Current and Future Status of Coral Reefs in Malaysia

Current and Future Status of Coral Reefs in Malaysia

Abstract:
Coral reefs, also known as the rainforest of ocean, are the most productive and biologically rich ecosystem on earth (McAllister, 1995). Coral reefs are an important source of food and income to millions of people that are living near coast (Burke, et al., 2002). There are about 540 species of hard corals that have been identified in Malaysia in total and there are more than 90% of the country’s reefs are situated off the coast of East Malaysia. These reefs are part of the biogeography Coral Triangle Core and the reefs in this region support a far greater diversity of corals and fish than other countries (Burke, et al., 2002). The reefs in Malaysia are considered to be “fair” with an average of 46.845% of coral covers and the mean percentage has been fluctuating from 2007 to 2012 (Reef Check Malaysia 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012). Nevertheless, intensifying array of local threats includes unsustainable fishing, coastal development, and sewage pollution were experienced by the coral reefs in Malaysia. Furthermore, The combination of both threats from climate change and local factors will result in the increasing degradation of reefs in the future (Hughes, Rodrigues, Bellwood, et a.l, 2007; Riegl,et al., 2009; Hoegh-Guldberg, et al., 2009). By 2030, more than 40% of the reefs in Coral Triangle Region will be at very high or critical threat level. Although they can recover from damage but their speed of recovery do not match up with the speed of climate change. Therefore, in order to make sure that the resilience and continued existence of coral reefs, local threats must be controlled in order to sustain them for the future (Burke, et al., 2002).

Table of Contents: Page number
Abstract 1
Contents 2
List of Figures 3
Introduction 4-5
Current Status…........................................................................................................5-6
Current Threat …………………………………………………………………………….6-10
1. Coastal development ………………………………………………………6
2. Destructive fishing and overfishing ………………………………………6-7
3. Coral bleaching …………………………………………………………….7-9
4. Tsunami……………………………………………………………………...9-10
Future Threat ..........................................................................................................10-14
1. Sewage pollution…………………………………………………………..10-12
2. Unsustainable fishing ……………………………………………………..12-13
3. Coral bleaching ……………………………………………………………13-14
Future Status……………………………………………………………………………14-15
Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………...15
Reference……………………………………………………………………………….16-20

List of Figures Page Number
Figure 1: The three major regions of coral reefs development in the world…….4
Figure 2: Bar Chart representing the mean percentage of coral reefs from 2007 to 2012 in Malaysia………………………………………………………..…6
Figure 3: Graph of the number of reef provinces bleaching in the world since 1979...................................................................................................…8
Figure 4: Bar chart of the mean percentage of Nutrient Indicator from 2007 to 2012 in Malaysia…………………………………………………………………11
Figure 5: Bar chart of the mean abundance of fish from 2007 to 2012 in Malaysia…………………………………………………………………...13

List of Table
Table 1: “Coral Reef Health Criteria” for Malaysia ………………………………5
Table 2: Table of the mean percentage of coral reefs from 2007 to 2012 in Malaysia ……………………………………………………………………5
Table 3: Table of the mean percentage of Nutrient Indicator from 2007 to 2012 in Malaysia……………………………………………………………………11
Table 4: Table of the mean abundance of fish from 2007 to 2012 in Malaysia.13

Introduction:
Corals are sessile animals that are formed by living stony coral polyps, coralline, red and green algae. In order to overcome their difficulties in finding food, coral reefs can only reach out their tentacles to feed on small fish and planktonic animals as they in a fixed position. (EPA, 2014). Corals generally live in shallow water where sea surface temperature is not more than 36.11oC or they will start to bleach. They are concentrated towards the western margin and the three major regions are the Indo Pacific, the wider Caribbean and the Red Sea (William Alevizon, 2013).
Figure 1: The three major regions of coral reefs development in the world. The difference in colour shows the different diversity of coral distribution.
Coral reefs live in colonies consisting of many individual polyps. A hard calcium carbonate skeleton is secreted to provide a uniform base for the colony. The function of this secretion is to protect the polyps when predators approach and the calcium carbonate is to cover up the surface of the skeletal structure from predators (EPA, 2014). Long-spine sea urchins also play a key role in sustaining the reef habitat. These night-time grazers will crop and open the turf, creating space for filamentous algae and coral larvae to inhabit.
Malaysia is one of the countries that has the highest marine biodiversity and it is part of the “Coral Triangle” (RCM, 2010). The ecological boundary of the Coral Triangle contains approximately 73,00km2 of coral reefs. Most coral reefs are found in the region of the northern and southern coast of Sabah (Burke and Reytar, et al., 2012). There are approximately 540 species of hard corals in Malaysian waters that have been identified by marine biologists to date (Veron, Devantier, et.al., 2009) and over 90% of the discovery is located off the coast of Sabah. As Malaysia is situated in the core of Coral Triangle, and there is a wide range of coral reefs, many reef fishes benefits from this extraordinary biodiversity. Because of that, there are no less than 925 different species of reef fishes inhabit coral reefs around Malaysia (Chong, Lee, et al., 2010).
Status:
Reef Check is a monitoring program concerning volunteer, recreational divers and marine scientist (Hodgson 2001, Hodgson et al., 2006). It aims to study coral reefs and rocky temperate reef ecosystems on a global extent. Reef Check Malaysia was introduced at the end of 2007 and according to survey in 2010, the common condition of Malaysia coral reefs is considered as “fair” based on the average hard and soft coral cover (see Table 1). Fundamentally, the difference between hard and soft corals is the structure of corals. Hard corals have solid, calcium-based skeletons which secreted by itself while soft corals do not (Boumis, 2014). The percentage of the live coral cover in 2010 was 44.31% but in 2012, the general condition of coral reefs in Malaysia increased to 46.37% after a decline of 1.74% in 2011 after the mass coral bleaching in the late 2010 (Reef Check Malaysia, 2010 & 2012).
Table 1: “Coral Reef Health Criteria” (Chou et al., 1994). Malaysia is in a “fair” position as the percentage is at an average of 44.31% (2010), 42.57% (2011) and 46.37% (2012).
Percentage of live coral cover
Status
0-25
Poor
26-50
Fair
51-75
Good
76-100
Excellent

Table 2: The mean percentage of hard and soft corals in Malaysia from 2007 to 2012 in Malaysia. (Reef Check Malaysia, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012)

Figure 2: Bar chart shows a slight fluctuation from 2007 to 2012. A slight decrease of percentage in Malaysian coral reefs from 2008 to 2011 and an increase during 2011 to 2012. (Reef Check Malaysia, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012).
Current Threat- Costal Development
According to the Reef Check Malaysia 2010, higher algal cover was recorded in Peninsular Malaysia than East Malaysia with a difference of 3% (Reef Check Malaysia, 2010).This is due to the difference in nutrient levels in waters of Peninsular and West Malaysia. Intense agriculture, coastal urbanization, and the growth of coastal urbanization are the main reasons that most Peninsular Malaysia waters are covered with algae which will affect the corals. Unsustainable tourism can physically damage coral reefs as the corals breed in a very sensitive habitat (ICRI, 2014). This kind of habitat can be damaged or disturbed by dredging activities such as dumping of waste materials. For example, hotels and resorts close by will encourage the growth of algae due to the release of unprocessed sewage or wastewater into the ocean which pollutes the water. The growth of algae will be damaging for the reefs nearby as the algae will compete with corals for space to settle. Algae and phytoplankton will thrive in Nutrient rich coastal areas and it will vastly affect the habitat of coral reefs. The occurrence of algal blooms will disrupt the balance of the reef communities as coral reefs are biological group that are adapted to water with low nutrient content (ICRI, 2014).
Current Threat-Destructive Fishing and Overfishing:
Other than algae cover, fish are one of the main indicators of the well being of coral reefs. The variety of reef fish is one of the criteria in Reef Check Malaysia used to indicate the biodiversity of coral reefs in Malaysia. Unfortunately in the recent years, the percentage of fishes that are targeted as food trade is high and one of the most threatened places in Malaysia is concentrated along the near shore reefs of Sabah (Reytar, Spalding, et al., 2011). Barramundi cod, Sweetlips and Humphead wrasse are among the variety of fishes which have an extremely low percentage and are rarely sighted. In the report of Reef Check Malaysia, the survey illustrates that the abundance of these species is very low and it was stated that less than 0.15 individuals per 500cm3 survey transect (Reef Check Malaysia, 2012). It was also stated that the abundance of butterfly fish, Barramundi Cod, Parrot fish, Moray Eel and Grouper have declined to some extent from the survey report of 2011.
Overfishing and destructive fishing methods are human activities that is the key reasons the variety of fishes are low and it causes the habitat of coral reef to be disturbed. These activities are the most well-known threat, affecting more or less 97% of the reef in Malaysia (Reytar, Spalding, et al., 2011). Deep water trade fish and some key reef fishes as well are part of the increasing requirement for food fish has resulted in overfishing. This not only affects the reef’s ecological balance and biodiversity but also the food source for the future. Destructive fishing methods such as blast and poison fishing not only exterminate fishes that are already endangered, but damage the habitat of coral that the reef fishes rely on. Moreover, the usage of dynamite, cyanide and other methods that was initially used to kill fish will break up the fragile coral reefs and these methods are highly unsustainable. These actions alone threatens 85% of Malaysia’s reefs habitat (Reytar, Spalding, et al., 2011), and are related to the decreased productivity of corals and fish of the area (ICRI, 2014). In contrast, Butterfly fish and Parrotfish show that there is a low collection pressure as they reflect a healthy status of reefs around Malaysia reef habitat. Butterfly fish thrive on the reefs and mainly feed on coral polyps while parrotfish act as control for any algae proliferation as they are herbivores (Reef Check Malaysia, 2010, 2011, 2012).
Current Threat-Coral Bleaching:
Although human activities such as destructive fishing methods and unsustainable tourism seem to be the main reason for human caused coral reefs destruction, but immense pressure from climate change plays a big role in causing damage towards coral reefs in Malaysia. According to some coral reefs studies, it is said that the reefs are exposed to a variety of anthropogenic stress such as fishing pressure, coastal developments, sewage pollutions, climate change, coral disease and many more and over 40 percent of the reefs are classified to have a high Integrated Threat Index (Burke et al., 2002). One of the key explanations of why a huge amount of corals suddenly turned white from 1997/98 and 2010 is coral bleaching. The loss of the symbionts and the whitening of coral host were resulted when the relationship between corals and their symbiotic zooxanthellae breaks down, which unravel the term “coral bleaching” (ICRI, 2014). Increase of sea temperature is the main cause of mass coral bleaching and an increase of 1oC to 2oC will be the trigger to this event as corals already in their maximum thermal limits due to climate change (Marshall and Schuttenberg, 2006). Increased temperature causes the incoming light to overwhelm the photosynthesis system in the zooxanthellae and results in creation of reactive oxygen species that harm cellular structure of the corals.
There was a mass coral beaching event which was documented to be the most severe on document recorded during 1997 to 1998 (NOAA, 1998; ISRS, 1998). These strong bleaching episodes correspond with phases of high sea temperature was documented to be contaminated in every region of the world’s coral reefs. These episodes of bleaching episodes are also associated with interruption to the El-Nino Oscillation (ENSO) and this episode of mass coral bleaching was recorded coincide with some of the strongest El-Nino Oscillation (ENSO) disturbance on record (Figure 2; Kerr, 1999). In some places, Singapore was recorded to have this bleaching event for the first time in history (ISRS, 1998). Reports have shown that many corals that were believed to have lived for more than 100 years have been damaged and died due to this bleaching event that happened in 1997 to 1998 (ISRS, 1998). This bleaching event began in summer 1997 from the Southern Hemisphere and it spread across the world throughout 1997 to 1998. It reaches the Indian Ocean during March and April and since then it has started to bleach corals in South East Asia.
Figure 3: Number of reef provinces bleaching in the world since 1979. (Graph modified from Goreau and Hayes (1994)). Arrows indicate strong El Nino years.
Although the record of coral bleaching were most wide-ranging and intense bleaching event on record, but the effect on the reefs in Malaysia was mild and occurred only in limited to a small area (Wilkinson 1998; Kushairi 1999). But, in Mid-May of 2010, there was a major bleaching event alongside the north-western coast of Peninsular Malaysia, and approximately 90% of the corals from the affected area were bleached and the event lasted for four months (Reef Check Malaysia, 2011). Additionally, the mass coral bleaching event was followed by the peak of the third strongest El Nino event (C.H. Tan & S.F. Heron, 2011). That chain of events in 2010 cause Tioman, Redang and Perhentian Islands one of the worst places affected as two-third of the coral that were settled there was bleached. The severity and the extent of bleaching were constant with the observed level of satellite derived thermal stress, greater than 8oC- weeks (Liu et al., 2003). On an optimistic note, surveys from East Malaysia were recorded as having minimal bleaching event with only 10% or less. Even though the condition of the corals in Malaysia improved towards the end of 2010, there were some indications from the reef survey showing that around five to six percent of the corals died from 43.82% in 2009 to 38.56% in 2010 (Reef check Malaysia, 2009 &2010).
Current Threat-Tsunami and monsoon season:
Tsunami and earthquake are natural stressors that had a negative impact on coral reefs for millions of years and one tsunami which happened on the 26 December 2004 is one of the most disastrous natural catastrophes in South East Asia. It caused a major but localized damage to the coral reefs and resulted fractures of the reefs and fragile reefs are shattered or uplift of coral reefs in Simeulue Island, Sumatra, and Andaman Island (Wilkinson and Souter et al., 2005). These chains of event damage the reefs through three mechanisms: wave action which dislocated, shattered and moved coral and rubble; suffocating of corals by increased sediment movement; and mechanical harm and smothering by the fragments from land (Wilkinson and Souter et al., 2005). Fortunately, most coral reefs in Malaysia broke away from this catastrophic damage as it was protected by Sumatra Island and it only obtained secondary waves. There was only a little damage and most area with high concentration of coral reef was unaffected. A number of erosion events occurred on higher reef slopes and reefs crests, with only negligible sediments re-suspension and some coral fracture in shallow water (Yalciner, Ghazali, Abd Wahab, 2005). Although it was defended, however the northern states of Perlis, Kedah, Perak and Selangor and some outlying islands of Penang and Langkawi were damaged. There was only official reports estimate that 7,721 fishers were directly affected by the tsunami and 3,626 fishing vessels were lost or damaged for the whole Malaysia (Lee, Affendi, et al., 2005; Khor, Lim, 2005).
Malaysia weather is characterized into two monsoon regimes, which are the Southwest Monsoon and the Northeast Monsoon. Northeast Monsoon spread through from the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia to western Sarawak and is habitually begun in early November to end of March (MOSTI, 2013). The feature of this particular monsoon is it transport heavy rainfall from the cold air that outbreaks from Siberia. The rainfall itself will not have any major damage on coral reefs, but is the wind flow that causes the circulation of ocean waves. Surface ocean currents are mainly affected by wind patterns. The formation of the surface current is aided by the trade winds that set the water along the top of the ocean in motion (Nc-climate, 2014). In 2007, there was a record of over 25% of the rock cover in Malaysia and it is a high possibility that it is caused by the monsoon storm and also by trawling activity by fisherman during monsoon season (Reef Check Malaysia, 2007). However on an optimistic note, the percentage from 2008 to 2009 of hard coral cover increased, with a recovery from a strong and destructive monsoon season during the end of 2006 (Reef Check Malaysia, 2010). Future Threat- Sewage Pollution
Tourists have been flocking to South East Asia as it is one of the fastest growing tourism markets (WTTC, 2013). Among visitors that have visited Malaysia, approximately 70% of them visited the coastal destination in Malaysia (Reef Check Malaysia, 2013). Coral reefs have been recognized as a valuable resources both ecologically and economically in the tourism industry and it is estimated that the reefs in Malaysia to have a value of RM 138 billion per annum (Reef Check Malaysia, 2012). This finding indicates that coral reefs in Malaysia are an important asset economically. The consequences of damaged corals will be extensive of coral death which will lead to significant economic losses. Lands are cleared inshore to build new resorts to accommodate the increasing number of tourists and these poor planning of development release siltation that can smother and kill reefs. Poor waste management will lead to an increase of growth of algae which will eventually harm corals if their presences are in a large amount- a rapid proliferation of algae. If the algae-grazing fish cannot control the increasing level of algae, it will smooth and eventually kill the reefs. Aside from killing corals, the extra algae will reduce the recruitment of new corals and slow the process of recovery of the corals.
Scientists have estimated that 27% of coral reefs have been damaged, and 14% are at risk in the next 10 years if no proper legislative framework actions to protect the coral reefs in Malaysia (Reef Check Malaysia, 2012). Survey shows that Perhentian Island did show an upsetting decline of coral reef condition and it is largely due to the growing tourism industry although it is situated remotely from the main land of Malaysia. Sewage pollution is a major problem in Malaysia as the managements are trying their best to accommodate the increasing number of tourist visiting islands (Reef Check Malaysia, 2012). Although the key sources of nutrient that could be contributing to this high level of nutrient indicator algae are sewage pollution, however there is another cause of pollution that was acknowledged was sewage effluent which is more harmful than solid waste. Sewage effluent has traditionally through outfall in shallow coastal and its one of the major stresses impacting coastal ecosystem (Young-Jin and Rousseaux, 2001, Mclntyre 1995, Klaus Koop and Pat Hutchings 1996). These pollutants which are mainly from soluble organic matters and hazardous pollutant such as heavy metals and organochlorine will harm the coral reefs and the intensity of damage is also dependent on the features of receiving waters too (NAP, 1984, Canter, 1996: Nemerow and Dasgupta, 1991).
Over the six years of period, the level of nutrient indicator algae has decrease and increased (Table 3; Figure 4) and Perhentian Island was the main island that adds to this level for nutrient indicator algae level. The rise in 2010 possibly points out the raise level of nutrient in the water. This was supported by some water testing data which was done in 2009 that shows a sewage problem in Perhentian Island with a review of sewage treatment in 2011 highlighted the inadequate sewage treatment system in many resorts (Reef Check Malaysia, 2012). However, the level of Nutrient Indictor Algae in 2012 was the lowest among six years even though there were no changes in terms of sewage treatment system (Reef Check Malaysia, 2012).
Table 3: The mean percentage of nutrient indicator algae from 2007 to 2012 in Malaysia. (Reef Check Malaysia, 2007,2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012)

Figure 4: Bar chart shows an overall decline of algae in Malaysia from 2007 to 2009 and a slight increase till 2011 with another decrease in 2012. (Reef Check Malaysia, 2007,2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012).
The future of coral reefs depends much on how humans adapt on the increasing number of tourist by accommodating them while not harming the reefs offshore. Although it seems that the level of Nutrient Indicator Level is decreasing, but there are still a lot to improve on sustainability. Improving septic tanks as sewage treatment system rather than constructing a new sewage treatment plant would be the best way in short term as there are problems such as lack of infrastructure in island and the geology of the island would be in the way (Reef Check Malaysia, 2012). A much better solution is to provide a mobile septic tank de-slugging facility to service resorts on the various islands and this should not be viewed as cost, but an investment in protecting coral reefs in Malaysia for the future generation (Reef Check Malaysia, 2012). The reefs in Malaysia might recover quickly while being damaged by some anthropogenic force in particularly sewage pollution, but they might be not fast to adapt the rapid changes due to tourism and climate change.
Future Threat-Unsustainable Fishing:
Other than that, reef fish and coral reefs have been in a symbiosis relationship for more than a century. The reefs have provided protection from predator and food for fish and in return the reef fish will help reduce algae that covered the corals. As there are nearly 114 million citizens that live on the coast within 30km of coral reef in the Coral Triangle Region (WRI, 2007), the demands on fish are high on many reefs. Even though decent reef fisheries legislation have been implied, but the growing demand from tourism and international markets have notably impacted fish stock throughout the region (Graham, et al., 2010; Berkes, Hughes, Steneck, et al., 2006; Sadovy, Donaldson, et al., 2003). Overfishing in Malaysia have caused the coast to be left with only small fish and the consequences of this are prone to overgrowth of algae as there will not be sufficient amount of large algae-grazing herbivores (Sadovy, Donaldson, et al., 2003).
Moreover, the greatest local threat towards the coral reefs in Malaysia is unsustainable fishing. Nearly 85% of the reefs are pressured by untenable fishing methods, with 50% of it are considered highly threatened (Burke, Reytar, et al., 2012). Destructive fishing methods such as using explosive or poison methods have been popular method in Malaysia for years as this is effortless and it is a continual threat towards coral reefs in Malaysia (Fox, and Caldwell, 2006). This method alone has been a threat towards the reefs for nearly 60% and it is still growing. The utmost driver of increased pressure on corals since 1998 is the increasing number of unsustainable fishing methods as this is mainly due to the increasing number of growth in population in coastal areas (Burke, Reytar, et al., 2012). 15% of reefs in Coral Triangle region that were not considered threaten in 1998 are now considered as in hazard zone and around 25% of them have shifted to a higher hazard group (Fox, and Caldwell, 2006).
Table 4: The overall average of fish abundance from 2007 to 2012 in Malaysia. (Reef Check Malaysia, 2007,2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012)

Figure 5: Bar chart shows an increase on the abundance of fish from 2007 to 2008 and an immense decrease during 2009 along with an increase and slight decrease each year from 2010 to 2012.
Future Threat- Coral Bleaching: A stress reaction to peculiarly warm waters across wide expenses of coral reefs, also known as mass coral bleaching is becoming more severe, frequent and widespread to all regions as higher temperature recur (Hoegh-Guldberg, O, 1999; Eakin, et al., 2009; Glynn, 1993). Tropical seas have showed a substantial warming in the past 100 years (Bottomley, Folland, et al., 1990; Cane, Clement, et al, 1997) and there have been an obvious increase since 1979 and from the time onwards, primary literature was always about the reports of mass bleaching events. Data from the past 20 years which was projected that corals and their zooxanthellae are unable to get used to the short, sporadic thermal events such as coral bleaching quick enough, although corals have the ability to assimilate in many circumstances (Gates, R. D., and Edmunds, P. J, 1999). If this bleaching occurrence is severe and long-standing, corals will be damaged and killed entirely. Less intense bleaching events would weaken coral growth rates and their reproductive potential, leaving them vulnerable to disease (Obura, and Grimsditch, 2009). By 2100, researches expect an increase of 1-2oC in sea temperature in response to improved concentration of atmospheric greenhouse gases (Bijlsma, 1995). if corals are incapable to adapt or acclimatize quick enough to the increase of temperature of seawater, they would be a victim of bleaching events.
Projecting future changes to sea temperature cannot be only dependent on what has happen in the earlier period. The attempts to forecast the future of the tropical sea temperature always complicated by seasonality and El Nino that varies in term of force. In addition, data from the past 20 years was used to predict the future would be different to the data that was expected and the real occurrences (Ove Hoegh-Guldberg, 1999). Roughly 50% of the world’s reefs will be experiencing thermal stress if there are under a “business-as-usual” emission rate, at least five out of ten years approximately after 15 years from now (Burke, Reytar, et al., 2012).This emission rate will be enough to aggravate severe bleaching. At the same time in Coral Triangle Region, there will be more than 80% of the reefs are proposed to reach this level of thermal stress during 2030s (Burke, Reytar, et al., 2012). Future status:
The reefs that are situated in the region of Coral Triangle Region are predominantly susceptible to climate change because they are already endangered by local stressors such as unsustainable fishing and coastal development. Other factors associated with climate change, such as sea level rise, increased intensity of cyclones and typhoons, and changes in rainfall patterns are also projected to impact coastal ecosystem in the region (Hoegh-Guldberg, et al., 2009). By 2030, almost more than 80% of the coral reefs in Coral Triangle Region especially Malaysia will be facing high, very high or crucial threat level as they are continually threatened by a combination of local activities, ocean warming. By 2050, more than 90% of the reefs in Coral Triangle Region will be in a high, very high or critical level (Ove Hoegh-Guldberg, 1999). Possible changes in human pressure, management, or policy, were not take account for this projection and only assumption of existing local threats which “to-be-remain-constant-in-the-future” were only taken in for the future of coral reefs since it could influence overall threat rating.
Nevertheless, the projections of the threat to reefs would be even higher if the future population growth, coastal development, and agricultural expansion were considered, (Ove Hoegh-Guldberg, 1999).
Conclusion:
The principle threat for coral reefs in Malaysia are basically land clearing for coastal developments, sewage problems from resorts, unsustainable fishing such as overfishing and destructive fishing methods, and physical damage from inconsiderate divers and snorkels (Reef Check Malaysia,2012). Establishing a “wide-ranging” and “synchronized” monitoring programme for coral reefs in Malaysia such as Reef Check Malaysia has helped us a lot in understanding the status and the threat of Malaysia’s reef. Based on these reports, more than 90% of the reefs are facing localized threat and is getting worse year by year. In order to lower the threat level for better reefs status, law enforcement and proper legislative plays an important role. For instance, department of Marine Park Malaysia should introduce “sanctuary zone” to increase protection in some reefs area. Besides that, this action is able to raise consciousness of the significance of coral reefs to the world (Reef Check Malaysia, 2012).
As for state governments, they should work mutually with Indah Water Consortium to work out on the best way to offer septic tank de-sludging facilities to resorts on islands as one of the main problems in most islands in Malaysia is sewage problem. Moreover, additional environmental education for both local communities and tourists should be enforced on in order to allow them have a much improved understanding towards Malaysia’s and the world’s coral reefs and their threat (Harborne and Fenner et al., 2000). Therefore, if there is mutual cooperation between all parties from local to international, the threat levels of coral reefs not only in Malaysia but in the world that was predicted will not be so serious

Reference:
Barber, C. V., and V. R. Pratt. 1997. Sullied Seas: Strategies for Combating Cyanide Fishing in Southeast Asia. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute
Berkes, F., T. P. Hughes, R. S. Steneck,. 2006. “Globalization, Roving Bandits, and Marine Resources.” Science 311 (5767):1557–1558.
Bijlsma, L., Ehler, C. N., Klein, R. J. T., Kulshrestha, S. M., McLean, R. F., Mimura, N., Nicholls, R. J., Nurse, L. A., Perez Nieto, H., Stakhiv, E. Z., Turner, R. K., and Warrick, R. A. (1995). Coastal zones and small islands. In Climate Change 1995—Impacts, adaptations and mitigations of climate change: Scientific Technical analyses: the second assessment report of the Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change. (Eds R. T. Watson, M. C. Zinyowera and R. H. Moss.) pp. 6–12. (Cambridge University Press: New York.)
Bottomley, M., Folland, C. K., Hsiung, J., Newell, R. E., and Parker, D. E. (1990). Global ocean surface temperature atlas (GOSTA). Available at: (http://http://ingrid.ldeo.columbia.edu/SOURCES/.IGOSTA/) [Accessed: 10 Mar 2014].
Boumis, R. 2014. What Is the Difference Between Hard & Soft Corals?. [online] Available at: http://animals.pawnation.com/difference-between-hard-soft-corals-6233.html [Accessed: 19 Mar 2014].
Brown, B. E. 1997a. Coral bleaching: causes and consequences. Coral Reefs 16, 129-138.
Burke L, Selig E, Spalding M. 2002. Reefs at risk in Southeast Asia. World Resources Institute, Cambridge
Burke, L., Reytar, K., Spalding, M. and Perry, A. 2012. Reefs at Risk | World Resources Institute. [online] Available at: http://www.wri.org/reefs. [Accessed: 13 Mar 2014].
Calculated at WRI based on data from Land Scan High Resolution Global Population Data Set, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 2007
Cane, M. A., Clement, A. C., Kaplan, A., Kushnir, Y., Pozdnyakov, D., Seager, R., Zebiak, S. E., and Murtugudde, R. 1997. Twentiethcentury sea surface temperature trends. Science 275, 957-60.
Canter L.W., 1996. Prediction and Assessment of Impacts on the surface-Water Environment. 2nd Edition. University of Oklahoma. Mc Graw-Hill Inc.
Chee PE, Siow R, Ali M (Eds.). Interim report of impact of tsunami on fisheries and coastal areas. Fisheries Research Institute, Penang, Malaysia; containing reports by Alias AH, Latun AR, Arshad MA, Ali M, Harith H 2005 and Kua BC, Bakar P, Abdul Latif F, Ramly R, Abdullah SZ, Abdullah A, Veloo P 2005.
Chong, V., Lee, P. and Lau, C. 2010. Diversity, extinction risk and conservation of Malaysian fishes. Journal of fish biology, 76 (9), pp. 2009--2066.
Climate Institute. Oceans and sea level rise: Consequences of climate change on the oceans, thermohaline circulation. Available at:[ http://www.climate.org/topics/sea-level/index.html#thermohaline] [Accessed Febuary 10, 2014.]
Eakin, C. M., J. M. Lough, and S. F. Heron. 2009. “Climate Variability and Change: Monitoring Data and Evidence for Increased Coral Bleaching Stress.” In Coral Bleaching, edited by M. J. H. Oppen and J. M. Lough. Heidelberg, Germany: Springer.
Fox, H. E., and R. L. Caldwell. 2006. “Recovery from Blast Fishing on Coral Reefs: A Tale of Two Scales.” Ecological Applications 16 (5):1631–1635.
Gates, R. D., and Edmunds, P. J. 1999. The physiological mechanisms of acclimatization in tropical reef corals. American Zoologist 39, 30–43.
Glynn, P. W. 1993. “Coral Reef Bleaching: Ecological Perspectives. Coral Reefs 12 (1):1–17.
Gorean T.J., and Hayes, R. M. 1994. Coral bleaching and ocean ‘hot spot’. Ambio 23, 176-80.
Goreau, T. and W. Hilbertz. 2005. Marine Ecosystem restoration: Costs and benefits for coral reefs. World Resource Review 17: 375-409.
Goreau, T. and W. Hilbertz. 2008. Bottom-up community-based coral reef and fisheries restoration in Indonesia, Panama and Palau. In Hanbook of Regenerative Landscape Design.R. L. France (Ed), pp. 143-159. Boca Raton, FL. CRC Press.
Graham, N. A. J., M. Spalding, and C. Sheppard. 2010. “Reef Shark Declines in Remote Atolls Highlight the Need for Multi-Faceted Conservation Action.” Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 20 (5):543–548.
Harborne, A., Fenner, D., Barnes, A., Beger, M., Harding, S. and Roxburgh, T. 2000. STATUS REPORT ON THE CORAL REEFS OF THE EAST COAST OF PENINSULA MALAYSIA. [report] Kuala Lumpur: MARINE PARKS SECTION DEPARTMENT OF FISHERIES MALAYSIA.
Hezri, A. and Nordin Hasan, M. 2006. Towards sustainable development? The evolution of environmental policy in Malaysia. 30 (1), pp. 37—50.
Hodgson, G. 2001. Reef Check: The first step in community-based management. Bull. Mar. Sci. 69(2): 861-868
Hoegh-Guldberg, O. 1999. “Climate Change, Coral Bleaching and the Future of the World’s Coral Reefs.” Marine and Freshwater Research 50:839–66.
Hoegh-Guldberg, O., H. Hoegh-Guldberg, J. E. N. Veron, et al. 2009. The Coral Triangle and Climate Change: Ecosystems, People and Societies at Risk. Brisbane, Australia: WWF Australia.
Hughes, T. P., M. J. Rodrigues, D. R. Bellwood, et al. 2007. “Phase Shifts, Herbivory, and the Resilience of Coral Reefs to Climate Change.” Current Biology 17 (4):360–365.
Kerr, R. A. 1999. Big El Ninos ride the back of slower climate change. Science 283, 1108.
Khor HT, Lim WS 2005. Impact of the tsunami on Penang’s economy. Penang Economic Monthly, Volume 7, Issue 1: 1-10, (www.seri.com.my/EconBrief/EconBrief2005-01.pdf).
Klaus Koop and Pat Hutchings 1996. Disposal of sewage to the ocean’a sustainable solution? Marine Pollution Bulletin, Volume 33, Issues 7-12, 1996, Pages 121-123.
Kushairi MRM. 1999. The 1998 bleaching catastrophe of corals in the South China Sea. Proceedings 9th Joint Seminar on Marine and Fisheries Sciences, Bali, Indonesia, 7-9 December 1998
Lasagna, R., G. Albertelli, P. Colantoni, C. Morri, and C. Bianchi. 2009. “Ecological Stages of Maldivian Reefs after the Coral Mass Mortality of 1998.” Facies 56 (1):1–11.
Lee YL, Affendi YA, Tajuddin BH, Yusuf YB, et al. 2005. A post-tsunami assessment of coastal living resources of Langkawi Archipelago, Peninsular Malaysia. NAGA, WorldFish Center Newsletter Vol. 28 No. 1 & 2: 17-22.
Lee, O. A. 2010. Coastal resort development in Malaysia: A review of policy use in the pre-construction and post-construction phase. Ocean \& Coastal Management, 53 (8), pp. 439--446.
Liu G, Strong AE, Skirving W. 2003. Remote sensing of sea surface temperatures during 2002 Barrier Reef coral bleaching. Eos Trans 84: 137-144
Marshall P.A. and Schuttenberg, H.Z. 2006. A Reef Manager’s Guide to Coral Bleaching. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, Australia (ISBN 1-876945-40-0)
McAllister, D. 1995. “Status of the World Ocean and Its Biodiversity.” Sea Wind 9 (4):1-72.
Mclntyre S., Wanninkhof R., and Chanton J.P. 1995. Trace gas exchange across the airwater interface in freshwater and coastal marine environments. In Measuring Emission from Soil and Water (P.A. Matson and R.C. Harriss). Blackwell Science Ltd.
Met.gov.my. 2013. Malaysian Meteorological Department - Monsoon. [online] Available at: http://www.met.gov.my/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=69&Itemid=160 [Accessed: 18 Mar 2014].
Met.gov.my. 2014. Malaysian Meteorological Department - General Climate of Malaysia. [online] Available at: http://www.met.gov.my/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=75&Itemid=1089 [Accessed: 18 Mar 2014].
Nc-climate.ncsu.edu. 2014. Ocean Circulations | Climate Education Modules for K-12. [online] Available at: https://www.nc-climate.ncsu.edu/edu/k12/.oceancirculations [Accessed: 18 Mar 2014].
Nemerow, N.L and A.Dasgupta 1991. Industrial and Hazardous Waste Treatment. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, N.Y. 743pp.
NOAA. 1998. Record-breaking coral bleaching occurred in tropics this year. National Oceanic and Atmosphere Administration, Press Release (October 23, 1998).
Obura, D. 2005. “Resilience and Climate Change: Lessons from Coral Reefs and Bleaching in the Western Indian Ocean.” Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 63:353–372.
Obura, D., and G. Grimsditch. 2009. Resilience Assessment of Coral Reefs: Rapid Assessment Protocol for Coral Reefs, Focusing on Coral Bleaching and Thermal Stress. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.
Reef Check Malaysia. 2007. Reef Check Malaysia Annual Survey Report 2007. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Reef Check Malaysia. 2008. Reef Check Malaysia Annual Survey Report 2008. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Reef Check Malaysia. 2009. Reef Check Malaysia Annual Survey Report 2009. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Reef Check Malaysia. 2010. Reef Check Malaysia Annual Survey Report 2010. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Reef Check Malaysia. 2011. Reef Check Malaysia Annual Survey Report 2011. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Reef Check Malaysia. 2012. Reef Check Malaysia Annual Survey Report 2012. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Riegl, B., A. Bruckner, S. L. Coles, P. Renaud, and R. E. Dodge. 2009. “Coral Reefs: Threats and Conservation in an Era of Global Change.” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1162 (The Year in Ecology and Conservation Biology 2009):136–186.
Sadovy, Y. J., T. J. Donaldson, T. R. Graham, F. McGilvray, G. J. Muldoon, M. J. Phillips, M. A. Rimmer, A. Smith, and B. Yeeting. 2003. While Stocks Last: The Live Reef Food Fish Trade. Manila: Asian Development Bank.
Sheppard, C. R. C., A. Harris, and A. L. S. Sheppard. 2008. “Archipelago-Wide Coral Recovery Patterns since 1998 in the Chagos Archipelago, Central Indian Ocean.” Marine Ecology Progress Series 362: 109–117.
TSRS. 1998. Statement on Global Corla Bleaching in 1997-98. International Society for Reef Studies, October 1998.
Veron, J., Devantier, L. M., Turak, E., Green, A. L., Kininmonth, S., Stafford-Smith, M., Peterson, N. and Others. 2009. Delineating the coral triangle. Galaxea, Journal of Coral Reef Studies, 11 (2), pp. 91--100.
Wilkinson CR. 1998. The 1997-1998 mass bleaching event around the world. In: Wilkinson CR (ed) Status of coral reefs of the world: 1998. Australian Institute of Marine Science, Cape Ferguson, Western Austral
Wilkinson, C. R., Souter, D. and Goldberg, J. 2006. Status of coral reefs in tsunami affected countries, 2005. Townsville MC, Qld.: Australian Govt., Australian Institute of Marine Science.
Wilkinson, C., Souter, D. and Goldberg, J. 2005. Status of coral reefs in tsunami-affected countries: 2005. Australian Institute of Marine Science; Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network.
Woodward, S. L. 2008. Marine biomes. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press.
World Fish Centre. 2005. Result of preliminary studies on the impact of the tsunami on fisheries and coastal areas of Penang and Kedah in Malaysia. NAGA, WorldFish Center Newsletter Vol. 28 No. 1 & 2: 23-25.
Yalciner AC, Ghazali NH, Abd Wahab AK. 2005. Report on December 26, 2004, Indian Ocean Tsunami, Field Survey on July 09-10, 2005 North West of Malaysia, Penang and Langkawi Islands. Available at: (http://yalciner.ce.metu.edu.tr/malaysia-survey/yalciner-etal-malaysia-surveysep-22-2005.pdf). [Accessed Febuary 10, 2014.]
Zhang, D., M. J. McPhaden, and W.E. Johns, 2003. Observational Evidence for Flow between the Subtropical and Tropical Atlantic: The Atlantic Subtropical Cells, Journal of Physical Oceanography, 33, 1783-1797.

THE CURRENT AND FUTURE STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN MALAYSIA

Name : Tan Jia Min
ID : UNIMKL-011132
Module Name : Dissertation in Environmental Science
Module Code : C11BE1
Supervisor : Dr. Suzanne McGowan