Are There Universal Aspects In The Stru

Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 50, No. 4 , 1994, pp. 19-45

Are There Universal Aspects in the Structure and
Contents of Human Values?
Shalom H. Schwartz
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem

This article presents a theory of potentially universal aspects in the content of human values. Ten types of values are distinguished by their motivational goals.
The theory also postulates a structure of relations among the value types, based on the conflicts and compatibilities experienced when pursuing them. This structure permits one to relate systems of value priorities, as an integrated whole, to other variables. A new values instrument, based on the theory and suitable for cross-cultural research, is described. Evidence relevant for assessing the theory, from 97 samples in 44 countries, is summarized. Relations of this approach to
Rokeach’s work on values and to other theories and research on value dimenPreparation of this manuscript was facilitated by a grant from the Israel Foundations Trustees, by grant No. 187/92 from the Basic Research Foundation (Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities), and by the Leon and Clara Sznajderman Chair of Psychology. I gratefully acknowledge the contributions of the following persons in gathering data: Ruth Almagor (Israel); Krassimira Baytchinska
(Bulgaria); Klaus Boehnke (Germany-East); Gabriel Bianchi and Viera Rozova (Slovakia); Edna
Bonang (Indonesia); Michael Bond (Hong Kong); Steven Burgess (South Africa); Bram Buunk and
Sipke Huismans (Holland); Bartolo Campos and Isabel Menezes (Portugal); Agnes Chang and
Weining Chang (Singapore); Ake Daun (Sweden); Rolando Diaz-Loving (Mexico); Karen and Kenneth Dion (Canada); J.-B. Dupont and F. Gendre (Switzerland); Andrew Ellerman and Norman T.
Feather (Australia); Johnny Fontaine (Belgium, Indonesia); Adrian Furnham (England); Maggye
Foster (Bolivia); James Georgas (Greece); Suzanne Grunert (Denmark); Judith Howard, Melanie
Moore, and Harry Triandis (United States); Sumiko Iwao, Saburo

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