Ethical Blindness

J Bus Ethics DOI 10.1007/s10551-011-1130-4

Ethical Blindness
Guido Palazzo • Franciska Krings • Ulrich Hoffrage

Received: 1 June 2010 / Accepted: 22 November 2011 Ó Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

Abstract Many models of (un)ethical decision making assume that people decide rationally and are in principle able to evaluate their decisions from a moral point of view. However, people might behave unethically without being aware of it. They are ethically blind. Adopting a sensemaking approach, we argue that ethical blindness results from a complex interplay between individual sensemaking activities and context factors. Keywords Ethical decision-making Á Ethical/unethical behavior Á Ethical fading Á Moral disengagement Á Bounded awareness/ethicality Á Rigid framing

Introduction Business history is rich with examples of extreme forms of unethical behavior by and within companies. When these cases are made public by traditional muckrakers like Upton Sinclair in the nineteenth century or today’s NGOs, by internal whistle-blowers or official investigations, the public is often shocked. It seems to be difficult to understand how behaviors that seem to violate any moral common sense are possible. During the last three decades, the business ethics literature has developed sophisticated models that have considerably
G. Palazzo (&) Á F. Krings Á U. Hoffrage Faculty of Business and Economics, University of Lausanne, Internef, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland e-mail: [e-mail] F. Krings e-mail: [e-mail] U. Hoffrage e-mail: [e-mail]

improved our understanding of why, how, and under what conditions individuals make ethical decisions—and when they fail to do so. These models suggest that (un)ethical decisions are the result of an interplay between personal traits of the decision maker and characteristics of the situation (Trevino 1986). However, most research on ethical decision making still builds on the assumption that

References: Arendt, H. (1963). Eichman in Jerusalem: A report on the banality of evil. New York: The Vinking Press. ¨ Argyris, C., & Schon, D. A. (1978). Organisational learning: A theory of action perspective. Reading: Addison-Wesley Publishing. Arkes, H. R., & Blumer, C. (1985). The psychology of sunk costs. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 35, 124–140. Ash, S. (1955). Opinions and social pressure. Scientific American, 193, 31–35. Ashforth, B. E., & Anand, V. (2003). The normalization of corruption in organizations. Research in Organizational Behavior, 25, 1–52. Ashkanasy, N. M., Windsor, C. A., & Trevino, L. (2006). Bad apples in bad barrels revisited: Cognitive moral development, just world beliefs, rewards, and ethical decision-making. Business Ethics Quarterly, 16, 449–473. Bandura, A. (1999). Moral disengagement in the perpetration of inhumanities. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 3, 193–209. Bandura, A. (2002). Selective moral disengagement in the exercise of moral agency. Journal of Moral Education, 31, 101–119. Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human emotion. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497–529. Becker, G. S. (1968). Crime and punishment: An economic approach. Journal of Political Economy, 76, 169–217. Berger, P., & Luckmann, T. (1966). The social construction of reality. New York: Anchor Books. Berry, C. M., Ones, D. S., & Sackett, P. R. (2007). Interpersonal deviance, organizational deviance, and their common correlates: A review and meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(2), 410–424. Blank, H., Musch, J., & Pohl, R. (2007). Hindsight bias: On being wise after the event. Social Cognition, 25, 1–9. Blass, T. (1991). Understanding behavior in the Milgram obedience experiment: The role of personality, situations, and their interactions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(3), 398–413. ´ Boltanski, L., & Thevenot, L. (2006). On justification: Economies of worth. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Brief, A. P., Buttram, R. T., & Dukerich, J. M. (2000a). Collective corruption in the corporate world: Toward a process model. In M. E. Turner (Ed.), Groups at work: Advances in theory and research (pp. 471–499). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Brief, A. P., Buttram, R. T., Elliot, J. D., Reizenstein, R. M., & McCline, R. L. (1995). Releasing the beast: A study of compliance with orders to use race as a selection criterion. Journal of Social Issues, 51, 177–193. Brief, A. P., Dietz, J., Cohen, R. R., Pugh, S. D., & Vaslow, J. B. (2000b). Just doing business: Modern racism and obedience to authority as explanations for employment discrimination. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 81, 72–97. Browning, C. R. (2001). Ordinary men. Reserve police battalion 101 and the final solution in Poland. London: Penguin. Burger, J. M. (2009). Replicating Milgram. Would people still obey today? American Psychologist, 64, 1–11. ˜ Butterfield, K. D., Trevino, L. K., & Weaver, G. R. (2000). Moral awareness in business: Influences of issue-related and social context factors. Human Relations, 53(7), 981–1018. Callon, M. (2007). What does it mean to say that economics is performative? In D. MacKenzie, F. Muniesa, & L. Siu (Eds.), Do economists make markets? On the performativity of economics (pp. 311–357). Princeton: Princeton University Press. Chabris, C., & Simons, D. (2010). The invisible gorilla: And other ways our intuitions deceive us. New York: Crown Publishing Group. Chugh, D., Banaji, M. R., & Bazerman, M. H. (2005). Bounded ethicality as a psychological barrier to recognizing conflicts of interest. In D. A. Moore, D. M. Cain, G. Loewenstein, & M. Bazerman (Eds.), Conflicts of interest: Challenges and solutions 123 G. Palazzo et al. in business, law, medicine, and public policy (pp. 74–95). New York: Cambridge University Press. Chugh, D., & Bazerman, M. (2007). Bounded awareness: What you fail to see can hurt you. Mind & Society, 6, 1–18. Clinard, M. B., & Yeager, P. C. (1980). Corporate crime. New York: Free Press. Crane, A. (2000). Corporate greening as amoralization. Organization Studies, 21, 673–696. Darley, J. M. (1992). Social organization for the production of evil. Psychological Inquiry, 3, 199–218. Darley, J. M., & Batson, C. D. (1973). From Jerusalem to Jericho: A study of situational and dispositional variables in helping behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 27(1), 100–108. Dearborn, D. C., & Simon, H. A. (1958). Selective perception: A note on the departmental identification of executives. Sociometry, 21, 360–396. den Nieuwenboer, N. A., & Kaptein, M. (2008). Spiraling down into corruption: A dynamic analysis of the social identity processes that cause corruption in organizations to grow. Journal of Business Ethics, 83, 133–146. Denis, J.-L., Langley, A., & Rouleau, L. (2007). Strategizing in pluralistic contexts: Rethinking theoretical frames. Human Relations, 60, 179–215. DiMaggio, P., & Powell, W. (1983). The iron cage revisited: Institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields. American Sociological Review, 48(2), 147–160. Donaldson, T., & Dunfee, T. W. (1994). Toward a unified conception of business ethics: Integrative social contracts theory. Academy of Management Review, 19, 252–284. Driver, J., & Baylis, G. C. (1996). Edge-assignment and figure-ground segmentation in short-term visual matching. Cognitive Psychology, 31, 248–306. Entman, R. M. (1993). Framing: Toward clarification of a fractured paradigm. Journal of Communication, 43, 51–58. Esses, V. M., Jackson, L. M., Dovidio, J. F., & Hodson, G. (2005). Instrumental relations among groups: Group competition, conflict, and prejudice. In J. F. Dovidio, P. Glick, & L. A. Rudman (Eds.), On the nature of prejudice. Fifty years after Allport (pp. 227–243). Malden, MA: Blackwell. Feldman, S. P. (2004). The culture of objectivity: Quantification, uncertainty, and the evaluation of risk at NASA. Human Relations, 57, 691–718. Fennell, M., & Alexander, J. A. (1987). Organizational boundary spanning in institutionalized environments. Academy of Management Journal, 30, 456–476. Ferraro, F., Pfeffer, J., & Sutton, R. I. (2005). Economic language and assumptions: How theories can become self-fulfilling. Academy of Management Review, 30(1), 8–24. Fiske, S. T. (1998). Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology: Vol. 2 (4th ed., pp. 357–411). New York: McGraw Hill. Fleming, P., & Zyglidopoulos, S. C. (2008). The escalation of deception in organizations. Journal of Business Ethics, 81, 837–850. Foldy, E. G., Goldman, L., & Ospina, S. (2008). Sensegiving and the role of cognitive shifts in the work of leadership. Leadership Quarterly, 19, 514–529. Foucault, M. 1980. Power/knowledge: Selected interviews and other writings, 1972–1977 (C. Gordon, Ed., Trans.). New York: Pantheon. Fox, S., Spector, P. E., & Miles, D. (2001). Counterproductive work behavior (CWB) in response to job stressors and organizational justice: Some mediator and moderator tests for autonomy and emotions. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 59, 291–309. Frederick, R. E., & Hoffman, W. M. (1995). Environmental risk problems and the language of ethics. Business Ethics Quarterly, 5(4), 699–711. Friedland, R., & Alford, R. R. (1991). Bringing society back in: Symbols, practices, and institutional contradictions. In W. W. Powell & P. J. DiMaggio (Eds.), The new institutionalism in organizational analysis (pp. 232–263). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Friedman, M., (1970, Sept 13). The social responsibility of business is to increase its profit. New York Times Magazine. (Reprinted in Donaldson, T., & Werhane, P. H. (Eds.). (1970). Ethical issues in business (pp. 217–223). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall). Gescheider, G. A. (1985). Psychophysics: Method, theory and application (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Ghoshal, S., & Moran, P. (1996). Bad for practice: A critique of the transaction cost theory. Academy of Management Review, 21, 13–47. Gigerenzer, G. (2008). Moral intuition = Fast and frugal heuristics? In W. Sinnott-Armstrong (Ed.), Moral psychology: Vol. 2. The cognitive science of morality: Intuition and diversity (pp. 1–26). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Gigerenzer, G. (2009). Moral satisficing: Rethinking morality as bounded rationality. Topics in Cognitive Science, 2, 528–554. Gioia, D. A. (1992). Pinto fires and personal ethics: A script analysis of missed opportunities. Journal of Business Ethics, 11, 379–389. Gonin, M., Palazzo, G., & Hoffrage, U. (2012). Neither bad apple nor bad barrel: How the societal context impacts unethical behavior in organizations. Business Ethics: A European Review (forthcoming). Gramsci, A. (1971). The prison notebooks: Selections. New York: International Publishers. Habermas, J. (1996). Between facts and norms. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Hagan, J., & Rymond-Richmond, W. (2008). The collective dynamics of racial dehumanization and genocidal victimization in Darfur. American Sociological Review, 73, 875–902. Haidt, J. (2001). The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgement. Psychological Review, 108, 814–834. Hare, R. M. (1981). Moral thinking: Its levels, methods, and point. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Hawkins, S. A., & Hastie, R. (1990). Hindsight: Biased judgment of the past events after the outcomes are known. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 311–327. Hoffrage, U. (2011). How people can behave irresponsibly and unethically without noticing it. In G. Palazzo & M. Wentland (Eds.), Practising responsible management in the 21st century. Paris: Pearson Education. Hoffrage, U., Hertwig, R., & Gigerenzer, G. (2000). Hindsight bias: A by-product of knowledge updating? Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 26, 566–581. Hoffrage, U., & Pohl, R. (2003). Research on Hindsight bias: A rich past, a productive present, and a challenging future. Memory, 11, 329–335. Hunt, S. D., & Vitell, S. J. (1986). A general theory of marketing ethics. Journal of Macromarketing, 6, 5–17. Jackall, R. (1988). Moral mazes. The world of corporate managers. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Janis, I. (1972). Victims of groupthink. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Jensen, M. C. (2002). Value maximization, stakeholder theory, and the corporate objective function. Business Ethics Quarterly, 12, 235–256. Johnson, M. (1993). Moral imagination. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Jonas, H. (1985). The imperative of responsibility: In search of an ethics for the technological age. Chicago: Chicago University Press. 123 Ethical Blindness Jones, T. M. (1991). Ethical decision making by individuals in organizations: An issue-contingent model. Academy of Management Review, 16, 366–395. Jost, J. T., Blount, S., Pfeffer, J., & Hunyady, G. (2003). Fair market ideology: Its cognitive-motivational underpinnings. Research in Organizational Behavior, 25, 53–91. Kelman, H. C., & Hamilton, V. L. (1989). Crimes of obedience. New Haven: Yale University Press. Khurana, R. (2007). From higher aims to hired hands. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Kohlberg, L. (1969). Stage and sequence: The cognitive-developmental approach to socialization. In D. A. Goslin (Ed.), Handbook of socialization theory and research (pp. 347–480). Chicago: Rand McNally. Kraatz, M. S., & Block, E. S. (2008). Organizational implications of institutional pluralism. In R. Greenwood, C. Oliver, R. Suddaby, & K. Sahlin-Andersson (Eds.), Handbook of organizational institutionalism (pp. 243–275). Sage: London. Lakoff, G. (2004). Don’t think of an elephant!. Vermont: Chelsea Green Publishing. Lapsley, D. K., & Narvaez, D. (2004). A social-cognitive approach to the moral personality. In D. K. Lapsley & D. Narvaez (Eds.), Moral development, self and identity (pp. 189–212). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Lee, M., & Ermann, M. D. (1999). Pinto ‘‘madness’’ as a flawed landmark narrative: An organisational and network analysis. Social Problems, 46, 30–47. Leonard-Barton, D. (1992). Core capabilities and core rigidities: A paradox in managing new product development. Strategic Management Journal, 13, 111–125. Ley Toffler, B., & Reingold, J. (2003). Final accounting. Ambition, greed, and the fall of Arthur Andersen. New York: Broadway Books. Mack, A., & Rock, I. (1998). Inattentional blindness. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. March, J. G. (1981). Footnotes to organizational change. Adminstrative Science Quarterly, 26, 563–577. March, J. G. (1988). Organizational learning. Annual Review of Sociology, 14, 319–340. March, J. G., & Simon, H. A. (1958). Organizations. New York: Wiley. Marwell, G., & Ames, R. E. (1981). Economists free ride, does anyone else? Experiments on the provision of public goods, IV. Journal of Public Economics, 15, 295–310. Mazzoni, G., & Vannucci, M. (2007). Hindsight bias, the misinformation effect, and false autobiographical memories. Social Cognition, 25, 203–220. McAdams, D. P. (2009). The person: An introduction to the science of personality psychology (5th ed.). New York: Wiley. McDevitt, R., Giapponi, C., & Tromley, C. (2007). A model of ethical decision making: The integration of process and content. Journal of Business Ethics, 73, 219–229. McLean, B., & Elkind, P. (2003). The smartest guys in the room: The amazing rise and scandalous fall of Enron. Penguin books: New York. Miles, R. E., & Snow, C. C. (1994). Fit, failure and the hall of fame. New York: The Free Press. Milgram, S. (1974). Obedience to authority: An experimental view. New York: Harper & Row. Miller, D. (1993). The architecture of simplicity. Academy of Management Review, 18, 116–138. Mintzberg, H. (2004). Managers not MBAs. A hard look at the soft practice of managing and management development. London: Prentice-Hall. Misangyi, V. F., Weaver, G. R., & Elms, H. (2008). Ending corruption: The interplay among institutional logics, resources, and institutional entrepreneurs. Academy of Management Review, 33, 750–770. Narvaez, D., Lapsley, D. K., Hagele, S., & Lasky, B. (2006). Moral chronicity and social information processing: Tests of a social cognitive approach to the moral personality. Journal of Research in Personality, 40, 966–985. Neisser, U. (1979). The control of information pickup in selective looking. In A. D. Pick (Ed.), Perception and its development: A tribute to Eleanor J Gibson (pp. 201–219). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Ng, D., Westgren, R., & Sonka, S. (2009). Competitive blind spots in an institutional field. Strategic Management Journal, 30, 349–369. Ocasio, W. (1997). Towards an attention-based view of the firm. Strategic Management Journal, 18, 187–206. Oestreich, J. E. (2002). What can business do to appease antiglobalization protestors? Business and Society Review, 107, 207–220. Packer, D. J. (2008). Identifying systematic disobedience in Milgram’s obedience experiments: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Science, 3, 301–304. Pauly, D. (1995). Anecdotes and the shifting baseline syndrome of fisheries. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 10, 430. Perrow, C. (1986). Complex organizations: A critical essay. New York: Random House. Petersen, L.-E., & Dietz, J. (2000). Social discrimination in a personnel selection context: The effects of an authority’s instruction to discriminate and followers’ authoritarianism. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30, 206–220. Petersen, L.-E., & Dietz, J. (2005). Prejudice and enforcement of workforce homogeneity as explanations for employment discrimination. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 35, 144–159. Petersen, L.-E., & Krings, F. (2009). Are ethical codes of conduct toothless tigers for dealing with employment discrimination? Journal of Business Ethics, 85, 501–514. Pohl, R. F., Eisenhauer, M., & Hardt, O. (2003). SARA—a cognitive process model to simulate anchoring effect and hindsight bias. Memory, 11, 337–356. Popper, K. (1995/1945). The open society and its enemies (2 volumes). London: Routledge. Post, J. E., & Altman, B. W. (1992). Models of corporate greening: How corporate social policy and organisational learning inform leading-edge environmental management. Research in Corporate Social Performance and Policy, 13, 3–29. Punch, M. (1996). Dirty business. Exploring corporate misconduct. London: Sage. Rest, J. R. (1986). Moral development: Advances in research and theory. New York: Praeger. Reynolds, S. J. (2006). A neurocognitive model of the ethical decision-making process: Implications for study and practice. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 737–748. Reynolds, S. J., Leavitt, K., & Decelles, K. A. (2010). Automatic ethics: The effects of implicit assumptions and contextual cues on moral behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology;, 95(4), 752–760. Rieskamp, J., & Hoffrage, U. (2008). Inferences under time pressure: How opportunity costs affect strategy selection. Acta Psychologica, 127, 258–276. Ring, P. S., & Rands, G. P. (1989). Sensemaking, understanding, and committing: Emergent interpersonal transaction processes in the evolution of 3M’s microgravity research program. In H. Van den Ven, H. L. Angle, & M. S. Poole (Eds.), Research on the management of innovation: The Minnesota studies (pp. 337– 366). New York: Ballinger. Rorty, R. (1991). The priority of democracy to philosophy. In R. Rorty (Ed.), Objectivity, relativism, and truth: Philosophical 123 G. Palazzo et al. papers (Vol. I, pp. 175–196). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Russo, J. E., & Schoemaker, P. J. H. (2004). Winning decisions: Getting it right the first time. New York: Doubleday. Saenz-Arroyo, A., Roberts, C. M., Torre, J., Carino-Olvera, M., & Enriuez-Andrade, R. R. (2005). Rapidly shifting environmental baselines among fishers of the Gulf of California. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 272, 1957–1962. Said, E. W. (1994/1978). Orientalism (25th anniversary edition). New York: Vintage Books. Schoemaker, P. J. H., & Russo, J. E. (2001). Managing frames to make better decisions. In S. Hoch & H. Kunreuther (Eds.), Wharton on making decisions (pp. 131–155). Ort: Wiley. Sharp-Paine, L. (1997). Cases in leadership, ethics, and organizational integrity. A strategic perspective. Chicago: Irwin. Sherif, M., Harvey, O. J., White, B. J., Hood, W. R., & Sherif, C. W. (1961). Intergroup conflict and cooperation: The Robbers Cave Experiment. Norman: University of Oklahoma Book Exchange. Sims, R. R., & Brinkmann, J. (2003). Enron ethics (or: culture matters more than codes). Journal of Business Ethics, 45, 243–256. Smircich, L., & Stubbart, C. (1985). Strategic management in an enacted world. Academy of Management Review, 10, 724–736. Sonenshein, S. (2006). Crafting social issues at work. Academy of Management Journal, 49, 1158–1172. Sonenshein, S. (2007). The role of construction, intuition, and justification in responding to ethical issues at work: The sensemaking-intuition model. Academy of Management Review, 32, 1022–1040. Staw, B. M. (1976). Knee-deep in the big muddy: A study of escalating commitment to a chosen course of action. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 16, 27–44. Steffy, B. D., & Grimes, A. J. (1986). A critical theory of organization science. Academy of Management Review, 11, 322–336. Teegen, H., Doh, J. P., & Vachani, S. (2004). The importance of nongovernmental organization (NGOs)in global governance and value creation: An international business research agenda. Journal of International Business Studies, 35(6), 463–483. Tenbrunsel, A. E., & Messick, D. M. (2004). Ethical fading: The role of self-deception in unethical behavior. Social Justice Research, 17, 223–236. Tenbrunsel, A. E., & Smith-Crowe, K. (2008). Ethical decision making: Where we’ve been and where we’re going. Academy of Management Annals, 2, 545–607. Tetlock, P. E. (2000). Cognitive biases and organizational correctives: Do both disease and cure depend on the politics of the beholder? Administrative Science Quarterly, 45, 293–326. Tetlock, P. E., Kristel, O. V., Elson, S. B., & Green, M. C. (2000). The psychology of the unthinkable: Taboo trade-offs, forbidden base rates, and heretical counterfactuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 853–870. Tolbert, P. S., & Zucker, L. G. (1996). The institutionalization of institutional theory. In S. Clegg, C. Hardy, & W. R. Nord (Eds.), Handbook of organization studies (pp. 175–190). London: Sage Publications. Trevino, L. K. (1986). Ethical decision making in organizations: A person-situation interactionist model. Academy of Management Review, 11, 601–617. Trice, H. M., & Beyer, J. M. (1993). The cultures of work organizations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2000). Temporal construal and timedependent changes in preference. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 876–889. Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2003). Temporal construal. Psychological Review, 110, 403–421. Vaughan, D. (1996). The Challenger launch decision: Risky technology, culture and deviance at NASA. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Vaughan, D. (2005). System effects: On slippery slopes, repeating negative patterns, and learning from mistake? In W. H. Starbuck & M. Farjoun (Eds.), Organization at the limit. Lessons from the Columbia disaster (pp. 41–59). Malden: Blackwell Publishing. ¨ Von Sydow, J., Schreyogg, G., & Koch, J. (2009). Organizational path dependence: Opening the black box. Academy of Management Review, 34, 689–709. Walsh, J. P. (1995). Managerial and organizational cognition: Notes from a trip down memory lane. Organization Science, 6, 280–321. Walzer, M. (1997). On toleration. Yale: Yale University Press. Weick, K. E. (1995). Sensemaking in organizations. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Weick, K. (1996). Drop your tools: An allegory for organizational studies. Administrative Science Quarterly, 41, 301–313. Weick, K. (2005). Making sense of blurred images: Mindful organizing in mission STS-107. In W. H. Starbuck & M. Farjoun (Eds.), Organization at the limit. Lessons from the Columbia disaster (pp. 159–177). Malden: Blackwell Publishing. Welzer, H. (2005). Ta ¨ter. Wie aus ganz normalen Menschen Massenmo ¨rder werden. Frankfurt: S. Fischer. Welzer, H. (2008). Klimakriege. Frankfurt: S. Fischer. Werhane, P. H. (1999). Moral imagination and management decision making. New York: Oxford University Press. Werhane, P. H., Hartman, L. P., Moberg, D., Englehardt, E., Pritchard, M. & Parmar, B. (2011). Social constructivism, mental models, and problems of obedience. Journal of Business Ethics, 100(1), 103–118. Wheeler, D., Fabig, H., & Boele, R. (2002). Paradoxes and dilemmas for stakeholder responsive firms in the extractive sector: lessons from the case of Shell and the Ogoni. Journal of Business Ethics, 39, 297–318. Zahra, S. A., & Couples, S. S. (1993). Blind spots in competitive analysis. Academy of Management Executive, 7, 7–28. Zajac, E. J., & Bazerman, M. H. (1991). Blind spots in industry and competitor analysis: Implications of interfirm (mis)perception for strategic decisions. Academy of Management Review, 16, 37–56. Zimbardo, P. (2007). The Lucifer effect. Understanding how good people turn evil. New York: Random House. 123