Top-Rated Free Essay
Preview

Recidivism: Prison and Correctional Education

Powerful Essays
2738 Words
Grammar
Grammar
Plagiarism
Plagiarism
Writing
Writing
Score
Score
Recidivism: Prison and Correctional Education
24 June 2005
Reducing the Prison Recidivism Rate
For Violent Criminals
Recidivism can be viewed as a public safety failure rate; new crime by convicted felony inmates and probationers and is measured by rates of re-arrest for a new misdemeanor or felony offense, reconviction on new charges, and re-incarceration or sentence to another court imposed sanction such as probation, a diversionary program, or a fine. Each measure has strengths and weaknesses, but combined, the three are a more comprehensive and accurate means to measure the rate of recidivism. At least 70% of inmates and 58% of probationers are re-arrested within three years of being released. Males have a high rate of recidivism and young minority offenders are rearrested more often. Most new crime is normally nonviolent, less serious felonies and misdemeanors with violent offenders being the least likely to recommit another violent crime.
The Department of Correctional Education offers academic, vocational and transition programs to those persons who enter the Department of Corrections. Academic programs include instruction in literacy (Literacy Incentive Program), which is mandated by state law for those inmates who score below a predetermined level on standardized testing, Adult Basic Education courses, and GED preparatory instruction. The vocational program includes instruction in 36 trade areas and coordinates an apprenticeship program in various areas. The transition program in the adult system is a relatively new endeavor of the department having been initiated at the Virginia Correctional Center for Women in 1992 and provides instruction in employability skills, career assessment, budgeting and financial management, and life planning.
Most inmates are re-arrested at least once after being released from prison. This does not mean that they committed new crimes, only that they either were suspected of having committed a new crime or violated some rule of their parole. When a crime is committed in the vicinity of a known offender, especially one that fits his or her description, he/she becomes a logical suspect. Once an offender has paid his or her debt to society, police should not automatically assume that an "innocent" person is guilty of a crime. Most people who fail parole fail not because they committed new crimes but because of technical violations. The Bureau of Justice Statistics (1999) reports that of all adults who left parole in 1998, 45% successfully completed their terms, and 42% were returned to incarceration. Only 13% were returned to prison with new sentences. This means most did not actually commit another crime. Irwin and Austin (1997: 116, 123) attribute parole failures to increased supervision capacities of parole officers and to an increased focus on the law enforcement function of parole as opposed to its social service function.
Studies have been conducted in several states and research indicates that prison college programs are among the best tools for reducing recidivism. Individuals who take college courses while in prison improve their chances of attaining and keeping employment after release and are less likely to commit additional crimes that lead to their return to prison. The effectiveness of these programs led to widespread adoption for several years. In 1965, only 12 post-secondary correctional education programs were operating in the United States. By 1982 there were 350 programs with approximately 27,000 inmates, representing almost 9% of the total prison population at the time, receiving some form of post-secondary education (Wolford & Littlefield, 1985). The rapid increase in these programs began in 1965 when Congress passed Title IV of the Higher Education Act. This Act permitted inmates to apply for Pell grants to be used for college courses. Even though higher education through Pell grants reduced an individual 's chances of returning to crime, finding better jobs and holding them for longer periods of time (Batiuk, Moke & Rountree), the U.S. Congress, under pressure from the public, added a provision in the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 eliminating Pell grants for prisoners.

Benefits of correction education
Corrections education has the potential to greatly reduce the costs associated with the cycle of incarceration and re-incarceration. A 1987 Bureau of Prisons report found that the more education an inmate received, the lower the rate of recidivism. Inmates who earned college degrees were the least likely to reenter prison. Inmates who had some high school, the recidivism rate was 54.6 percent; for college graduates the rate was 5.4 percent and for inmates with an associates degree it was 13.7 percent. The "Three State Recidivism Study" indicated that those who benefited from correctional education recidivated 29% less often than those who did not have educational opportunities while in the correctional institution (Steurer, Smith, and Tracy, 2001).
The Changing Minds study, conducted at Bedford Hills Correctional Facility in New York, examined the impact of college in prison after the elimination of Pell grants. This study demonstrated that college prison programs could save taxpayers millions of dollars and showed that college prison programs transform lives, reduce recidivism, create safer prisons and communities, and significantly reduce the cost of prisons (Fine et al, 2001).
A Maryland study demonstrated the effectiveness of educational intervention with inmate populations as related to post-release employment (Jenkins, Steurer, & Pendry, 1995). Of the sample selected, 77% of those persons who had completed formal educational offerings were employed as reported by a supervising parole officer. Those who completed programs were employed at a level above the established minimum wage. The conclusion of this study is clear: educational intervention for inmates results in more positive post-release functioning, including higher employment rates, the type and wages of employment found, and a person 's success on community supervision.

Patterns and trends in recidivism
Many of the same factors that cause a person to initially commit crime are common to repeat offenders. Although the research varies on which specific demographic or crime characteristics are the best predictors of recidivism, there is consensus that some factors have significant correlations to repeat criminal activity. The younger an offender is at first arrest as an adult, the more likely he or she is to become a repeat offender [See figure 1]. Some studies cited 25 to 35 percent of urban males are arrested for a serious crime at some time during their lives and are about three to five times more likely than females to be re-arrested [See figure 2]. Recidivism studies have found that certain minority groups such as African American and Hispanics tend to have higher rates of re-arrest and that African American males are two to three times more likely than Caucasian males to be arrested for a crime [See figure 3]. Studies further conclude, however, that substance abuse, socio-economic status, age, and prior criminal record are stronger predictors of recidivism than race. Many of the offenders who repeatedly committed crimes had a history of drug use. The more chronic and serious the substance abuse problems, the more likely the person was to re-offend and to have an extensive criminal record. Lack of educational attainment and /or work experience has made reintegration into the community after prison and complying with parole or probation requirements difficult for many offenders. Without such skills offenders have trouble attaining steady, gainful employment, and studies suggest these offenders will return to criminal activity either to earn a living or because they believe they have no other alternative lifestyle choice. Re-arrest rates for those without a high school diploma or job training have been shown to be much higher than for individuals with more experience or success in the job market. Offenders with multiple prior arrests and convictions, especially if concentrated in a short time span, are frequently re-arrested. There is a wide range of prison and community-based programs developed to rehabilitate, supervise, and treat offenders. They were designed to address the known causes and risk factors of crime, but there has not been systematic or scientific evaluation of the programs. Interventions for repeat offenders should combine a variety of components such as education, work training, counseling, and other services, be intensive, and be tailored to offender subgroups. However, programs, that have been proven to reduce recidivism in one setting or among a certain type of offender, are not always replicated successfully in another venue or with other offenders. Other means such as prison-based programs keep inmates occupied and may be used as incentives for good behavior thereby reducing disruptions and assaults on staff and other inmates. Community based-programs keep offenders busy and provide a structured routine for those who are not employed or attending school.

The Virginia Department of Correctional Education initiated a study of three thousand records of men and women released during the period 1979-1994 with regards to involvement in educational programs while incarcerated and post-release re-incarceration within the Virginia Department of Corrections and employment status while on parole/probation. Findings suggest that completion of an educational program while incarcerated may be positively and directly related to post-release community adjustment. The Bureau of Justice (1994a) estimates that in 1992, 91.2 violent crimes were committed in the United States for every 1,000 persons over the age of eleven. Approximately two-thirds of offenders released from state prisons will be rearrested for a new crime within three years of their release, and recidivists ' account for a substantial proportion of the crimes reported to the police. There is a common belief that systematic educational opportunities offered to those incarcerated does reduce the number of persons who are returned to prison after a period of incarceration. Current research offers empirical evidence that correctional education programs are effective in reducing crime. Gendreau and Ross (1979) reviewed 95 intervention studies with offenders conducted between 1973 and 1978 and found that 86% were successful, with reductions in recidivism ranging from 30-60%. Ross and Fabiano (1985) have described several deficits common to offenders that appear to be related to their criminality. This includes cognitive impulsivity, concrete reasoning, poor interpersonal problem solving, and a lack of social perspective. When offenders were provided intensive education to develop skills in these areas, recidivism was significantly reduced (Ross, Fabiano, and Ewles, 1988).
The Department of Correctional Education randomly selected three thousand (3,000) inmate records from inmate files located in the Department of Correctional Education repository for a study on inmates released from prison. Information related to educational program participation and program completion was extracted and entered into a data collection system. The identified records were then matched against existing Department of Corrections population lists to determine who had been re-incarcerated. The records of those who were not returned to custody and were still on parole or probation supervision were then cross referenced with parole office records to determine those employed. When possible, individual contact was made to gather data related to the type of employment, skill level, and program evaluation. Over four thousand (4,000) inmate records were initially included in the data pool. These records were selected at random utilizing existing student records housed at the Department of Correctional Education central office located in the James Monroe Building, Richmond, Virginia. The initial pool was screened and one thousand two hundred and seventy three (1,273) records were eliminated because of incomplete or inaccurate information. A working pool of three thousand records became the sample. The pool included records of persons, both men and women, released during the period 1979-1994.
Of the 1,307 persons who had no educational programming while incarcerated, 641 (49.04%) were re-incarcerated in the Virginia Department of Corrections; of the 907 completers of educational programming, 183 (20.17%) were re-incarcerated in the Virginia Department of Corrections. [See Table 1 below.]
Table 1
Percentage of Re-incarceration Total Number Percentage Number Re-incarcerated Re-incarcerated
No educational involvement during incarceration 1,307 641 49.1
Academic enrolled but did not complete 469 179 38.2
Vocational enrolled but did not complete 319 119 37.3
Academic completers 451 86 19.1
Vocational completers 456 97 21.3

Three hundred and forty seven persons were identified as being currently on parole supervision. A survey was sent to those parole districts to determine employment status. Out of the 183 individuals who had no educational programming while incarcerated, 77 (54.6%) were employed for a period exceeding ninety days; of the 96 individuals who were enrolled in educational programming but did not complete the program, 59 (61.4%) were employed by an employer for a period exceeding ninety days; and of the 68 individuals who completed educational programming, 53 (77.9%) were employed by an employer for a period exceeding ninety days. [See Table 2 below.]

Table 2
Employment Status for Individuals on Parole Number Percentage Employed Employed
183 had no educational programming while incarcerated 77 54.6
96 were enrolled but did not complete educational programming 59 61.4
68 completed educational programming 53 77.9

At more than $5 billion a year, California 's prison budget is among the highest in the nation, with a huge chunk spent on housing parolees who are returned to prison for new offenders. Of the 125,000 inmates released each year, 98,750 (79%) are back in prison before their paroles end. The 21% of California 's prisoners, who successfully complete their paroles, compares with a 42% national rate. It means that of the state 's 160,000 inmates. Two-thirds are doing time as former parolees, each cost the taxpayer at least $30,000 a year.
The Greatest Happiness Principle states that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness and wrong if they tend to produce the reverse of happiness can be acquainted with recidivism. If education and training in correctional facilities will produce the greatest good for the greatest number of people and is cost effective, every correctional institution in the United States should focus on the implementation and success of the education and training programs (Houston, 1999).
Many incarcerated individuals are released unconditionally, without parole or other post-release supervision after completely serving their prison term. Each of these individuals will be expected to begin leading a productive, law abiding life outside prison walls. Access to quality education is a cost effective method for increasing their chance of success. Oakland, California has implemented a program were inmates have been trained to be volunteer firefighters. An inmate that was fighting the recent fires said that "being a firefighter gave him great pleasure when he saw the joy and happiness of a family who house he had a hand in saving and to know that he was learning a skill that he could use once he was released from prison gave him something to look forward to." Considerable evidence shows that correctional education reduces crime, re-incarceration, reduction in recidivism rates, and higher wages for inmates who participate in education programs. Program have been put into place to help reduce the recidivism rate throughout the United States, but without the help and dedication of the people, the implementation and success will not only fail the prison inmates but will also fail the people of these our United States.

Works Cited
Batiuk, M., Moke, P., and Rountree, P. "Crime and Rehabilitation: Correctional Education as An Agent of Change-A Research Note," Justice Quarterly, 1997: 14.
Bureau of Justice Statistics (1994a) Criminal Victimization in the United States 1992 (NCJ-145125) Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Fine, M., et al. Changing Minds: The Impact of College in a Maximum Security Prison. The Graduate Center of the City University of New York, 2001. http://www.gc.cuny.edu/folio/index.htm
Gendreau, P., and Ross, R. "Effective correctional treatment: Bibliotherapy for cynics." Crime and Delinquency, 1979: 463-389.
Houston, James G. Correctional Management: Functions, Skills, and Systems. Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1999: 368. http://cga.ct.gov/pri/archives/2001ricreportchap1.htm. Irwin, J., and J. Austin. "It 's about Time: America 's Imprisonment Binge." Belmont: Wadsworth, 1997: 116, 123.
Robinson, Matthew B. Justice Blind: Ideals and Realities of American Criminal Justice. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 2002: 318.
Ross, R., Fabiano, E., and Ewles, C. Reasoning and Rehabilitation. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 32, 1988: 29-35.
Steurer, S., Smith, L., and Tracy, A. "Three State Recidivism Study." Prepared for the Office of Correctional Education, U.S. Department of Education. Lanham, MD: Correctional education Association, 2001.

Cited: Batiuk, M., Moke, P., and Rountree, P. "Crime and Rehabilitation: Correctional Education as An Agent of Change-A Research Note," Justice Quarterly, 1997: 14. Bureau of Justice Statistics (1994a) Criminal Victimization in the United States 1992 (NCJ-145125) Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Fine, M., et al. Changing Minds: The Impact of College in a Maximum Security Prison. The Graduate Center of the City University of New York, 2001. http://www.gc.cuny.edu/folio/index.htm Gendreau, P., and Ross, R. "Effective correctional treatment: Bibliotherapy for cynics." Crime and Delinquency, 1979: 463-389. Houston, James G. Correctional Management: Functions, Skills, and Systems. Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1999: 368. http://cga.ct.gov/pri/archives/2001ricreportchap1.htm. Irwin, J., and J. Austin. "It 's about Time: America 's Imprisonment Binge." Belmont: Wadsworth, 1997: 116, 123. Robinson, Matthew B. Justice Blind: Ideals and Realities of American Criminal Justice. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 2002: 318. Ross, R., Fabiano, E., and Ewles, C. Reasoning and Rehabilitation. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 32, 1988: 29-35. Steurer, S., Smith, L., and Tracy, A. "Three State Recidivism Study." Prepared for the Office of Correctional Education, U.S. Department of Education. Lanham, MD: Correctional education Association, 2001.

You May Also Find These Documents Helpful

  • Powerful Essays

    Recidivism Rates

    • 3560 Words
    • 15 Pages

    The recidivism rates come into play when looking into providing an education to prisoners. Recidivism rates are the rates that “refers to the relative number of prisoners who, after being released, return to prison or jail because they have committed another crime” (USlegal.com, 2001-2012). The whole point of conducting this study is to determine if first the prisoners are willing to be educated and second if the education provided will help lower the recidivism rates.…

    • 3560 Words
    • 15 Pages
    Powerful Essays
  • Good Essays

    As one of the three major components of the criminal justice system, corrections is believed to be responsible for administering punishment to criminals, thereby preventing future crimes through deterrence and incapacitation, limiting offenders’ opportunity to commit further crimes, or reducing their inclination to commit crimes as a result of correctional treatments. The fallacy in this expectation is that the correctional system in reality handles an extremely small percentage of criminals. The correctional funnel shown in Figure 1.2 illustrates this phenomenon; there is a large numerical difference between the number of crimes reported and the number of offenders convicted and facing any specific correctional sanction. As illustrated in Figure 1.2, of approximately 10 million felony crimes reported in 2000, only about 1 million individuals (10 percent) were convicted, only about 600,000 (6 percent) received a sentence of jail or probation, and only about 400,000 (4 percent of the number of crimes) were sent to prison.2 The public often believes that adopting a policy of lengthening prison sentences will deter offenders, and that keeping them in prison longer will significantly reduce crime. However, the relatively small number of crimes that results in a sentence of imprisonment makes it unlikely that even major modifications of prison sentences will have a significant impact on crime rates. The last few sections included a description of the mission of corrections, the role of corrections within the criminal justice system, and a discussion of the correctional funnel. These three topics do not, at first reading, appear to have a common theme among them. However, they all relate to correctional policy development. The development of correctional policy, for discussion purposes in this text, is the process that includes considering the mission and role, relevant information, and the best interests of the public (in terms of issues such as safety…

    • 450 Words
    • 2 Pages
    Good Essays
  • Better Essays

    Recidivism In Louisiana

    • 1298 Words
    • 6 Pages

    The duration taken between the time of discharge and reoffending is not constant, but has to be specified depending on the needs, controls, or other situations of the research in question. Elderbron & King (2014) identifies at least fourteen definitions, with the most common ones being arrest, reconviction, resentence, and any type of return to prison with or without a new sentence. Arrests and convictions have been the most widely used measures, and the main reason for this is their relative ease of measurement because they require no active cooperation of subjects. Whatever the measure that is ultimately chosen, it has been shown that recidivism is not a chance event, but can be predicted using certain variables (Louisiana Department of Corrections, 2013). Such variables include race, gender, duration of stay in custody or state supervision, offense type, any prior substance abuse and criminal…

    • 1298 Words
    • 6 Pages
    Better Essays
  • Good Essays

    Rehabilitation in prisons has become ineffective, and this is simply because treatments are not correctly preformed. In good measure, rehabilitation can convert criminal behavior into positive behavior. Rates of recidivism in the United States keep rising and the criminal justice branch is concerned about how to handle larger amounts of criminals. In order to lower the rate of criminal behavior, the behavior must begin to change. Retribution occurs more frequently in prisons because people believe this process to be easier to punish someone, instead of make an active attempt to change negative behavior. This process is not effective and leads to more behavior that is criminal for offenders. Prisons should actively rehabilitate criminals…

    • 139 Words
    • 1 Page
    Good Essays
  • Satisfactory Essays

    Prison Education

    • 343 Words
    • 2 Pages

    In conclusion, it can be argued that education and rehabilitation, rather than punishment, should be seen as the primary role of the prison system. Proponents of education and rehabilitation argue that the criminals could be educated what a criminal behaviour is and avoid committing it. Furthermore, life skills…

    • 343 Words
    • 2 Pages
    Satisfactory Essays
  • Better Essays

    References: Clear, T. R., Rose, D. R., & Ryder, J. R. (2001, July). Incarceration and the community: The problem of removing and returning offenders. Crime and Delinquency, 47(3), 335-351.…

    • 2042 Words
    • 5 Pages
    Better Essays
  • Better Essays

    Prison Inmate Education

    • 1855 Words
    • 8 Pages

    The article "The Impact of Career and Technical Education Programs on Adult Offenders: Learning Behind Bars" by Howard Gordon and Bracie Weldon (2003) studies of how prisoners receiving educations in prison reduces the recidivism rate. Gordon and Weldon studied the inmates who were participating in the educational programs at the Huttonsville Correctional Center in West Virginia and claimed that inmates who participated in the educational programs were less likely to recidivate once released back into the population as compared to inmates who did not participate in these programs (Gordon & Weldon, 2003). This study provides valuable information as to the effectiveness of educational programs in prison and how they affect prisoner's lives once they are out of prison. I believe that this study is very important because we can then gauge the effectiveness, if any, that these prison education programs have and better judge whether they are useful to have in the prison system. The argument that prisoners who participate in educational programs are less likely to recidivate is a sound argument for the reason that these educational programs teach them basic skills to help them adapt to life and find employment once they are released.…

    • 1855 Words
    • 8 Pages
    Better Essays
  • Good Essays

    education in prison

    • 662 Words
    • 2 Pages

    Kirchner, Lauren. "Are Prison Education Programs Worth It?" Pacific Standard: The Science of Society 4 Mar. 2014: n. pag. Print.…

    • 662 Words
    • 2 Pages
    Good Essays
  • Better Essays

    Sedgley, N. H., Scott, C. E., Williams, N. A., & Derrick, F. W. (2010). Prison 's Dilemma: Do Education and Jobs Programmes Affect Recidivism?. Economica, 77(307),…

    • 2033 Words
    • 9 Pages
    Better Essays
  • Best Essays

    Why Are Prisons Overcrowded

    • 2802 Words
    • 12 Pages

    Bibliography: Bayliss, Phil. "Learning behind bars: time to liberate prison education." Studies in the Education of Adults 35.2 (2003): 157-172. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. Web. 8 Oct. 2010.…

    • 2802 Words
    • 12 Pages
    Best Essays
  • Best Essays

    Prison Education

    • 4559 Words
    • 19 Pages

    Given the number of inmates in the prison system and the high level of recidivism, it is important to seek out possible solutions to this growing problem. By implementing more educationally and vocationally oriented programs it is possible that current recidivism rates can be reduced, thereby offering some relief for existing overcrowding conditions. Studies have shown educational programs beyond the high school level, including college courses and vocational training, better prepare prisoners for success in life once they are released. They enter society more prepared and motivated to work towards a better future. This project examines how well general, as well as individualized educational programs motivate prisoners to alter their behaviors while still in prison and to develop a desire to succeed in society once they have left prison. It also investigates rates of recidivism with respect to those inmates that have participated in educational programs. Adult and juvenile prisoners of both sexes were studied, within prison systems at the local, state, and federal levels in California. Evaluation of past and present programs is included as it relates to the correlation between education and the prison culture. National data is offered for comparison along with a survey of both pro and con arguments regarding educational programs in the prison system. It is hoped that data resulting from this study will provide a better understanding of prison culture and will offer more viable solutions for the successful implementation and/or alteration of education programs, subsequently reducing…

    • 4559 Words
    • 19 Pages
    Best Essays
  • Good Essays

    Inmates’ behavior is a major factor that determines their success or failure of society reentry. College Programs allows inmates to express themselves through academic approaches (e.g., writing, drawing, communicating, etc.) addressing antisocial personality. With education, most inmates come to the realization that they have to respect and accept others to be treated the same. College Programs is effective in deconstructing inmates’ anti-social personality as they become more open-minded. Although most prisons provide GED, College Programs enhance GED results. Hughes et al. (2012) inmates attending college education one or more years reveal significant reduction results in recidivism (p. 149). Commonly, educational and correctional administrators develop a risk assessment before and after inmates are prison release.…

    • 285 Words
    • 2 Pages
    Good Essays
  • Better Essays

    References: Bayliss, P. (2003). Learning behind bars: Time to liberate prison education. Studies in the education of adults. Autumn 2003, Vol. 35 issue 2, p157-172, 16p. Retrieved May 27, 2007, from EBSCOhost database…

    • 1062 Words
    • 5 Pages
    Better Essays
  • Good Essays

    It is easy to assume that offenders are fully rehabilitated and ready to reenter society as a law- abiding citizen upon incarceration release; however this is simply not true. Rehabilitation does not necessarily address criminal behavior. Although offenders may try to deviate from criminal behaviors, this is increasingly difficult for offenders who do not have to opportunity to change their environment as well. As a result, criminals are more like to be rearrested within five years of release. There are several factors that lead to recidivism but the social learning theories focus solely on social attributions.…

    • 831 Words
    • 4 Pages
    Good Essays
  • Powerful Essays

    Rehabilition

    • 2018 Words
    • 9 Pages

    The 1994 recidivism study estimated that within three years, 51.8% of prisoners released during the year were back in prison either because of a new crime for which they received another prison sentence, or because of a technical violation of their parole. This rate was not calculated in the 1983 study (BOJS…

    • 2018 Words
    • 9 Pages
    Powerful Essays