BIOL 2113 Chapter 1 2 3

CHAPTER ONE

ANATOMY - Studies the STRUCTURE of body and their relationships to one another.

SUBDIVISIONS OF ANATOMY
GROSS ANATOMY - the study of large body structures visible to the naked eye. Regional Anatomy - all structures in one part of the body are studied at the same time Systemic Anatomy - various systems of the body are studied.
MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY - examination of body tissue using a microscope. CYTOLOGY - study of the CELLS of the body. HISTOLOGY - study of the TISSUES of the body.
EMBRYOLOGY - developmental changes occuring BEFORE BIRTH.
PATHOLOGY - DISEASE related changes.
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY - subcellular level.

PHYSIOLOGY - deals with the normal FUNCTIONS of living organisms and their parts.

HOMEOSTASIS - ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions despite a changing external environment. Dynamic state of equilibrium, BALANCE.

ANATOMICAL POSITION - body is erect with feet slightly apart and palms facing forward with the thumbs pointing away from the body.

AXIAL - makes up the main axis of the body. Consist of the HEAD, NECK, and TRUNK.
APPENDICULAR - consist of the appendages or LIMBS.

COMPLIMENTARITY OF STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION - function always reflects structure. What a structure can do depends on its specific form.

LEVELS OF THE HIERARCHY ATOMS - building blocks of matter. MOLECULES - water, sugar, proteins. GROUPS OF ATOMS. ORGANELLES - basic components of microscopic cells. CELLS - living structural and functional units of an organism. TISSUES - groups of similar cells having common structure and function. Four basic types. ORGAN - complex physiological process become possible. Discrete structure composed of at least TWO TISSUE types; four tissues types more common. ORGAN SYSTEM - organs that cooperate and work closely together to accomplish a common purpose. ORGANISM - sum total of all levels of complexity working continously and in unison.

CONTROL MECHANISM CONTROL CENTER - determines the set point, analyzes input and determines the appropriate response. RECEPTOR - monitors the environment, sends information or input to the control center (AFFERENT Pathway). EFFECTOR - provides the means by which the control center can cause a response to a stimulus (EFFRENT Pathway).

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK - decrease in stimulus magnitude. Most HOMEOSTATIC control mechanism. Ex. Blood glucose regulation (insulin/glucagon)
POSITIVE FEEDBACK - the response enhances the original stimulus and the ouput is accelerated. Deviates from the original set point. Ex. Childbirth. Coagulation labor contractions (OXYTOCIN)

SURVIVAL NEEDS NUTRIENTS - chemical substances used for energy and cell building and maintenance. Ex. Carbohydrates = energy fuel, Proteins/Fats = building cell structures, Vitamins/Minerals = assist in chemical reactions. OXYGEN - chemical reactions that release energy from food are oxidative reactions and require oxygen. 20% OF THE AIR WE BREATHE. WATER - 60% to 80% OF BODY WEIGHT. Provides liquid environment for chemical reactions and fluid base for body secretions/excretions. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE - required for exchange of gasses in the lungs.

MAINTENANCE OF LIFE MAINTENANCE OF BOUNDARIES - keeps the internal environment seperate and distinct from the external environment. MOVEMENT - includes all activities promoted by the MASCULAR SYSTEM such as walking, running, movement of blood, food, urine through the internal organs, etc. RESPONSIVENESS - ability to sense CHANGE and RESPOND to it. DIGESTION - breakdown of ingested food into usable molecules. METABOLISM - all chemical reactions occuring within the CELLS. Depends on other system and is regulated by the endocrine system. EXCRETION - removal of unusable waste products. REPRODUCTION - formation of offspring. GROWTH - increase in size.

SEROUS MEMBRANES - the walls of the VENTRAL body cavity and the outer surfaces of the ORGANS are covered with a thin, double layer membrane (SEROSA). PARIETAL - parie means WALL. VISCERAL - viscus means an ORGAN in a body cavity. PERICARDIUM - HEART (Parietal Pericardium/Visceral Pericardium) PLEURA - LUNGS (Parietal Pleura/Visceral Pleura) PERITONEUM - ABDOMINAL (Parietal Peritoneum/Visceral Peritoneum)

CHAPTER TWO

MATTER - anything that occupies space and has mass. SOLID - has definite shape and volume LIQUID - has no definite shape and definite volume GAS - has no definite shape and no definite volume

ENERGY - ATP (ADRENOSINE TRI PHOSPATE)
ENERGY - the capacity to do work or put matter into motion. KINETIC ENERGY - energy in action. POTENTIAL ENERGY - stored energy.
FORMS OF ENERGY CHEMICAL - stored in the bonds of chemical substance (Food Molecules, ATP) ELECTRICAL - movement of CHARGED particles. IONS ( “+” CATION, “-” ANION) MECHANICAL - energy directly involved in MOVING MATTER. RADIANT - energy that travels in WAVES (Electromagnetic Spectrum)

ELEMENTS - made up of sub units called ATOMS.
ATOMS - consisting of PROTONS, NEUTRONS, and ELECTRONS. PROTONS(Positive Charge), NEUTRONS(Neutral), ELECTRONS(Negative Charge)
NUCLEUS - PROTONS and NEUTRON at the center of an ATOM. PROTON equal to the NEUTRON - P = E
ORBIT - ELECTRON FIRST ORBIT - 2 Neutron Maximum SECOND ORBIT - 8 Neutron Maximum THIRD ORBIT - 32 Neutron Maximum
ORBIT - 8 Electron to be STABLE

FOUR MAJOR ELEMENTS OF THE BODY - 96.1% O - OXYGEN Major component of Organic and Inorganic molecules. Production of cellular energy (ATP). C - CARBON Primary component of all Organic molecules. CARBOHYDRATE, LIPID, PROTEIN, and NUCLEIC ACID. H - HYDROGEN (Smallest ATOM = 1 PROTON and 1 ELECTRON) A component of all Organic molecules. Influnces the pH of body fluids. N - NITROGEN A component of PROTEINS and NUCLEIC ACIDS (Genetic Material).
OTHER ELEMENTS OF THE BODY - 3.9% Ca - CALCIUM Found as a salt in bones and teeth. Muscle contraction, conduction of nerve impulses, and blood clotting. P - PHOSPOROUS Calcium Phospate salts in bones and teeth. Part of ATP. K - POTASSIUM Major positive ION in cells. Nerve impulses and muscle contraction. S - SULFUR Component of Muscle PROTEINS. Na - SODIUM Water balance, conduction of nerve impulses, and muscle contraction. Cl - CHLORINE Most abundant negative ION in extracellular fluids. Mg - MAGNESIUM Present in bone. Also an important cofactor in a number of metabolic reactions. I - IODINE Needed to make functional thyroid hormones. Fe - IRON Component of HEMOGLOBIN (which transport oxygen within red blood cells) and some enzymes.
INERT - STABLE (cannot loose or gain ELECTRONS). To be stable, the outermost ORBIT needs at least 8 ELECTRONS.

MOLECULE - combination of TWO or more ATOMS held together by chemical bonds.
COMPOUNDS - when two or more different kinds of ATOMS bind they form molecules of a compound (ELEMENTS); chemically pure; all molecules identical (H₂O).
MIXTURES - substance composed of two or more substance physically intermixed.
SOLUTIONS - homogenous mixtures of components that may be gases, liquids, solids.
SOLVENT - substance in a solution present in the greatest amount (dissolving medium).
SOLUTE - substance in a solution present in smaller amounts (thing that is dissolved).
WATER (H₂O) - inorganic compound and universal solvent.

CHEMICAL BONDS
IONIC BOND - ELECTRONS are completely transfered from one ATOM to another. Loosing (+) or gaining (-) ELECTRON.
COVALENT BOND - when ATOMS share ELECTRON pair; if the pair are shared Equally NON-POLAR, if they share Unequally POLAR.
HYDROGEN BOND - weak bonds. Hydrogen ATOM, already COVALENTLY linked, is attracted by another ATOM.

CHEMICAL REACTIONS - involve the formation, breaking or rearrangements of chemical bond. ENDERGONIC - absorb/use energy. ANABOLIC - Constructive. EXERGONIC - release energy. CATABOLIC - Destructive/breaking down.
SYNTHESIS REACTIONS - smaller particles are bonded together to form larger, more complex molecules. The basis of ANABOLIC (Constructive) activities.
DECOMPOSITION REACTION - bonds are broken in larger molecules, resulting in smaller, less complex molecules.
EXCHANGE REACTIONS - bonds are both made and broken. Also called DISPLACEMENT reaction.
CATALYST - ENZYMES

WATER (H₂O) - inorganic compound and universal solvent. High Heat Capacity - prevents sudden, severe changes in body temperature. High Heat Vaporization - makes perspiration an effective cooling mechanism. Polar Solvent Properties - universal solvent. Forms hydration layers around large charged molecules, such as proteins. Reactivity - decomposition reactions by HYDROLYSIS; large molecule assembly by dehydration synthesis.

NEUTRAL - pH of 7 (Humans - pH of 7.4)
BASE - pH of 9
ACID - pH of 4

CARBOHYDRATE MOLECULE MONOSACHARIDES - Glucose, Fructose, Gallactose, Deoxyribose (DNA), Ribose (RNA) DISACHARIDES - Sucrose (Gluccose + Fructose), Lactose (Gallactose + Glucose) POLYSACHARIDES - Glycogen (Carbohydrate/Energy stored)

FAT (LIPID) TRIGLYCERIDE - neutral fats and liquid oil. Glycerol + 3 fatty acid chains. TRIGLYCERIDE - Energy Storage, Insulation, Protection PHOSPOLIPID - Phosphorous + Glycenol + 2 fatty acid chains STEROID - Cholesterol

PROTEIN - AMINO ACID
GLYCINE - the simplest AMINO ACID PROTEIN - Carbon based.
PEPTIDE BOND - attachment of AMINO ACIDS (PROTEIN). β-PLEATED SHEET - brain protein (Beta-pleated Sheet).

NUCLEIC ACID (DNA and RNA) THYMINE - T A+T ADENINE - A A+T CYTOSINE - C G+C GUANINE - G G+C
DNA - is found inside the nucleus.
RNA - found outside the nucleus; carry out DNA intructions for PROTEIN synthesis.
ATP (ADRENOSINE TRI PHOSPATE) - storage energy.

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS - contains carbons. Usually large and are COVALENT bonder (Carbohydrate, fats, proteins, and nucleic acid).
INORGANIC COMPOUNDS - do not contain carbon. Ex. Water, Salt, Acids, and Bases

CHAPTER THREE

CELL - the basic structural and functional unit of all living things. Robert Hooke - first to observe plant cells with a crude microscope in the late 1600’s. Schleiden and Schwann - proposed that all living things were composed of cells in the mid 1800’s. Virchow - suggested that cells arise only from other cells.

MAJOR PARTS OF ALL CELLS
PLASMA MEMBRANE - seperates the interior of all cells from the outside environment. Defines the boundary of the cell and acts as a fragile barrier. Seperate two of the body’s major fluid compartments - INTRACELLULAR and EXTRACELLULAR.
CYTOPLASM - the cellular material between the PLASMA MEMBRANE and NUCLEUS, the site of most cellular activities.
NUCLEUS - the cells control center.

PLASMA MEMBRANE PHOSPHOLIPID - double or bilayer PHOSPHOLIPID molecules with PROTEIN molecules dispersed in it. SPHEROID HEAD - PHOSPATE (Charged/Polar) HYDROPHILIC - water loving. TAIL - FATTY ACID (Non-Polar) HYDROPHOBIC - water phobia. LIPID SOLUBLE - pass through the membrane. PROTEIN - embeded in the PHOSPHOLIPID to: TRANSPORT - ION channel or carrier. RECEPTORS - respond to chemical signals in the environment. ATTACHMENT TO CYTOSKELETON - maintain shape and movement. ENZYMES - active side exposed to substance in adjacent solution. INTERCELLULAR JOINING - adjacent cells may be hooked together. CELL-CELL RECOGNITION - (GLYCOPROTEINS) serve as identification tags.

MICROVILLI - minute, finger-like projections which increase the surface area of the membrane. Found on the KIDNEY TUBULES and INTESTINAL CELLS.

MEMBRANE JUNCTIONS
TIGHT JUNCTIONS - protein molecules in adjacent membranes FUSE together PREVENTING free passages of molecules.
DESMOSOMES - spotlike patches that act as MECHANICAL COUPLINGS between adjoining cells. Held together by fine GLYCOPROTEIN filaments.
GAP JUNCTIONS - functions to ALLOW direct passage of chemical substances between adjacent cells.

INTERSTITIAL FLUID - extracellular fluid, derived from blood and containing thousands of ingredients such as amino acids, sugars, fatty acids, hormones, etc.

MEMBRANE TRANSPORT
PASSIVE PROCESSES - substance penetrate the membrane WITHOUT any ENERGY input from the cell because it uses the kinetic energy of the particles themselves. SIMPLE DIFFUSION - OXYGEN and CARBON DIOXIDE can pass through the membrane by simple diffusion because they are FAT SOLUBLE. FACILITATED DIFFUSION - some molecules and ions can still move by diffusion but NEED HELPER PROTEINS to traverse the PHOSPHOLIPID barrier. OSMOSIS - diffusion of WATER through a specific CHANNEL PROTEIN (AQUAPORIN) from an area of high concentration of water to an area of lower concentration of water. OSMOSIS causes water to move toward the side of the membrane with the greater amount of SOLUTE. ISOTONIC SOLUTION - same solute concentration as a cell. HYPERTONIC SOLUTION - has a greater amount of solute than a cell. Loose water and SHRINK. HYPOTONIC SOLUTION - has a lesser amount of solute than a cell. Take on water until they become BLOATED and BURST.

ACTIVE PROCESSES - the cell PROVIDES metabolic energy (ATP) to drive the movement of substance accross the membrane. ACTIVE TRANSPORT (SOLUTE PUMPING) - reqiures a CARRIER PROTEIN and ATP to move molecules against the concentration gradient from low concentration to high concentration. VESICULAR TRANSPORT (BULK) - moves larger particles and macromolecules through the plasma membrane. It requires ATP and uses PHOSPHOLIPID SAC called VESICLES to transport substance. EXOCYTOSIS - moves substance OUT of the cell. Substance to be released are enclosed within a VESICLE which migrates to the plasma membrane, fuses, and then ruptures releasing the content of the sac. ENDOCYTOSIS - a means for allowing large particles or macromolecules to ENTER the cell. PHAGOCYTOSIS (CELL EATING) - when the substance to be ingested is a large particle. PINOCYTOSIS (CELL DRINKING) - when the substance to be ingested are dissolved in water. RECEPTOR-MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS - when extracellular substance bind to receptors in the plasma membrane and trigger endocytosis.

CYTOPLASM
CYTOSOL - a viscous, semitransparent fluid composed mostly of water with some soluble proteins, salts, sugars, and othe solutes.
ORGANELLES - the metabolic machinery of the cell. CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES - specialized cellular compartments, each performing its own job to maintain the life of the cell. MITOCHONDRIA - sausage-shaped structure; the cells POWERHOUSE (provide most of the ATP supply. RIBOSOMES - small granules composed of PROTEINS and a type of RNA. RIBOSOMES are sites of PROTEIN SYNTHESIS. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (E.R.) - extensive system of interconnected parallel membranes that coils and twists through the CYTOPLASM, enclosing fluid-filled cavities or CISTERNAE. ROUGH E.R. - studded with RIBOSOMES. SMOOTH E.R. - consist of tubules arranged in branching network. GOLGI APPARATUS - principal traffic director for cellular proteins. Major function is to modify, concentrate, and package PROTEINS for EXPORT. Discharge their contents from the cell by EXOCYTOSIS. LYSOSOMES - membranous SACS containing HYDROLYTIC ENZYMES (usually ACID HYDROLASES). Provide site where DIGESTION can proceed safely within the cell. PEROXISOMES - membranous SAC containing OXIDASES and CATALASES. These enzymes DETOXIFY the free radicals produced by normal metabolism which could damage biological molecules.

CYTOSKELETAL ELEMENTS - an elaborate network of PROTEIN STRUCTURES called MICROFILAMENTS, MICROTUBULES, and INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS are located throughout the CYTOPLASM.

CYTOSKELETON - acts as the cells BONES and MUSCLES helping to support intercellular structures and generate various cell movements.

MICROFILAMENTS - thin strands of the contractile protein ACTIN. Braces and strengthens the cell surface. Form the core of MICROVILLI. 7nm INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS - tough, insoluble protein fibers with high tensile strength. Act as internal guy wires to resist pulling forces on the cell. 10nm MICROTUBULES - long, flexible hollow tubules. They appear to be the overall ORGANIZER of the CYTOSKELETON. Help to position and suspend organelles at specific locations within the cell.

CILIA AND FLAGELLA - hair-like, motile, cellular extensions. Occur in large numbers on the free surface of certain cells. CILIA - produce a pushing motion in a single direction. Do not act independently of each other. Important in moving substances in one direction across cell surface. FLAGELLA - function to propel the cell. Only cell in humans with flagella are SPERM

NUCLEUS
NUCLEUS - the cell’s command center. The largest ORGANELLE in the cell. NUCLEAR MEMBRANE - encloses a jelly like COLLOIDAL FLUID called NUCLEOPLASM. The nuclear membrane is a double membrane surrounding the NUCLEUS. NUCLEOLI - are dark staining spherical bodies found in the NUCLEUS and are made of rRNA and PROTEINS. They function as RIBOSOME-PRODUCING machines. CHROMATIN - it is composed of approximately equal amounts of DNA and GLOBULAR HISTONE PROTEINS. NUCLEOSOMES are the fundamental units of CHROMATIN. They are spherical cluster of 8 HISTONE PROTEINS connected like beads on a string by DNA molecules that wind around them. This provides a physical means for packing very long DNA molecules into compact form. NUCLEOSOMES - the fundamental units of CHROMATIN. CONDENSED CHROMATIN (HETEROCHROMATIN) - inactive chromatin segments, are darker staining and so are more easily detected.

When a cell is prepairing to divide, the CHROMATIN threads coil and condense enormously to form short, bar-like bodies called CHROMOSOMES.

NUCLEIC ACID (DNA and RNA) - composed of chains of NUCLEOTIDES made up of a PHOSPATE, SUGAR, and NITROGEN-CONTAINING base.
DNA (DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID) - the genetic material. It is a DOUBLE HELIX with the sides of the ladder alternating PHOSPATE and sugar groups and the rungs of the ladder consist of the nitrogen-containing bases.

ADENINE always bond with THYMINE; CYTOSINE always bond with GUANINE

CHROMOSOME - consists of a molecule of DNA.
GENE - provides the instructions for how to make a single PROTEIN chain. The actual instructions are the sequence of bases that form the GENETIC CODE.

THE CELL CYCLE
The cell cycle is divided into periods of INTERPHASE and CELL DIVISION. A cell that has permanently ceased dividng is said to be in G₀ phase.

INTERPHASE (GROWTH AND METABOLIC ACTIVITY PHASE) G₁ or Gap 1 - growth and cellular activity. S - replication (DNA synthesis). G₂ or Gap 2 - final preparation for cell division.

CELL DIVISION MITOSIS - division of the NUCELUS with distribution of a copy of the DNA to opposite ends of the cell. PROPHASE - nuclear membrane and nucleoli dissappear, chromatin condenses, identical copies of each CHROMOSOME remain attached to each other and are called sister CHROMATIDS, spindle forms (made of microtublues) and spindle fibers attach to sister chromatids. METAPHASE - CHROMOSOMES (sister CHROMATIDS) line up on the equator of the cell. ANAPHASE - spindle fibers pull sister CHROMATIDS apart and each resulting CHROMOSOME goes to opposite poles of the cell. TELOPHASE - spindle disappears, new nuclear membrane form, and the CHROMOSOMES uncondensed back to the CHROMATIN form.

CYTOKINESIS - division of the CYTOPLASM. Microfilaments contract and pinch together down the equator of the cell until the cells are separated into 2 daughter cells.

DNA - 46 CHROMOSOMES, 23 pairs (22 + xy or xx)

SOMATIC CELL - every cell.
GAMETE - ovary, testes.

CENTROMERE - the centromere is the part of a chromosome that links sister chromatids.