better than women in both mathematics and science at this level. A similar pattern was found in the grades achieved by the Malawian trainees, with men having higher grades than women at
MSCE.
The overall picture is that most trainee teachers achieved relatively low results at the end of their secondary school career, leaving them underqualified for higher education. Teacher training colleges, it seems, take the next tranche down from the universities.
4.2.7 School Experience of the Student Teachers
e
The training programmes are for serving teachers in Trinidad and Tobago and Malawi so all
s
the respondents had taught before. In contrast, in Lesotho and Ghana few had any teaching
s
experience and were direct entrants from schools (Table 4).
t
Senior School Certificate of Education
General Certificate of Education, regarded as equivalent to SSCE
20
Cambridge Overseas School Certificate
21
Junior School Certificate after two years secondary. Over 80% of all candidates pass this examination.
22
Malawi School Certificate of Education
18
19
.
D
DFID
45
23878 DFID Book 49 Synthesis 1/5/03 12:28 pm Page 86
Synthesis Report - Researching Teacher Education: New Perspectives on Practice,
Performance and Policy
4 Who Becomes a Primary Teacher?
C
Table 4: Teaching experience of student teachers for each country
Country
Ghana
Never Taught
Less than one year
Between
Between
More than
1 and 2 years 2 and 3 years three years
77.5%
14.4%
6.5%
1%
Lesotho
70%
16%
11.6%
2%
/
Malawi
1.7%
/
18.2%
15%
66.5%
Trinidad
/
< 1%
< 1%
60%
39%
1
< 1%
2
3
These profiles highlight radical differences in the experiential base that student teachers
4
bring to training. Though in all cases the trainees are on initial training courses leading to a
5
first professional qualification, in Malawi and Trinidad and Tobago most are experienced but untrained teachers. Other MUSTER studies (e.g. Quamina-Aiyejina et al, 1999; Stuart and
6
Kunje, 2000; Stuart, 1999) indicate that recognition of prior experience is not a prominent
7
feature of course design, and is often not recognised in the structuring of college-based
8
work. Nor is it used systematically as a criterion for selection, except in the sense of requiring
9
a minimum period as an untrained teacher which is not assessed.
1
1
This section has given an overview of some of the characteristics of those currently in training in four of the MUSTER countries. It draws attention both to what these are and to
F
some of the similarities and differences found between the groups in different countries.
s
These provide a reminder for subsequent discussions and analysis that contexts do differ, and
t
that the age, gender, religious affiliation, home background, prior educational qualification,
m
and amount of teaching experience of new trainees vary widely. These characteristics are
d
often very different from those manifested by trainee teachers in the UK and USA, where
A
much of the theorising and advice on teacher education reform in anglophone countries
d
originates.
r o 4.3
d
Trainees’ Perceptions of Teaching and the Teaching Profession.
b
The student teachers’ responses to statements about teaching and the teaching profession
c
add another dimension to the biographical information that the students have supplied. The responses give some insight into the attitudes that these trainee teachers bring with them when they enter training. This data is illustrative of how the particular samples responded.
Eleven statements were identified which were common across the four country surveys.
These are listed below along with their abbreviations.
2
t
2
2
a p a i 2
2
h t p i 46
DFID
23878 DFID Book 49 Synthesis 1/5/03 12:28 pm Page 87
Synthesis Report - Researching Teacher Education: New Perspectives on Practice,
Performance and Policy
4 Who Becomes a Primary Teacher?
Common Statements23 Across Country Samples – Entry Questionnaires
1. The most important thing a teacher can do is teach pupils facts that they need to know
(Facts)
2. School pupils learn more from listening to the teacher than from asking questions
(Listen)
3. Teachers cannot do much to improve the academic performance of low achieving students (Slow lrn) s 4. Children need to be divided into ability groups to be taught well (Grouping)
a
5. Primary pupils cannot understand English so teachers have to use another language most of the time (Lang)
t d 6. Corporal punishment should be available in schools (Punish)
t
7. Teachers are born not made (Tchrs born)
d
8. My friends think I am fortunate to be training to be a school teacher (Fortune)
g
9. Teaching is a very difficult job to do well (Difficult)
10. I would rather teach in a secondary school than a primary school (Pref Sec)
11. I would rather have gone to University than Teacher Training College (Pref Uni)
n o Figure 6 shows the means for responses to these common statements24. For all the
.
statements there was an opportunity for the trainees to indicate on a Likert26 scale whether
d
they strongly agreed (1), agreed (2), disagreed (3) or strongly disagreed (4). In Figure 6
,
mean scores can very between 1 (everyone strongly agreeing) to 4 ( everyone strongly
e
disagreeing). The mid-point mean score is therefore 2.5 (as many agreeing as disagreeing27).
e
A non-parametric (Kruskall Wallis) test was used to find out whether there was a significant
s
difference in the trainees’ responses to the statements between the four countries. The results were significant for all eleven statements at the p
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