Youth Policy and the Future of African Development
africa growth initiative
Working Paper 9 | April 2013
Youth Policy and the future of african development
Kwabena Gyimah-Brempong and Mwangi S. Kimenyi
Kwabena Gyimah-Brempong is a professor and the chair of the Department of Economics at the University of South Florida.
Mwangi S. Kimenyi is a senior fellow and the director of the Africa Growth Initiative at the Brookings
Institution.
Acknowledgements:
The authors would like to thank Raj Desai for his helpful comments and suggestions on this paper.
Contents
Acronyms and Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2. Characteristics of African Youth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3. Policy Actions Proposed for Youth in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Proposed Youth Policies Advocate an Interrelated Approach to
Economic, Health, Political and Social Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
African Countries are at Different Stages of Developing and Implementing Youth Policies. . . . . . . 15
Several Challenges Confront Those Developing African Youth Policies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4. Policies to Harness Youths’ Talents to Foster Economic Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5. Conclusions and Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Endnotes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Selected References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
List of Tables
Table 1. Educational Attainment in Africa, 2010: Total Population, Total Youth and Female Youth . . . . . 5
Table 2. Youth Unemployment Rates in Africa (%). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Table 3. Selected Frameworks for Developing Youth Policies in Africa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
List of Figures
Figure 1. Youth Population in Africa and the Rest of the World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
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Global Economy and Development Program
Acronyms and Abbreviations
AfDB
African Development Bank
ALMPs
active labor market programs
APRM
African Peer Review Mechanism
AU
African Union
AYC
African Youth Charter
ILO
International Labor Organization
MDGs
Millennium Development Goals
NPI-Africa
Nairobi Peace Initiative Africa
NEPAD
New Partnership for Africa’s Development
NGO
nongovernmental organization
OECD
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
PRSPs
Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers
UNECA
United Nations Economic Commission for Africa
WPAY
World Programme of Action for Youth to the Year 2000 and Beyond
YBI
Youth Business International
youth policy and the future of african development
v
Executive Summary
T
his study focuses on the state of youth in Africa, especially their well-being and their participation
in the economy. The study undertakes a broad review of existing studies and policy frameworks on African youth and identifies the gaps, challenges and opportunities for harnessing the youth’s potential. The following is a brief summary of the highlights of the study.
1. Limited data hinder the measurement of the wellbeing of African youth, but the available data suggest that the youth population is large and growing, and has high educational attainment and unemployment rates—with adverse consequences:
• The lack of a universal definition of “youth” makes measuring the youth problem difficult and the comparison of data across countries less reliable.
• The youth population in Africa is large (about 200 million, which is 20 percent of its population of more than 1 billion).
• Africa’s relatively young population (about 42 percent of its population in 2010 was estimated to be below 15 years of age), combined with the continent’s high fertility rate, is likely to magnify the so-called youth bulge. This trend could have positive consequences for Africa’s development, if properly channeled.
• Youth, especially in North Africa and especially males, have higher educational attainment.
However, there are large variations in educational attainment across countries and regions.
• Youth unemployment rates are relatively high, with significant regional differences and adverse consequences such as poverty, migration and diseases. Females particularly face extremely high unemployment rates.
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Global Economy and Development Program
2. Policies and actions for youth have not successfully addressed these challenges:
• Effective youth policies require dealing with challenges facing youth that include, but are not limited to, the lack of access to a high-quality and relevant education, high rates of persistent unemployment, a high incidence of chronic poverty, political disengagement and poor environmental health.
• Information on the development and implementation of youth policies in Africa are hard to find, but anecdotal evidence suggests that various countries are at different stages of the process.
• Youth policies potentially have several challenges, and the assessment of problems facing young people is complicated by data limitations. These limitations include a lack of reliable and accurate data; a lack of comparable data across countries and regions; a lack of pro-jobs and pro-youth economic growth agendas; a lack of comprehensive youth policies that are integrated into national development plans; a lack of broad macroeconomic policies and the need to mainstream youth policies; the fact that the costs of programs and sources for funding are not fully known; and the fact that governments lack the capacity to undertake comprehensive monitoring and evaluative processes. 3. The key recommendations arising from this review focus on harnessing the potential of African youth to foster economic development through their participation in the labor market and strategies to improve their living standards generally.
The main strategies proposed include:
• Improving the investment climate by reducing the cost of doing business so as to create jobs for youth; • Expanding infrastructure, especially in rural areas, to boost employment opportunities for youth;
• Harnessing innovation, which has the potential to increase skill formation, enhance productivity and create youth employment opportunities;
• Building institutional quality so that individuals and organizations are effective in responding to the needs of the youth.
youth policy and the future of african development
vii
Youth Policy and the Future of
African Development
Kwabena Gyimah-Brempong and Mwangi S. Kimenyi
1. Introduction
within countries (by gender, education level, ethnicity
O
Conversely, the size, energy, enthusiasm, innovation
ne of the greatest challenges facing governments and policymakers in Africa today is how to pro-
vide opportunities for the continent’s more than 200 million youth so that they can have decent lives and contribute to the economic development of their countries. According to the United Nations (2012), Africa’s
2011 population was estimated at 1.05 billion and is expected to double by 2050. Africa is the youngest continent in the world: About 70 percent of its population is 30 years of age or younger. In 2011, youth, who are defined here as those between 15 and 24 years of age, constituted 21 percent of the more than 1 billion people in Africa, whereas another 42 percent was less than 15 years old. Slightly more than half of the
African youth population is female, and there are more rural dwellers than urban dwellers. With such a large proportion under 15 years of age, Africa’s youth population is expected to grow in the years to come while the youth population in other parts of the world shrinks.
Undoubtedly, the challenges for youth that are central to Africa’s economic development are numerous and varied—they include employment, health and po-
and health status), and across countries and regions. and dynamism of youth are assets that can be harnessed for Africa’s development with appropriate policies that deal adequately with the issues facing them.
The potentially important role of youth in Africa’s development cannot be overemphasized. Youth could be a source of labor inputs as well as human capital in production, which would improve total factor productivity in a region of the world where capital formation is limited.
When employed, youth could be a reliable source of demand for the economy through their consumption activities. In addition, the youth of Africa could be critical for the development of a new class of entrepreneurs that
African countries need to prosper. Furthermore, Africa has an opportunity to harness a “demographic dividend”: With the projection that most countries in Africa will have more working-age adults per child in 2030 than in 2006, there will be a large workforce supporting fewer children and the elderly. This trend would result in a lower dependency burden, freeing up resources for development; see, for example, Ashford (2007).
litical participation. These issues differ among groups
youth policy and the future of african development
1
There are several reasons why youth could become an
developed comprehensive and effective policies to
integral part of Africa’s economic growth and develop-
deal with the issues facing this large and growing seg-
ment. First, they tend to be more educated than their
ment of the African population or to have in place a
older cohorts. Therefore, they can better absorb new
means to assess the progress made. The purpose of
technologies and ideas and adapt them to the African
this study is to advance the discussion of the problems
environment. Second, they tend to take more risks
facing youth in Africa by assessing whether African
than their older counterparts. Finally, they are more
countries’ existing youth policies can meet the chal-
likely to challenge certain norms and sociopolitical
lenges and how these policies can be improved to fos-
processes that may be hindering economic develop-
ter the continent’s equitable and efficient development.
ment. The challenge to African policymakers is how to harness young people’s desire for change that has the
The study finds that policies to address the challenges
potential to translate into positive outcomes.
facing youth have not resulted in a great deal of success. We attribute the failures to a number of factors in-
The consequences of not fully developing and har-
cluding the inadequacy of information about youth that
nessing youth’s potential could be dire, including sig-
is necessary in the design of policy, weak coordination
nificant economic losses, armed conflict, and political
amongst government agencies, donors, regional orga-
and social upheaval and instability—as demonstrated
nizations, and the failure to design specific policies that
recently by the Arab Spring. Youth are more likely to
are suited to deal with the problems of African youth.
become frustrated because of legitimate grievances, including a lack of employment opportunities, low
The rest of the paper is structured as follows. Section
educational attainment, little participation in decision-
2 discusses the characteristics of African youth, includ-
making and low social mobility. In this volatile context,
ing demographic and economic aspects, which provide
greedy and opportunistic politicians could even exploit
insights into their challenges, although data are lim-
these grievances by involving these frustrated youth in
ited. Section 3 looks at policy actions that have been
violent overthrows of legitimate governments—creat-
proposed or taken (by development agencies, part-
ing massive instabilities that could limit the economic
ners and, in particular, individual African countries or
growth of Africa’s countries (see Collier and Hoeffler
countries as a group) to address the challenges of the
2004).
youth, and whether they meet the challenges. Section
4 discusses how African youth can be harnessed to
Despite the elevated awareness of the challenges
foster economic development. The study concludes in
confronting Africa’s youth noted by previous studies,
Section 5 with recommendations.
several African countries still do not seem to have
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Global Economy and Development Program
2. Characteristics of
African Youth
A
n effective assessment of the well-being of the youth living in African countries requires good
information on their characteristics—including size, gender composition, economic situation, health and sociopolitical makeup. Here we discuss the limitations of the data on African youth, including their lack of availability and uniformity. The discussion that follows is based on the available data, with all their limitations, which make it difficult to fully understand the challenges facing African youth.
There is no universal definition of the youth population. “Youth” is traditionally defined as a period of transition from childhood to adulthood.1 In the African
Youth Report 2009 (hereafter, the AYR) (UNECA
2009), “youth” are defined as people between 15 and
39 years of age.2 However, several African countries define their youth population differently. For example,
Ghana, Tanzania and South Africa define the youth population as those between 15 and 35 years of age;
Nigeria and Swaziland define it as those between 12 and 30 years; and Botswana and Mauritius define it as those between 14 and 25 years. These varying definitions of the youth population make it difficult to effectively discuss issues affecting youth in Africa generally and to compare information across countries.
The age band used in the AYR is too wide because it is generally agreed that people in their 30s are adults, and hence not part of those youth who are in transition to adulthood. For statistical purposes, the United
Nations (2011d) defines youth as those aged 15 to 24 years. Although arbitrary, this is the age group that has been recognized internationally as “youth.” Though generally acceptable and preferable, its implementation often poses problems because the data for dif-
For example, population data are commonly presented in five-year age bands or presented for children (below
15 years) and for adults (15 years and above). Similarly, labor market data are typically presented for adults (16–
64 years). This study adopts the United Nations’ definition of youth. However, given the discussion above, in some situations we depart from the 15–24 year bracket because of data availability. One of the challenges of developing policies for youth is finding the appropriate data on the youth population in Africa because such data are not routinely collected by government agencies.
This study relies on limited data from several sources, including the United Nations, the International Labor
Organization (ILO) and the United Nations Economic
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), as well as national sources whenever possible.
The available data suggest that the youth population is large and growing, but there are limited data on gender and rural/urban distribution. The youth population in Africa is relatively large and is growing very fast. As shown in Figure 1, youth constitute about
20 percent of Africa’s population. Thus, the absolute size of the continent’s youth population is slightly above 200 million (in 2011, Africa’s total population was estimated at about 1.05 billion). Although Asia has the largest youth population in the world because of its large total population, Africa is the region with the highest youth population relative to its entire population. Because Africa’s population is relatively young
(about 42 percent of Africa’s population in 2010 was estimated to be below 15 years of age) and has a high fertility rate, the youth population in Africa is projected to grow very fast and is likely to remain high for a long period of time. As shown in Figure 1, Africa is the only global region where the proportion of the youth population increased between 1990 and 2010. This youth bulge has consequences for the development of Africa.
ferent countries are not provided using this definition.
youth policy and the future of african development
3
Figure 1. Youth Population in Africa and the Rest of the World
PERCENT OF TOTAL POPULATION
25
20
19.0
20.2
20.0
19.5
18.0
17.8
14.0 14.0
14.0
15
13.0
1990
2010
10
5
0
Africa
Asia
Europe
Latin America
& Caribbean
North
America
Source: African Youth Report 2011 (UNECA 2011).
Although Africa’s youth population is relatively large,
gender distribution of the youth population parallels
throughout the continent there are regional and coun-
that of the general population, then the youth popula-
try differences in the size of the youth populations and
tion is composed of slightly more females than males.
in the rates at which these populations are likely to
Similarly, there are limited data on the distribution of the
grow. The youth bulge is larger in North Africa than in
youth population between rural and urban locations.
sub-Saharan Africa, but the growth of the youth popu-
However, given the geographical distribution of the
lation is likely to be higher in sub-Saharan Africa than in
general population in Africa, a larger share of the con-
North Africa because of differences in the dynamics of
tinent’s youth population resides in rural areas as op-
the populations across regions and countries. Though
posed to urban areas and is more likely to be engaged
the youth population is expected to reach a plateau
in agricultural activities than in the modern economic
in North Africa by 2030, in sub-Saharan Africa it is
sector. In general, urban youth have better opportuni-
projected to grow in both absolute and relative terms
ties for education than their rural counterparts.
until about 2050. There are differences in the rates of growth in the youth populations across countries as
Youth, especially in North Africa and especially
well. And though the relative sizes of the populations
males, have high educational attainment. Table 1
are expected to decrease in countries like Tunisia and
presents the educational attainment of the total popu-
Morocco by 2030, they are expected to continue to in-
lation and the total youth and female youth populations
crease in countries like Kenya and Uganda.
in Africa using data from Barro and Lee (2010) showing primary school completion rates, secondary school
There are limited data on gender composition of the youth in Africa. However, if one assumes that the
4
completion rates, tertiary school completion rates, and other measures of the population’s educational
Global Economy and Development Program
attainment. The data indicate that, on average, in
Ondiege 2011). These challenges have implications for
Africa youth have higher educational attainment rates
young people’s employment prospects and their poten-
than the continent’s population as a whole. For exam-
tial contribution to African development.
ple, the average years of educational attainment in the population of Africa is 2.40, whereas it is 3.69 years for
Youth unemployment rates are relatively high, with
youth—53 percent higher. Similarly, youth have more
significant regional differences and potential ad-
education than the average person at every level of
verse consequences, such as poverty, disease and
education, whether primary, secondary or tertiary. In
migration. The contribution of the relatively large youth
addition, Gyimah-Brempong and Ondiege (2011) and
population to Africa’s development depends on the
the World Bank (2000) have shown that tertiary edu-
quality of human capital they possess and crucially on
cation enrollment in African countries has more than
whether they are gainfully employed as employees or
doubled in the last decade.
have opportunities to establish their own businesses.
3
Theoretically, an increase in the youth population will
Like other characteristics of youth in Africa, there are
depress the real wage in an economy by increasing the
regional differences in their educational attainment.
labor supply, which in turn will increase employment,
Youth in North Africa tend to be more educated than
all things being equal. This, of course, may depend
those in sub-Saharan Africa. Similarly, though there is
on the degree to which youth labor is complementary
a large gender gap in education in sub-Saharan Africa,
to, or substitutable for, existing (adult) labor or capital.
the gender gap is almost nonexistent in North Africa,
Therefore, it is not clear whether an increased youth
especially in countries like Tunisia and Morocco.
labor supply may lead to increases in aggregate em-
Although educational attainment by African youth
ployment and output, all things being equal. Because
has increased significantly in the last decade, the rel-
the contribution of youth to economic growth in Africa
evance of the curricula and the quality of education, in
depends on whether or not they are employed, here
most cases, are not good (see Gyimah-Brempong and
we briefly discuss youth employment in Africa.
Table 1. Educational Attainment in Africa, 2010: Total Population, Total Youth and
Female Youth
Total
Population
Youth
(Total)
Youth
(Female)
Primary school completion (%)
9.33
14.76
14.80
Secondary school completion (%)
3.99
6.19
6.49
Tertiary education completion (%)
0.72
0.64
1.45
Years of educational attainment: Total
2.40
3.69
3.52
Years of educational attainment: Primary
1.80
2.70
3.01
Years of educational attainment: Secondary
0.60
0.93
1.21
Years of educational attainment: Tertiary
0.04
0.05
0.05
Level of Education
Source: Barro and Lee (2010).
youth policy and the future of african development
5
Labor market data in Africa are infamously unreliable
a whole. For example, in 2011 the 12.5 percent youth
because most countries do not collect such data on a
unemployment rate in Africa was about four times the
consistent basis. Even when these data are collected,
rate in Southeast Asia. The high youth unemployment
they are available for only the formal sector. Given the
rates in Africa are not limited to those with less edu-
large size of informal sector activities, a focus on the for-
cation. For example, in Tunisia, which has one of the
mal sector is likely to result in seriously understating the
highest-quality tertiary education systems in Africa,
true employment rate. Therefore, the labor market data
only about 30 percent of students graduating from
on youth employment should be viewed with caution.
university are able to find a job in the first year after graduation. Similarly, in Ghana and Nigeria a large
Although youth constitute about 37 percent of Africa’s
proportion of university graduates can find jobs only in
labor force, they account for about 60 percent of total
the informal sector in urban areas.
unemployment in Africa. The labor force participation rate among youth is higher in sub-Saharan Africa than
Although the data given in Table 2 suggest that the av-
in North Africa. Little empirical work has been done on
erage unemployment rate among African youth is not
the causal linkages between youth unemployment rates
different from the average unemployment rate in the
and labor force participation rates in Africa. However,
world, this information should be interpreted with cau-
a simple correlation analysis suggests a strong nega-
tion. As indicated, the unemployment rates reported
tive relationship between the two in Africa. As shown in
reflect more of what is happening in the formal sector
Table 2, despite the higher educational attainment of
labor market, not necessarily what is happening in the
youth relative to the population as a whole, the youth
informal sector. The African data may also not reflect
unemployment rate in Africa tends to be higher than
the large number of underemployed and disguised
for the population as a whole compared with the rest
unemployed workers found in the informal sectors in
of the world.
African countries. For example, the ILO estimates that, in 2007, 65, 39 and 35 percent of youth were under-
Table 2 shows the youth unemployment rates in all of
employed in Mauritania, Mozambique and Cameroon,
Africa, selected regions of Africa and the world. The
respectively. Given the large informal sector in African
data show that youth unemployment rates in Africa
economies, the reported youth unemployment rates
average more than 10 percent and are expected to
may be seriously underestimated and not comparable
remain above 10 percent up to 2015. African youth un-
to the rates in developed countries and in other areas
employment rates are high compared with the world as
of the developing world.
Table 2. Youth Unemployment Rates in Africa (%)
Year
World
Africa
Sub-Saharan
Africa
North Africa
2007
11.6
13.5
11.5
23.8
2009
12.6
13.5
11.5
23.6
2010
12.7
13.3
11.4
23.1
2011
12.6
12.5
11.5
17.9
2015*
12.7
13.9
11.4
26.9
*Projected.
Source: ILO (2012b).
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Global Economy and Development Program
As with other data pertaining to youth in Africa, there
First, slow economic growth has not generated enough
are large regional differences in youth unemployment
jobs. Although there has been an uptick in the average
rates in Africa. The rate in North Africa tends to be
economic growth rate in Africa in the last decade, the
twice as high as that in sub-Saharan Africa. In addi-
growth rate has been generally low compared with the
tion to regional differences in aggregate youth unem-
rest of the world. Second, Africa’s economic growth
ployment rates, there tend to be regional differences
has been powered by the exploitation of mineral re-
in the gender distribution of youth unemployment in
sources, whose production tends to be capital inten-
Africa. In North Africa, rates are substantially higher
sive and thus creates few employment opportunities.
for females than for males, even though labor force
The choice of capital-intensive production techniques
participation rates among females are much lower than
is itself a function of factor market distortion policies—
those among males. For example, in 2010 the female
policies that tend to subsidize capital and overprice
youth unemployment rate in North Africa was 34.1 per-
labor. Third, the high youth unemployment rate may
cent, whereas that of males was 23.8 percent, even
also be due to skills mismatch—the educational sys-
though labor force participation rates were 19.5 percent
tem produces skills that are not demanded by employ-
and 47.2 percent for females and males, respectively.
ers. In a sense, the educational system is based on
Conversely, there is less gender difference in youth un-
irrelevant curricula and inappropriate pedagogy (see
employment and labor force participation rates in sub-
Gyimah-Brempong and Ondiege 2011).
Saharan Africa. Female and male youth unemployment rates were 13.2 percent and 11.8 percent, respectively,
In addition to high unemployment rates, young people
whereas labor force participation rates were 51.4 per-
in Africa face longer spells of unemployment than
cent and 55.8 percent, respectively. The relatively low
adults, regardless of their level of education. In Tunisia
average youth unemployment rates in sub-Saharan
and Egypt, about 25 percent of university graduates
Africa may reflect the fact that a large proportion of jobs
remain unemployed three years after graduation. High
in sub-Saharan African economies are in the informal
unemployment rates combined with long durations of
sector. Indeed, in several countries—such as Mali,
unemployment imply that youth either lose the skills
Burkina Faso and Uganda—more than 90 percent of
they acquired through education or lose their attach-
youth are employed as unpaid family labor.
ment to the labor market completely. The long-term consequences of high and persistent youth unemploy-
There are also large intraregional variations in youth
ment are a high incidence of poverty among youth and
unemployment rates in sub-Saharan Africa and North
their inability to contribute to the development of Africa.
Africa. For example, the youth unemployment rate is below 5 percent in Malawi, above 20 percent in Ghana
A further consequence of the massive and persistent
and Zimbabwe, above 30 percent in Botswana and
youth unemployment rate is a high incidence of youth
Mauritius, and above even 60 percent in South Africa.
poverty in Africa. The United Nations (2011b) and
In North Africa, youth unemployment rates in Egypt,
World Bank (2009) estimated that in 2008 that more
Tunisia and Algeria are all above 30 percent.
than 70 percent of the youth in Africa lived on less than
$2 a day, and 46 percent lived on less than $1.25 a
What explains the high rates of youth unemployment
day. Again, there are country and regional variations in
rates in Africa? Several factors have been identified.
the incidence of poverty. In Burundi, Ethiopia, Nigeria
youth policy and the future of african development
7
and Uganda, youth poverty exceeds 80 percent,
youth unemployment and poverty could also lead
whereas it is much lower in Ghana. The incidence of
youth to resort to crime and violence, such as armed
youth poverty is highest among females in rural areas.
robbery, to “earn their living.”
And when facing severe poverty, youth resort to survival mechanisms that could have several undesirable
High youth unemployment rates and poverty in Africa
outcomes.
may also lead youth to adopt risky lifestyles that could
The high rates of unemployment and poverty among
The prevalence of HIV among African youth is above
African youth have several negative consequences
5 percent, compared with the world average of less
for the development of Africa. African countries are
than 1 percent. Female youth are three times more at
deprived of their human capital as youth migrate to
risk than their male counterparts (see UNAIDS 2011).
the developed world or the oil-rich Arab Gulf states.
This high HIV/AIDS prevalence among both male and
International migration is generally selective—typi-
female youth is partly due to ignorance about the dis-
cally, the best and the brightest emigrate, depriving the
ease but also due to using commercial sex to earn
African countries of those with the skills and energy
their living.
worsen the prevalence of HIV/AIDS among them.
needed to develop their economies. The ILO estimates that the median age of international migrants from
Bloom, Canning and Sevilla (2007) have argued that
Africa is slightly less than 29 years old.
Africa’s economic growth in the near term will be de-
4
termined by growth in the working-age population and
Under more pessimistic scenarios, the high incidence of youth unemployment and poverty in Africa poses
crucially influenced by the quantity and quality of the
serious problems for social stability and peace. Poor
youth population. Youth policy, especially regarding
and unemployed youth are more likely to be the foot-
investment in human capital and the employment of
soldiers in civil conflicts. The World Bank (2007c) and
these human resources, is therefore very important for
Human Rights Watch (2005) have estimated that more
the future development of Africa. Similarly, the World
than 50 percent of the youth who joined rebel groups
Bank (2007) has argued that institutions, infrastruc-
cited unemployment as the reason. A number of re-
ture, innovation and a good investment climate are
cent events bear testimony to how high rates of youth
the key pillars of Africa’s long term growth. Given the
unemployment and poverty can generate social insta-
potential contribution of youth in all these areas, the
bility and conflict—including the Arab Spring; armed
quality and size of the youth population is again critical
conflicts in Liberia, Sierra Leone and the Democratic
for Africa’s development. We discuss the challenges of
Republic of Congo; and the growing popularity of the
developing effective youth policies in Africa in the next
terrorist group Boko Haram in Nigeria. High rates of
8
improvements in institutional quality. These factors are
section.
Global Economy and Development Program
3. Policy Actions Proposed for Youth in Africa
S
everal studies and reports, predominantly by development agencies and their partners, have dis-
cussed the challenges facing youth in Africa, and what policies could be adopted (see Table 3 for three prominent frameworks—World Program for Action for Youth, the African Youth Charter and the AYR—on developing youth policies in Africa). The objectives of these reports are to contribute to developing an agenda for youth development—which embodies broader economic, social and political goals consistent with the United Nations’
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) by analyzing the major problems facing youth and providing recommendations for African countries. Several priority areas are identified, particularly education and employment, health (particularly HIV/AIDS), and political participation, as well as gender issues. Specific policy recommendations are provided in one of the reports—the
AYR, from the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA). Although the reports recognize the need for African countries to take further steps to develop and implement their national plans and to fully assess their progress, no study has been done to evaluate these aspects of youth policies.
The AYR indicated that African governments have responded to the challenges of youth, but the challenges facing youth in Africa still persists. There is a need to foster youth involvement in the process of policy formulation and to consider youth issues within a general framework that incorporates regional and global responses. A World Bank (2008) report, aimed at providing information to policymakers, who have been hindered by the paucity of information on what policy options are available and what has worked or not worked in different situations, provided stylized facts on the youth and labor markets in Africa as well as past policies and actions. It argued for an integrated, multi-
sector approach that looks directly at the labor market, for policies that indirectly affect employment, and for close monitoring of governments’ actions.
Several African countries have made progress in developing youth policies, as embodied in the African
Youth Charter, a regional framework for youth development, as well as in other reports—including the AYR
(UNECA 2009) and the United Nations’ 1995 World
Programme of Action for Youth to the Year 2000 and
Beyond (WPAY). But overall, the progress seems to have been slow, and the available policies or actions do not adequately meet the challenges.5
Motivation for developing youth policies in Africa has been influenced by a large number of reports by various bodies—including regional member states, international organizations and development partners. At the regional level, a big influence seems to have been the AYR, a relatively recent and comprehensive report on African youth. Partly due to data constraints, the report provides an in-depth and up-to-date analysis of only some of the key issues that arguably disproportionately affect youth—namely, education and employment, health and HIV/AIDS, and youth participation in political and decision-making processes. These priority areas are broadly consistent with the objectives of several initiatives and forums on youth development; see Table 1 for the priority areas identified by selected youth policy frameworks. The AYR recommends a coordinated approach by all stakeholders, including the U.N. system, development partners, African Union
(AU), governments and youth.
In recognition of the necessity to deal with the problems and challenges facing youth in Africa, the AU member states declared 2008 as the “Year of African
Youth.” They also sought to develop policies in a coordinated manner to deal with issues affecting youth. In
youth policy and the future of african development
9
Table 3. Selected Frameworks for Developing Youth Policies in Africa
Year: Report
(Author)
1995: World Programme of Action for Youth to the Year 2000 and Beyond
(United Nations 2010)
2009: African Youth Report—
Expanding opportunities for and with Young People in Africa
(UNECA)
2006: African Youth Charter
(African Union Heads of State and Government)
Objective
Not available
Encourages various stakeholders, including youth, to take action to promote youth development as well as broader economic and social development
(consistent with the MDGs)
Contributes to the youth development agenda by undertaking analysis of the major problems and providing recommendations to enable African
Member States to tackle them
Coverage
Not available
Regional (Africa): Individual countries will be responsible for their programs
Regional (Africa): Individual countries will be responsible for developing their programs
Priority areas
10 priority areas: education,
Not available employment, hunger, poverty, health, environment, drug abuse, juvenile delinquency, leisure-time activities, and girls and young women’s participation Education and employment, health, and political participation
5 emerging issues: globalization, information and communications technologies, HIV and AIDS, youth and armed conflict, and intergenerational relations
Recommended
actions
Not available
Not available
o
o o Comments
Not available
o
o
o
10
Adopted in 2006 at the Fifth
African Development Forum on “Youth and Leadership in the Twenty-First Century,” organized by UNECA, AU, other U.N. agencies, AfDB, and
International Organization of the
Francophone
13 countries have ratified the charter based on the Consensus
Statement, and 32 have ratified
(as of April 2102)
Further steps include development and implementation of national plans
Global Economy and Development Program
o o o
Education and Employment: Access to post-primary education, particularly for girls; curricula development; economic growth; active labor market policies, e.g., internship/training, entrepreneurship; other national policies affecting youth, e.g., poverty; data collection and research
Health: Health services and holistic strategies; education; data collection and more research
Political participation: Create opportunities for youth participation in political debate through youth quotas in parliament, on village councils; increase knowledge of national policies through participation and training; proactive youth organizations
Inaugural report (with attention to the needs of girls’ education)
States have responded to the challenges, but need to fully understand their progress and consider these issues within the overall framework of regional and global responses to youth issues
Effective policies require youth involvement in all issues
addition, some countries—including Algeria, Ghana,
areas. These areas can be grouped broadly into an inte-
Kenya and South Africa—have used the African Peer
grated framework that embodies the economic, health,
Review Mechanism (APRM) as another vehicle to ad-
political and social issues affecting African youth. We
dress youth unemployment. The 2001 New Partnership
next discuss the priority areas that national youth poli-
for Africa’s Development (NEPAD)—a program of the AU
cies should address to promote youth development.
adopted in Lusaka, Zambia, on July 11, 2001—included the goals of achieving the MDGs that explicitly and implicitly concern youth.6 Through the initiatives of NEPAD,
Economic Issues
African youth leaders have established ongoing networks
The economic issues concern how to deal with the
to coordinate their efforts to advance the goals of the
immense youth unemployment problem using an inte-
MDGs and those of other their development partners.
grated approach, including the promotion of economic growth, improving access to high-quality education
Internationally, there have been several youth develop-
and implementing various labor market policies. A
ment initiatives. U.N. member states that are parties
critical implication of youth employment policies is that
to the MDGs, including African countries, resolved to
jobs would be available for those with the right educa-
“develop and implement strategies that give young
tion, skills and training. Thus, national policies should
people everywhere a real chance to find decent and
foster increased and sustained economic growth to
productive work.” The report of the WPAY identified 10
boost the demand for labor and employment, espe-
priority areas, and the U.N. General Assembly agreed
cially for youth. As is well known, the strong correlation
on five emerging issues.7 Also, in 2006, the meeting
between economic growth and employment implies
of the U.N. Office of the Special Advisor on Africa on
that promoting economic growth helps to increase em-
youth in post-conflict countries focused on the social
ployment. For instance, in South Africa it is estimated
and economic integration of youth through job opportu-
that the employment elasticity of economic growth was
nities and the reintegration of ex-combatants into civil
0.7 between 2004 and 2008, meaning that a 1 percent
society. The World Bank’s World Development Report
increase in the growth of the gross domestic product
2007 focused on youth issues. And almost all the re-
was associated with a 0.7 percent increase in employ-
cent Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs), a
ment, all things being equal (see South Africa 2011).10
8
program initiated by the International Monetary Fund and World Bank in 1999 to encourage African coun-
Even when jobs are available, youth must have the
tries to develop integrated poverty reduction strate-
requisite skills to take advantage of the opportunities.
gies, have focused on youth employment. Finally,
Policies should improve formal education and/or train-
several U.N. resolutions concern youth employment.9
ing to increase the supply of skilled youth who are ready for the job market. Several policy actions have
Proposed Youth Policies Advocate an
Interrelated Approach to Economic,
Health, Political and Social Issues
been suggested in various reports that could improve the quality of youth labor. First, policies should seek to improve access to a high-quality formal education and increase graduation rates because deficiencies
As mentioned above and shown in Table 1, the frame-
in the education system limit the ability of young work-
works for youth policies identify about a dozen priority
ers to find decent jobs. For example, in South Africa,
youth policy and the future of african development
11
engineering graduates were found to be unemployable
experimentation. And they will require university-indus-
in the automotive industry because of the low qual-
try linkages to achieve these necessary reforms.
ity of their training (Gyimah-Brempong and Ondiege
2011). Second, policies should aim at increasing ac-
Active labor market programs (ALMPs) are an im-
tivities that would increase the supply of high-quality
portant component of attempts by several African
educational opportunities, including investments in
governments to increase the availability of labor and
infrastructure, textbooks, learning materials, curricula
employment opportunities. These policies are used to
reforms and equipment, and well-trained and moti-
enhance employment opportunities for youth because
vated teachers. Third, in order to minimize mismatches
they increase the chances that a young person with the
between skills and job requirements, formal education
right skills will find work by increasing the demand for
can be combined with work-based training in a con-
his or her labor. ALMPs can take several forms. First,
current or sequential manner.11 Fourth, because most
training programs can be used to enhance skills and
African governments face severe fiscal constraints and
raise human capital, thereby enhancing the productiv-
sustained job creation is arguably the domain of the
ity and employability of youth. These programs include
private sector, public-private partnerships, especially
assisting those who have not completed or have inad-
in the area of curricula reform, would be helpful in
equate formal education to alleviate their conditions
increasing both the demand for and supply of employ-
by providing vocational training and apprenticeships.
ment opportunities for youth.
An example is the Egypt-Germany Initiative, which operated from 1995 to 2002 as a dual education sys-
Furthermore, in order to reduce the mismatch between
tem.13 For these programs to be effective, coordination
the supply of skills coming out of African educational
between the public and private sectors is necessary
institutions and the skills needed by employers, it may
to improve the chances that workers will be gainfully
be necessary to overhaul the educational curricula as
employed after their training. Although the overall
well as pedagogical methods. Whereas employers in
evidence suggests that the impact of skills training on
Africa seek employees with problem-solving scientific
employment may be inconclusive compared with other
skills, the educational systems in Africa turn out gradu-
ALMPs (see, e.g., Kluve 2006), or even less effective,
ates mostly in the arts and social sciences. For ex-
evidence from the World Bank (2007d) indicates that
ample, only 24, 18 and 14 percent of tertiary students
training may be effective in developing countries, espe-
in South Africa, Botswana and Ethiopia, respectively,
cially for female and less-educated individuals.
were enrolled in science, engineering and technology programs in 2009.12 Even when African universities
Second, several policies could help create employ-
turn out science and engineering graduates, the peda-
ment opportunities:
gogy employed involves rote memorization. Employers are looking for graduates with problem-solving skills.
Educational reforms to improve employment opportunities for youth will not only involve an emphasis on science, engineering and technology but also entail a change in the pedagogical approach to emphasize independent thinking, problem-solving skills and
12
Global Economy and Development Program
• Direct public sector employment: Public works programs have been used in several countries, even though the evidence suggests that they are not generally effective (Kimenyi 1995, Kluve
2006). They are usually used to help the unemployed gain experience or to help new graduates gain initial access to the labor market through
employer subsidy) or raise the worker’s wage
(through an employee subsidy).16 The World Bank
(2007d) argues that “wage subsidies have been particularly successful in improving short-term employment outcomes in transition economies, while having mixed outcomes in industrialized economies, but has long-term dynamic effects through improving the permanent employability.”
South Africa has proposed implementing such a program in 2012 and is currently seeking comments on that policy. A related policy involves improving youths’ employability by providing them with skills through general training or more specific vocational training—an example is Kenya’s
Jua Kali Voucher Programme started in 1997.
programs such as national youth service. By providing short-term employment at low wages, they are helpful to young people without skills.14 For example, Ghana has established the National Youth
Employment Program to employ youth to engage in several civil activities.
• Job search assistance: Employment services can be used to reduce labor market frictions by assisting youth in their job searches and with job matching (Kimenyi 1995). These include helping youth with the preparation of résumés and for interviews, with counseling and mentoring, and with providing job market information. Currently, these services are dominated by the public sector, and they tend to target the disadvantaged, the longterm unemployed and discouraged workers.
• Self-employment: Given the lack of jobs for youth in the formal sector, self-employment could yield tremendous benefits, especially with the high levels of underemployment in the informal sector. This policy includes providing microcredit and start-up loans to young entrepreneurs. The World
Bank (2007d) argues that entrepreneurial projects tend to have positive short-term effects on youth employment, even though high dropout rates and business failures are also rampant. For instance,
Youth Business International (YBI), a global network of independent nonprofit initiatives based in the United Kingdom, helps young people start and grow their own businesses and thus create employment. YBI members assist underserved young entrepreneurs with a combination of training, access to capital and mentoring. They work in partnership with governments, businesses and multilateral and civil society organizations.
In 2008, 90 young entrepreneurs were started in three accredited member countries (Kenya,
Nigeria and South Africa) and in two pilot member countries (Ghana and Uganda).15 The College of
Business at the University of Botswana is also in the process of establishing a chapter of YBI.
• Wage or employment subsidies: This policy could increase employment opportunities (through an
• Ensuring competitive labor markets: This policy entails the liberalization of factor markets, reducing subsidies on capital import, reducing labor market rigidities and ensuring that hiring and firing are performance based. These actions will help make the mix of inputs for production reflect their relative scarcity. With the relative abundance of labor in Africa, employers will have incentives to adopt labor-intensive production techniques instead of capital-intensive techniques. Combining these actions with paying the members of the labor force the value of their marginal product and giving them the ability to hire and fire unproductive workers could increase youth employment. These are part of structural adjustment reforms, but it appears that African countries have not fully implemented these factor market reforms.
Health Issues
Youth in Africa struggle with poor health conditions, including diseases (e.g., HIV/AIDS, malaria, tuberculosis), inadequate nutrition, disabilities, mental illness, unhealthy behavior, violence and substance abuse.
Some of these health issues are major causes of mortality. These health problems are complicated by the lack of adequate understanding of their causes, and worsened by inequalities in age and gender.
youth policy and the future of african development
13
Furthermore, as suggested by several bodies, an ef-
these conditions affect the general population be-
fective way to deal with health issues is to take a ho-
cause youth tend to be more active and spend more
listic approach that considers not only youths’ physical
time outdoors engaging in physical activities, they
and mental well-being but also their social, economic
are more vulnerable to environmental health issues.
and cultural environment.
Policies to improve youth health outcomes should include the provision of clean water and sanitation, as
Several recommendations have been suggested for
well as controlling water and air pollution. In particular,
dealing with African youth health problems.17 Policies
African governments should do a better job of abating
could seek to change young people’s behavior as a
pollution, such as that caused by lead from recycling
way to deal with some health problems, especially
batteries and water and air pollution from the disposal
Prevention is also
of electric and electronic waste as ordinary household
recommended, including the so-called ABC (“Abstain,
waste. A rapidly increasing source of environment pol-
Be careful, use a Condom”) campaign, which requires
lution in Africa is the improper disposal of electronic
young people to be active participants in solving the
waste. Perhaps African governments may have to do
problem. While recognizing that there are limited re-
a better job of policing the importing of electronic prod-
sources, it would still be worthwhile for governments
ucts at the end of their useful lives—a major source of
to provide and improve health programs such as im-
electronic waste.
HIV/AIDS, and substance abuse.
18
munizations. Furthermore, it is necessary to increase youths’ capacity to make informed decisions about their health through education and access to youth-
Political and Social Issues
friendly information and services. Youth education
In most African countries, the age hierarchy embod-
should include appropriate health and lifelong skills
ied in the culture has meant that there are limited
through the formal education curricula or after-school
opportunities for youth to express themselves and to
programs organized by nonprofit entities. Finally, the
meaningfully participate in national social and political
development of youth-friendly health services that
discourse. A broad-based participation of the citizenry,
emphasize coordination among the various ministries
including youth, would enhance good governance in
responsible for youth—including health- and educa-
addition to improving democracy. There is evidence
tion-related activities such as nutrition and physical
that a lack of good governance is predictive of the
activities/exercises—would be worthwhile.
poor economic performance of African countries. At the same time, the governance dimension of “voice
One area that has received less attention is the vulner-
cal participation, tends to be high for well-performing
cerns, which is about all the physical, chemical and
economies (World Bank 2009). A study by Karikari
biological factors external to a person and all related
and Gyimah-Brempong (2011) confirms previous stud-
factors that affect the person’s health (WHO 2008).
ies that found that the quality of governance improves
Youths’ vulnerability to environmental health comes
when countries get richer because these countries
from several sources, including unsafe drinking water
then have the resources to pursue good governance,
and sanitation, air pollution (both indoor and outdoor),
even though they also find that governance has not en-
chemical pollution and electronic pollution. Although
14
and accountability,” which is strongly related to politi-
ability of African youth to environmental health con-
hanced economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa. This
Global Economy and Development Program
trend suggests that strong economic growth is neces-
to provide relevant internships for them. And fourth,
sary to advance effective political participation by the
youth can be provided with enhanced social con-
citizenry, particularly youth.
sciousness and political participation with the help of
19
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), which have
African governments are making efforts to provide for
generally been very active and seem to be successful.
the full participation of youth in the political process
Collaboration between the government and the NGOs
through different channels of representation, including
in this area could be beneficial.
the creation of national youth councils, youth parliaments and regional youth advocacy groups. There
such as unemployment and poverty, as well as on
African Countries are at Different
Stages of Developing and
Implementing Youth Policies
strategies (such as PRSPs and the APRM) for dealing
There is limited information on the development and
with their problems. The AYR discusses the extent to
implementation of youth policies in Africa. Nonetheless,
which youth issues have been made an important part
here we seek to provide anecdotal evidence of efforts
of countries’ PRSPs. Participation by youth in the politi-
by certain countries to develop programs that advance
cal process is important to addressing the high poverty
their youth policies, which suggest that African coun-
rate that disproportionately affects them.
tries are at different stages in this process. The selec-
are also consultations with young people on economic issues that have a disproportionate impact on them,
tion of programs is based on several factors, including
However, efforts to encourage effective political par-
the availability of information about the program, the
ticipation by youth have generally not been successful,
program’s efforts to develop and implement youth poli-
partly because of a lack of meaningful access and inte-
cies, the uniqueness of the program in the African re-
gration of youth into the political apparatus of the state,
gion, and the program’s priority area(s).21
along with youths’ and the government’s limited capacities, due to inadequate skills and resources. Four litical process have been recommended.20 First, youth
Ghana: A National Youth Policy Is Finally
Launched
can be provided with the opportunity to participate in
In 2009, three years after the African Youth Charter
politics at all levels, which could even include quo-
(AYC)—which urged member states to endorse and
tas, as well as encouraged to be politically involved.
adopt the charter, and to develop and implement a na-
Second, youth can be provided with the information
tional policy for youth—it was unclear whether Ghana
and training needed to understand key aspects of
had a national youth policy in place.22 This was appar-
the government, including the budget process. Third,
ent at the youth stakeholders’ forum in 2009 organized
youth can be provided with the opportunity to witness
by two NGOs—the Youth Bridge Foundation and the
and learn about the political process at the regional
Ghana Centre for Democratic Development. Ghana of-
and local levels. This is important because some na-
ficially launched its national youth policy on August 12,
tional policies are based on consensuses developed at
2010, as part of the International Youth Day celebra-
the regional and local levels, including youth policies.
tion, a day that the U.N. General Assembly endorsed
One way to increase involvement by youth would be
upon the recommendation of its ministers responsible
main solutions for effectively involving youth in the po-
youth policy and the future of african development
15
for youth. The lack of a national concerted effort to
the Youth Bridge Foundation and the Ghana Centre for
develop a youth policy by Ghana is also reflective of
Democratic Development) that could be useful chan-
the experiences of several other African countries.
nels as Ghana seeks to develop and implement an
Although the key issues affecting youth have been uni-
effective national youth policy. However, it does not ap-
versally identified, including linkages to overall youth
pear that Ghana has an integrated policy to deal with
welfare, not all countries have ratified the AYC.
the problems affecting youth.
23
As in many other African countries, given the large and lack of attention to their development has long been a
The Gambia: A Third National Youth Policy
Is Launched for 2009-18
growing proportion of unemployed youth in Ghana, the concern for all stakeholders. Youth in Ghana make up
The Gambia has launched its Third National Youth
about a quarter of the population.24 It has been esti-
Policy for 2009-18.26 This policy immediately followed
mated that of about 250,000 young people entering the
the Second National Youth Policy of 1999-2008, which
labor market annually, only 2 percent (5,000) become
was charged, among other things, to be an advocate
employed, primarily in the formal sector. The rest are
for youth development and to create opportunities for
either openly unemployed or underemployed in the
youth. The new policy seeks to invest in youth as part
informal sector. Thus, the problem of youth unemploy-
of its aim to achieve sustainable economic develop-
ment is getting worse over time.
ment by addressing the critical issues they face. The overall objective is to get youth involved in all as-
Ghana needs a national youth policy that generates
pects of national development, and to empower them
benefits from promoting all the priority areas that affect
through their participation and mentoring. The policy
youth and is consistent with the MDGs. Furthermore, a
seeks to provide a more serious outlook for the devel-
far-reaching policy will help allay the concerns of sev-
opment of youth because the Second National Youth
eral stakeholders who believe that helping youth does
Policy of 1999-2008 is believed to have fallen far short
not seem to be a top priority of the government. It is
of its “key goals of empowering young people to be
noteworthy that Ghana’s 2012 budget statement has
able to harness their potential for self-fulfillment and
programs targeting youth. Under its social intervention
responsible citizenship.”
program, the Ghana School Feeding Programme will be expanded to cover an additional 500,000 students
The Gambian Ministry of Youth and Sports has tradi-
from its current level of 1,040,000. Also, it is projected
tionally been in charge of youth affairs but in a second-
that the National Youth Employment Programme will
ary role to education. Over time, the ministry has been
recruit about 692,000 people under its 15 modules and
overhauled to deal with the youth population, which
projects, which is expected to create 500,000 new jobs
was growing very rapidly. The lack of strategic direction
during the next four years.
hampered the ability of the ministry to deal effectively
25
with the challenges facing youth. In 1973, youth affairs
Ghana has in place various governmental programs (e.g., the National Youth Council, National
Sports within the Ministry of Education, Youth, Sports,
Service Council and the National Youth Employment
and Culture. Later, in 2000, the National Youth Council
Programme) as well as well-organized NGOs (e.g.,
16
came under the control of the Department of Youth and
was set up to coordinate youth activities as part of the
Global Economy and Development Program
Department of Youth and Sports. A major objective of
evenly distributed across the country’s regions, and
the Third National Youth Policy is to mainstream youth
they are of low quality.
problems, taking into account regional and global developments. In particular, increasing youth employment through education and training, and investments in youth are critical parts of the policy.
Kenya: Tackling Youth Development through an Agenda for Peace
Kenya attempted to develop a national youth policy
Like those in many African countries, Gambian youth
when it adopted the National Youth Policy in 2002 “to
face several challenges, including limited opportuni-
promote youth participation in community and civic af-
ties for viable employment, education and training,
fairs and to ensure that programs are youth-centered
access to good health care and social services as
and engages the youth.” 28 The policy emphasized
well as meaningful participation in policy discussions.
employment creation, health, education and training,
Youth make up at least 47 percent of the population,
sports and recreation, environment, youth and the me-
with youth unemployment estimated at 22 percent.
dia, and youth participation and empowerment, among
Furthermore, the majority of youth, who mostly reside
other objectives. Youth with disabilities, street youth,
in urban areas, are classified as poor, and unemploy-
female youth, youth with HIV, out-of-school youth,
ment among males is higher than females. There is
and unemployed youth were particularly targeted for
a high incidence of drug abuse and criminal activity
special attention. A National Youth Council was to be
among youth. Furthermore, it is believed that Gambian
formed to oversee the implementation of the policy.
youth suffer from the “Babylon” syndrome—that is, the
Events of 2007 and a subsequent study (see below)
desire to migrate out of Gambia by any means neces-
suggest that this policy was either not implemented or
sary. The prevalence of HIV/AIDS is very high among
not successful if it was implemented.
27
the cohort of age 16 to 35 years, and the infection rate is higher compared with the older cohorts.
A study sponsored by the Nairobi Peace Initiative
Africa (NPI-Africa, n.d.), with funding from UNESCO,
The population and housing census of 2003 indi-
was charged with providing an understanding of how
cated that the government has promoted initiatives
the challenges facing Kenyan youth could become
to achieve universal access to basic education for all
part of a broader agenda for promoting peace after the
school-going ages. These initiatives have included the
2007 postelection violence. Although the study was
construction and maintenance of school facilities, the
based primarily on a very small sample of 180 youths,
abolition of fees at the lower basic school level (grades
it provided some insights into the conditions of youth
1-6), free education for girls and increased enrollment
in Kenya and how they could be helped to become
at the upper basic level (grades 7-9). The gross em-
part of the process of achieving peace in the country.
ployment rate increased by 25 percent at the upper ba-
The study’s findings indicated that achieving political
sic level and doubled at the secondary level. However,
stability and peace in Kenya would mainly depend on
retention and the quality of education and training,
addressing the challenges facing youth. The study
and disparities between boys and girls, remain prob-
implored several stakeholders (including the state,
lematic. In addition, vocational or skill centers are not
private entrepreneurs, civil society organizations, faith-
youth policy and the future of african development
17
based organizations and donor agencies) to become
Regarding unemployment, the youth believed that
active participants in the process.
the major causes include inadequate jobs, a lack of technical skills and experience, and job discrimination
About 75 percent of Kenya’s population is below 30
against them. Furthermore, it is the youths’ opinion
years of age, which makes it a youthful country. Like
that in addition to the government, other stakeholders,
the youth in almost all African countries, the challenges
particularly youth and their parents, can play crucial
facing youth in Kenya include unemployment, limited
roles in addressing their challenges, especially in help-
access to high-quality education (especially higher
ing those who have a sense of hopelessness about their
education), health care, training and recreation, and
future and are likely to be attracted to criminal activity.31
29
peer pressure.30 Youth also feel marginalized and frustrated, conditions that have been exacerbated by the
The youth in the study confirmed what many observers
recent violence, and they are vulnerable to exploitation
believed—that they participated heavily in the 2007
by political and ethnic leaders. Furthermore, the youth
postelection violence. Although the youth attribute the
themselves were very much involved in the postelec-
violence primarily to tribalism, other factors are related
tion violence, and many of them became victims of
to the challenges facing them—flawed elections, land
the conflict or internally displaced persons. The study
issues and poverty. A major conclusion of the study is
suggested that Kenyan youth are aware of their predic-
that “to build everlasting peace in Kenya, it is critical
ament and regard unemployment to be their most im-
to address the challenges faced by the Kenyan youth
portant challenge, followed by poverty and harassment
effectively.”
by the authorities, including the police. It is important to note that youth harassment has not conventionally been recognized as a youth challenge in many other countries in Africa.
South Africa: Using Employment Subsidies to Enhance Youth Employment
According to the late president of the African National
The government of Kenya has made efforts to address the problems facing youth, but it is believed those ef-
take care of its youth has no future, nor does it de-
forts have been inadequate and ineffective. The Ministry
serve one.” 32 As a result of South Africa’s unique
of State and Youth Affairs was created in 2005, fol-
history, youth policy has been an integral part of its
lowed by the 2006 Kenya National Youth Policy and the
policy of providing social justice and equitable devel-
Strategic Plan (2007-12). The NPI-Africa study finds
opment. Post-apartheid South Africa has adopted a
that though the country’s youth were aware of the ex-
series of youth policies, including the 2000 National
istence of the Ministry for Youth Affairs, most of them
Youth Policy (NYP), the National Youth Development
believed the ministry had virtually no impact on their
Framework (NYDF) of 2002-07 and the NYP of 2009-
lives because it does not focus on their problems. In
14. In addition to these, the South African govern-
particular, it is the view of youth that the government’s
ment passed the National Youth Commission (NYC)
plans and policies could be helpful if they addressed
Act of 1996 and has established such a commission.
the challenges facing youth on education and employ-
The NYP 2009-14 focuses on four areas of interven-
ment, involvement in decision-making and extending
tion—education, health and well-being, economic par-
infrastructure countrywide to reach youth in all areas.
18
Congress, Oliver Tambo, “a nation that does not
ticipation and social cohesion. Youth groups targeted
Global Economy and Development Program
for special attention include female youth, youth with
According to the Quarterly Labour Force Survey,
disabilities, unemployed youth, out-of-school youth,
a publication of Statistics South Africa, in the third
rural youth and at-risk youth. The policy instrument
quarter of 2010, about 42 percent of South African
provides specific interventions for each objective with
youth under 30 years of age were unemployed, com-
measurable benchmarks. Implementation of the policy
pared with 17 percent for adults over 30 years of age,
will involve the government, private sector and NGOs.
implying a ratio of youth to adult unemployment of 2.5.
NYP 2009-14 calls for the establishment of a youth
The youth who are unemployed tend to be less skilled
unit/directorate in every government ministry or depart-
and inexperienced. Furthermore, almost 86 percent of
ment. It also sets up a mechanism to conduct impact
youth do not have formal further or tertiary education,
assessments of youth programs in South Africa. Given
and 66 percent have never worked.
the high rate of youth unemployment in South Africa, the NYP heavily focuses on providing employment for
The employment subsidy program, which targets
the youth. Here we discuss some of the policies to in-
young individuals earning below the personal income
crease employment for youth.
tax threshold, was planned for implementation on April
South Africa’s New Growth Path calls for the state to
be operated by the South Africa Revenue Service.
“provide bold, imaginative and effective strategies to
Individuals can use this program for a maximum pe-
create millions of new jobs that South Africans need....
riod of two years at a maximum value of 12,000 South
To this end, the outcomes-based approach that has
African rand (R) (approximately $1,500), which is
been adopted by government identifies the need to de-
about 50 percent of the average income of the targeted
velop a multi-pronged strategy to tackle youth unem-
cohort.35 The program is expected to subsidize a net of
ployment.”33 South Africa has published a discussion
423,000 new jobs at a cost of R5 billion (approximately
paper for public comment on using employment subsi-
$625 million) in tax expenditures during the three-year
dies as an important part of its youth policies. Although
initial implementation period. There will be detailed
the employment subsidy program has been used in
quarterly monitoring and reporting during the imple-
several countries worldwide for quite some time, it is
mentation period to help evaluate the effectiveness of
new to Africa. A key motivation of this program is the
the program.
1, 2012, through the Pay as You Earn system and will
34
recognition that, whereas the supply of high-quality labor is a critical component of youth unemployment,
The targeted employment subsidy program is intended
stimulating the demand for labor is necessary to
to boost the demand for the young and less skilled
complement the need for a high-quality education and
individuals who are between 18 and 29 years of age
human capital investment, which generally takes more
and have little work experience by, among other things,
time and is often very costly. Furthermore, the program
helping to reduce their training costs to employers. The
would increase the opportunity for the private sector to
subsidy would increase demand for labor because it
be involved in labor market policies that have generally
decreases the gap between youth productivity and the
concentrated on issues that are under the control of
real wage. Giving youth the opportunity to work would
the public sector such as education and direct public
improve their long-term employability because work
employment.
experience is generally found to be a key determinant of an individual’s likelihood of finding a job and keep-
youth policy and the future of african development
19
ing it. For instance, in South Africa the evidence shows
The South African subsidy program is an example of
that unemployed young people with experience are
a well-planned youth policy effort targeting the unem-
almost three times more likely to find a job than those
ployed who lack skills and work experience, albeit at
without experience.37
substantial costs to the government.
The proposal provides a balanced account by also subsidy would be minimized or less likely to material-
Several Challenges Confront Those
Developing African Youth Policies
ize. It is argued that whereas the employment subsidy
Based on the framework(s) for developing youth poli-
program could be costly in terms of increasing the
cies in Africa and the efforts made by several countries
deadweight loss (when a subsidy is paid to a currently
in this regard, we have identified several challenges
employed young worker), the potential distortions
that could have an impact on the development and
from substitution effects (when a firm is incentivized
implementation of effective youth policies.
discussing why the potential adverse effects of the
to replace unsubsidized older workers with subsidized younger workers) are less likely in South Africa.
Assessments of the problems facing youth are
Regarding the potential for firms to seek younger
complicated by data limitations. The availability of
new hires compared with older ones, it is argued that
sufficient and reliable data is obviously pertinent to the
such a substitution might not be as harmful because it
formulation of effective youth policies. For instance,
would help to minimize the advantage that older work-
available data on measured unemployment rates do
ers have over the young regarding work experience.
not take into account the large number of underem-
Furthermore, it is argued that “destructive churning,”
ployed, especially in rural areas, and migration to ur-
whereby current subsidized workers are replaced by
ban areas. Also, the extent of unemployment due to
newly subsidized workers at the end of each subsidy
skill mismatches is not well known. A mismatch could
period, is not likely for several reasons, including the
result from the “educated youth hypothesis,” whereby
fact that the two-year period gives ample time for the
better-educated youth queue for limited lucrative pub-
worker to develop the necessary job skills. Moreover,
lic sector jobs (Leibbrandt and Mlatsheni 2004), along
the stigma generally associated with the subsidy is ex-
with a mismatch between acquired skills and vacan-
pected to be minimal because the program would be
cies (Boateng 2002, 2004). Another problem is that low
available to young people based on age who meet the
labor force participation by women generally tends to
earnings threshold, unlike programs that target disad-
bias the reported unemployment rates. Furthermore,
vantaged youth, as in the United States.
knowledge of the causes or types of unemployment
(e.g., frictional, structural/wait or cyclical) is important,
Finally, the program proposes a primer for evaluating
especially for developing and implementing ALMPs.
the success and cost-effectiveness of the program using the measures provided in the World Bank’s 2007
grams, the lack of conclusive results on which level of
effectiveness of the intervention and the quality of the
education yields the highest returns to education is a
intervention, based on a comparison of more than 300
serious limitation. Although an efficient policy would
youth employment programs in about 90 countries.
20
Given the scarcity of funds for youth employment pro-
Youth Employment Inventory, a global database on the
imply allocating resources to educational levels where
Global Economy and Development Program
the returns are highest, equity would imply targeting
On the issue of economic growth and job creation, the
the most disadvantaged groups (rural areas, girls, in-
study by Leautier and Hanson (2012) is informative.
digenous communities; see World Bank 2005). Also,
They argued that the agricultural sector is suited for
it is important to note that the targeting of policies to
playing a crucial role in dealing with Africa’s unem-
certain groups could be subject to influence by special
ployment problems. The size and rural character of
interest groups, and that the problem of balancing the
the agricultural sector provides the opportunity for job
efficiency and equity of improving access to a high-
creation and reduction in unemployment, growth of
quality education could be challenging.
the agricultural sector. In addition, the sophistication and innovative potential of the agricultural sector, es-
Given the importance of having reliable and accurate
pecially agricultural value chains, can attract educated
data for policymaking and the current data limitations
youth.
vis-à-vis youth, the steps taken by the AU to develop the African Youth Statistical Database are commend-
The Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy
This database is expected to include relevant
Analysis Network (FANRPAN), at its 2011 Regional
indicators to measure progress on youth development
Food Security Policy Dialogue, focused on “advo-
and empowerment in Africa. The database will further
cating for the active engagement of the youth in the
be utilized as the main platform for gathering informa-
agriculture value chain.”39 According to the head of
tion from countries in an effort to also develop country
FANRPAN, Lindiwe Majele Sibanda, youth have a
profiles of AU member states on youth for comparabil-
role to play in dealing with the challenge of increasing
ity analysis.
agricultural productivity and promoting growth in rural
able.
38
areas. It is suggested that these challenges could be
The effectiveness of programs depends crucially
overcome through investment in social and economic
on economic growth and the types of jobs that are
infrastructure in rural areas, the creation of tailor-made
created. The outcomes of ALMPs depend on the cre-
opportunities and economic incentives for young
ation of enough “right” jobs for youth. In this regard, it is
people to engage in agriculture and the rural non-
important to promote economic growth as well as bal-
farm economy, and more training for young men and
ance several trade-offs, including job creation in the in-
women to build skills in both agroeconomy and busi-
formal versus formal sectors, urban versus rural areas,
ness. Specifically, FANRPAN has launched the African
and the quantity and quality of jobs (in terms of pay and
Youth in Agriculture Policy initiative to engage youth in
work conditions). Improving the quality of jobs to meet
the Comprehensive African Agriculture Development
the requirements of the so-called decency of work
Programme (CAADP), which includes assisting youth
would imply improving access to insurance and social
to collect evidence and case studies and contribute to
protection, developing health and safety standards,
future policymaking.
encouraging worker representation and freedom of association, and eliminating all forms of discrimination,
There is a lack of comprehensive youth policies
exploitation and child labor (ILO 2002). These efforts
that are integrated with national development
may complicate the policy of creating more jobs for
plans and broad macroeconomic policies. There
youth, given that the policies are likely to increase the
is a general lack of adequate human and financial re-
cost of employment for employers.
sources devoted to youth issues, which has resulted
youth policy and the future of african development
21
in the so-called Cinderella ministries for youth—minis-
people’s capabilities and opportunities require mas-
tries that exist but have very little functionality. National
sive infusions of resources, especially financial and
youth policies tend to operate on separate tracks:
human. Generally, the full costs and the sources of
formal education policies and youth policies (see
funding of these programs are not completely known.
Chingunta 2002). The formal education policy deals
For instance, improving access to education includes
with the formal education system and the formal labor
making education affordable, which may include abol-
market, such as national youth service programs that
ishing tuition fees, making nontuition costs such as
provide work primarily in the formal sector. Conversely,
uniforms and meals affordable, and providing female
the youth policy includes different youth initiatives such
role models (e.g., teachers and administrators) for girls
as training for informal sector jobs and make-work
in their educational process. Although these efforts can
programs.
cost a lot of money, their ultimate costs, both direct and indirect, are typically unknown. Also, the funding for
Perhaps governments should have a comprehensive
ALMPs, such as public works, is typically mismanaged
youth policy on education, health, employment and
or not well accounted for. Furthermore, as is typical of
the political and social engagement of youth in na-
government programs, it may be difficult to terminate
tional affairs. For instance, youth in Africa are often
inefficient programs once started (e.g., Kenya’s 1997
not involved in national debates on issues, even on
Jua Kali Voucher Programme).
issues that affect them, directly or indirectly. African policies should engage youth in national policy delib-
Governments lack the capacity to undertake com-
erations. In this connection, the “International Institute
prehensive monitoring and evaluative processes.
for Environment and Development Project Young
Although it is important to monitor and assess the
Citizens: Youth Participatory Governance in Africa”
effectiveness and efficiency of programs, especially
Perhaps an effec-
the various ALMPs, African governments typically
tive way to harness the energy, passion and talents
lack the capacity to monitor and evaluate the relevant
of youth for development in Africa is to “mainstream”
processes. To date, no reliable assessment has been
youth policies. This means that government policies,
done for the few existing ALMPs. An effective youth
expenditures, strategies and actions will be evaluated
policy should seek to mitigate risks by setting perfor-
for their potential effects on youth. African govern-
mance measures and benchmarks that can be moni-
ments have mainstreamed gender policies, and a simi-
tored and reported on regularly—in this regard, the
lar approach would be appropriate for youth.
approaches provided in the World Bank’s 2007 Youth
is an effort in the right direction.
40
Employment Inventory could be useful.
The costs of programs and funding sources are not fully known. All programs to develop young
22
Global Economy and Development Program
4. Policies TO Harness
Youths’ Talents to Foster
Economic Development
U
nfortunately, youth policies in Africa have fallen short of the massive challenges facing youth.
African youth have responded to these challenges with several coping mechanisms, including withdrawal from the labor market and political processes, emigration (within and outside Africa), and resorting to activities that challenge the existing orthodoxy either through political agitation or by joining rebel groups.
Nonetheless, youth are a resource that needs to be developed and harnessed as part of African governments’ comprehensive strategies to foster economic growth and development.
Youth unemployment is at the core of the economic
suitable to promote economic development generally and for youth in particular in all countries. It is therefore appropriate to discuss approaches that could harness the development of youth in most countries. Because an effective youth development strategy needs to be heavily intertwined with economic growth, this study focuses on strategies of youth development that are consistent with economic growth and development that are both pro-employment and pro-youth. Furthermore, there is a need to mainstream youth issues in government actions and policies. We use a framework that reflects these ideas—in particular, we exploit the key strategic challenges of economic growth and development in Africa, as identified by the World Bank (2006): improving the investment climate, expanding infrastructure, harnessing innovation and building institutional quality.
challenges facing youth and is also related to health, and political and social isolation. Increasing youth employment would require an acceleration of economic growth, especially because the youth populations are large and growing in several African countries. At the same time, economic growth and development can be enhanced if youth development is an integral part of the development process.41 Moreover, there are serious economic, social and political costs of neglecting youths’ predicament—including underutilized human and social capital, stunted economic growth and development and weakened national security. Therefore, there is a need to pay greater attention to the youth development dimension of economic growth, particularly by enhancing employment opportunities for youth and by enabling their greater participation in the growth process. To effectively address the challenges of youth would require assessing policies as well as the related institutions and strategies.
Given the diverse economic and political environments
Youth Development: Improving the
Investment Climate
A key challenge for youth is unemployment, which means that a solution to youth problems should include increased economic activity and youth employment.
An important obstacle to economic growth in African countries is how to improve the investment climate, which involves reducing indirect costs to businesses.
Although a high proportion of the costs to businesses include the costs of energy and transportation, there are also the costs of reducing and mitigating risks that are related to youth activity—including crime and political instability. The role of the investment climate in economic growth has received much attention since the
World Bank’s Doing Business annual reports began to be published in 2003.42 A key basis of Doing Business is that good, transparent and universal rules promote economic activity by avoiding burdensome regulations and promoting competition.
of African countries, no single approach would be
youth policy and the future of african development
23
Clearly, crime and political instability adversely affect
partners from infrastructure to social programs, and
investments. The destabilizing effects of the violence
partly to the unreasonable expectation that the embry-
and political instability in Kenya after the 2007 election
onic private sector would fill in the gap.45 It has been
are a testament to how crucial it is to maintain stabil-
estimated that sub-Saharan Africa needs massive fi-
ity in the vulnerable economies of Africa. Also, during
nancing of about $18 billion in infrastructure projects
the 2012 presidential elections in Senegal, the mem-
to promote the economic growth necessary to reduce
bers of a youth movement swore to render the country
extreme poverty by 50 percent and another $18 bil-
“ungovernable” if the incumbent president won. Their
lion per year to achieve its MDGs.46 There are obvious
reasoning was that the incumbent president was violat-
challenges in marshalling the needed resources for
ing the two-term limit he had signed into law in 2001.
43
infrastructure investments. Such challenges include
Such turmoil would threaten the investment climate
evaluating the suitability and viability of public vis-à-vis
with adverse consequences for investment, trade and
private sector financing.
even aid. So efforts to reduce or redirect the energies of youth into productive activities would be useful.
One of the challenges for youth development is the
Furthermore, youth are a potential resource that firms
persistent migration from rural to urban areas, which
could employ directly as inputs into their production
exacerbates the problems of the youth in urban areas
process if they have the right education and training
because there are not enough jobs and social services
and as consumers if they are gainfully employed. More
to accommodate the massive inflow. To reduce young
important, youth are more entrepreneurial than their
people’s attraction to urban areas for elusive jobs, the
elder cohorts. Improving the investment climate could
allocation of a sizable proportion of infrastructure de-
unleash this entrepreneurial spirit for national develop-
velopment to rural areas would be beneficial for youth
ment.
development. Of course, this infrastructure expansion should include the building of educational facilities to
Youth Development: The Need to
Expand Infrastructure
improve education and training, as well as the provision of health and social services. It is important to recognize that because infrastructure projects in rural
The huge infrastructure deficit in Africa is well known,
areas may not be commercially viable initially because
even though its extent is not exactly clear. It is esti-
of a lack of sufficient market size, there may be resis-
mated that inadequate and expensive infrastructure
tance, especially by the private sector in a public–pri-
is retarding growth by 2 percentage points each year.
vate partnership.
Also, there is the potential to recover an additional $17 billion a year by improving the efficiency of the exist-
Apart from investing in infrastructure that is pro-youth,
ing infrastructure with sensible policies, management
several strategies have been suggested to increase
Many countries lack high-quality
the productivity of new as well as existing infrastruc-
roads and a steady supply of electricity—conditions
ture. These include making the development of infra-
that, as indicated above, exacerbate a poor invest-
structure pro-job creating by adopting labor-intensive
ment climate. It is believed that the infrastructure deficit
techniques (when viable), using youth to help collect
is partly due to the shift of development emphasis in
the necessary information to inventory, manage (e.g.,
the 1990s by African governments and development
through revenue collection), and maintain the existing
and maintenance.
24
44
Global Economy and Development Program
infrastructure, as well as employ them in the construc-
jobs in their destination countries, mainly the skilled,
tion of new infrastructure. Also, youth can be trained
adventurous or the most entrepreneurial are likely to
to be the voice and locus of accountability for the in-
emigrate internationally. For example, Clemens and
tegrity of infrastructure projects as a part of improving
Patterson (2007) calculated that about 50 percent or
regulation.
more of physicians trained in some African countries
47
are working in OECD countries, while the health care
Youth Development: Harnessing
Innovation
systems in their home countries remain in shambles.
This robs Africa of its most talented human capital, with serious consequences for development.
Key factors for economic growth are investments that increase skill formation to exploit the world’s bur-
Innovation could help overcome the shortages of
geoning information and communication technology
skilled and trained labor power in African countries
advancements. Obviously, there are second-mover
because wages in the information and communication
advantages in technology from which African coun-
technologies are generally more competitive. African
tries could benefit but that would require them to make
countries have struggled to deal with “brain drain”—
the necessary investments in information technology.
that is, how to retain the few skilled professionals they
Arguably, investments in youth through education and
produce. Conversely, policies can be put in place to
training would enhance their productivity and improve
attract skilled professionals living in the diaspora to
their competitiveness in the labor market. Moreover,
return home to help train the youth. But this will require
youth are more open to technological developments.
committed political will from governments. Africa could
Such an investment could promote jobs that are out-
take advantage of international trade to create jobs for
sourced from developed countries, including telemar-
youth by exploiting its comparative advantage and the
keting call-centers.
development of new technologies. For example, North
Africa can produce and export solar energy to Europe.
In recent decades, one of the remarkable features of globalization is the movement of people across national
Some studies have recommended promoting youth
boundaries—international migration. This phenom-
development through integrated rural and agricultural
enon has gathered momentum among African youth
policies and investment. The idea is that policies and
in the last two or three decades, with educated African
programs that promote the modernization of agricul-
youth seeking their fortunes in OECD countries or in
ture through innovation would help attract youth back
the oil-rich Gulf region. The median age of migrants
to rural areas, which has a predominant share of the
to OECD countries is about 27 years of age, slightly
labor force in agriculture.49 A large number of jobs can
older than the youth population (however, most youth
be created in the agricultural sector for youth from
aspire to migrate for a better life). Indeed, the United
agricultural value chains.50 Although farming may not
Nations calculated that for most West African coun-
be attractive to youth, especially educated youth, they
tries, the proportion of migrant stock under 20 years
could be employed in the storage, processing, packag-
exceeded 40 percent. An important characteristic of
ing, transporting and marketing of agricultural prod-
international migration is its selective nature. Because
ucts. Similarly, employment could be created for youth
48
emigrants from African countries must compete for
youth policy and the future of african development
25
in the production, storage, marketing and distribution
capacity include “the exercise of voice as an agency of
of agricultural inputs, such as fertilizers and irrigation.
restraint,” including fighting corruption. Moreover, the active involvement of youth in improving governance
Youth Development: Building
Institutional Quality
would create social stability, thereby averting potential social and civil unrest, which has serious consequences not just for the economy but also youth. For
Building institutional capacity involves strengthening the
presidential elections in Senegal to safeguard the con-
organizations more effective, and enforcing the rules
stitution suggests that youth participation in political
of the game, which all help to improve the climate for
discourse could be a positive development that bodes
businesses. The strategic actions to build institutional
26
example, the active role played by youth in the recent
competencies of individuals and organizations, making
well for institution building in Africa.
Global Economy and Development Program
5. Conclusion and
Recommendations
S
everal theories, including demographic factors, have been proposed to explain the poor economic
performance of African countries compared with other regions of the world.51 Africa is the youngest continent in the world, with about 70 percent of its population 30 years of age or younger. And with a large proportion of the population now below even 15 years, the youth population in Africa is expected to grow rapidly into the foreseeable future. Unfortunately, the plight of youth has been neglected far too long, but African governments still have the opportunity to utilize this resource or face the consequences of social unrest and stunted economic growth and development.
This study has investigated the role of youth policies in promoting economic prosperity in Africa, as governments seek to address the challenges facing youth, including a lack of access to a high-quality and relevant education, high rates and long durations of unemployment and underemployment, a high incidence of chronic poverty, political disengagement, and health and environmental risks. The study’s salient findings and recommendations are as follows.
Improve the quality and scope of data of youth in
Africa. One of the major problems for studying youth in
Africa and crafting policies for them is the lack of data.
As the adage goes, “You can’t manage what you can’t measure.” It is recommended that policymakers gather and store high-quality data on youth in Africa (both in
Integrate youth and economic growth. Even with the limited data, there is enough evidence that youth suffer from high levels of unemployment, underemployment and chronic poverty. Although the lack of a high-quality and relevant education is part of the problem, these problems exist because there are no jobs for youth.
Economic growth policies can alleviate these problems by having a pro-youth focus. As we have discussed, policies can integrate youth with the four pillars of economic prosperity—improving the investment climate, expanding infrastructure, harnessing innovation and building institutional quality.
Mainstream youth policies. Problems facing youth are multifaceted. This means that the effects of policies and actions for youth would be more effective if they were mainstreamed. Governments should continuously ask how policies and actions would have an impact on youth. This can be done in conjunction with gender issues, because these two groups have been neglected despite their potential to contribute to the prosperity of African countries.
Develop effective youth policies. Finally, it is important to have youth policies that seek to address the challenges facing youth as discussed in this study.
Part of the process is to be able to assess the costs of youth programs and set performance measures with benchmarks that can be monitored and reported regularly. On this account, there should be a process whereby countries can learn from the best practices of other countries, as in Latin America and the Caribbean.
their cross-national and time-series dimensions) to guide research and policy on the youth. As part of this process, it would be useful to have a common definition for the youth cohort and also to include information on gender and rural/urban dimensions. In this regard, the steps taken by the AU to develop an African Youth
Statistical Database are commendable.
youth policy and the future of african development
27
ENDNOTES
1. Different chronological ages are used to define this period of transition because of differences in
technical body of the AU to replace the NEPAD
Secretariat. The NEPAD Agency is a key outcome of the integration of NEPAD into the AU.
cultures and purposes; i.e., several African coun-
7. See Table 3.
tries define years of adulthood differently, and
8. See United Nations (2006).
for different genders in some countries. Different countries have different minimum ages at which a
9. For a partial list, see UNECA (2009, 46).
person can independently enter into a marriage;
10. We note, however, that in a recent study by Leau-
some cultures (e.g., South Africa) even set differ-
tier and Hanson (2012) they found that high eco-
ent ages for boys and girls. Also, for the purposes
nomic growth has had differential effects on job
of migration, most countries set a minimum age
creation across countries in Africa.
of 18 years for an individual to be regarded as an independent migrant. For these reasons, an agebased definition of the youth is arbitrary across African countries.
2. The African Youth Charter defines the youth as persons between the age of 15 and 34 years.
3. Years of schooling is not a good indicator of the human capital accumulated. A better measure for comparison purposes would be returns to education but such data are not readily available for most countries.
4. Migrants are likely to be among the highly skilled workers. It is estimated that more than 50 percent of all doctors trained in Ghana since the 1980s are practicing in OECD countries. It is not uncommon to see university graduates from Africa driving taxi cabs in the United States and the United Kingdom.
5. The African Charter was adopted at the Seventh
Ordinary Session of the Assembly of Heads of
State and Government of the African Union in Banjul, Gambia, in July 2006.
11. See, for example, Chingunta (2002).
12. The data were calculated from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2009).
13. See Kanyenze, Mhone, and Sparreboom (2000).
14. Examples include a program in Senegal funded by the AfDB and the World Bank in 1989, and programs by Youth Business International (YBI 2008).
15. See YBI (2008).
16. For a detailed discussion of labor market policies used in both developed and developing countries, see Kimenyi (1995), Chapter 8, “Labor Market
Policies.”
17. See, for example, UNECA (2009).
18. The Advocates for Youth (a nonprofit organization and advocacy group based in Washington dedicated to sex education, the prevention of HIV and of sexually transmitted disease, teenage pregnancy prevention, youth access to condoms and contraception, equality for lesbians and gays, and youth participation) launched a three-year initiative in
6. NEPAD is a radically new intervention, spearheaded by African leaders to pursue new priorities
Epidemic (YouthLife), which partnered with four
and approaches to the political and socioeconomic
youth-led NGOs in three countries severely affect-
transformation of Africa. Its objective is to enhance
ed by HIV/AIDS: the Youth Health Organization
Africa’s growth, development and participation in
(YOHO) of Botswana, the Youth Action Rangers
the global economy. In February 2010, the 14th
of Nigeria (YARN), and the Township AIDS Project
AU Assembly established the NEPAD Planning
(TAP) and the South African Centre for Organisa-
and Coordinating Agency (NEPAD Agency) as a
28
2001 called the Youth Leadership in Fighting the
tional Development (SACORD) of South Africa.
Global Economy and Development Program
Their activities included skills-based training, advo-
30. See World Bank (2005); Kenya Ministry of State
cacy program implementation, organizational development and youth participation in policymaking.
and Youth Affairs (2007).
31. It has been reported that some parents stop sup-
19. The potential links between education, income and
porting their children financially after they finish
democracy is what social scientists in the middle
the form-four grade level, which is the last stage
of the last century referred to as the “moderniza-
before entering university. Also, the youth are not
tion hypothesis.” However, the empirical evidence
granted access to assets, such as land, until they
on education and democracy is unclear.
got married; see Mbatia (1987). The other stakeholders include faith-based organizations, com-
20. See, for example, UNECA (2009).
munity based organizations, NGOs, private sector
21. Apart from the cases discussed for the three countries there is limited information on national youth policies of Botswana, adopted in August 1996;
firms, and banks and other financial institutions.
32. The discussion here is based primarily on South
Africa (2008, 2011).
Guinea’s policies on youth, culture and sports, declared in April 1993; Malawi’s first youth policy in
1995; Namibia’s first youth policy in 1993; Nigeria’s first youth policy in 1983; and Sierra Leone’s
33. South Africa (2011, 5).
34. E.g., Australia had the Special Youth Employment
Training Program for 15 to 24 year olds from 1976
national youth policy in 2003. See “African Youth
to 1985 (see Richardson 1998), and the United
Policy Update 1,” http://blog.developmentparter-
States had the “Targeted Jobs Tax Credit” program
ship.org/?p=4.
for disadvantaged youths from 1979 to 1994 (see
22. This section is based partly on http://allafrica.com/ stories/200907061784.html. 23. To our knowledge, 32 African countries have ratified the AYC, as of April 2012 (see Table 1).
24. The proportion is based on a youth definition of 18
Katz 1996).
35. Wall Street Journal, February 27, 2012.
36. South Africa (2011, 34, 36).
37. See “Monitoring and Reporting on the Implementation of the AU Youth Decade Plan of Action
to 35 years.
2009–2018: Peer Review and Stakeholders Tech-
25. See Ghana (2011).
nical Consultations on the Conceptual and Practical Framework of an African Youth Empowerment
26. This section is based partly on http://thepoint.
and Development Index,” November 17, 2011.
gmafrica/gambia/article/natioanl-youth-poli-
http://africa-youth.org/sites/default/files/DB_Meet-
cy-2009-2018.
27. The youth is defined as those between 13 and 30 years of age, but those falling outside this range
ing.pdf.
38. See http://www.trust.org/alertnet/blogs/climate-conversations/enticing-africas-youth-to-agriculture/.
could be included in the policy’s programs and activities under special circumstances.
39. See “IIED, Program 64: Young Citizens: Youth
Participatory Governance in Africa” (Institute for
28. The discussion here is based primarily on NPI-Africa
Development Studies 2011).
(no date). For the quotation here, see Kenya Ministry of Home Affairs, Heritage, and Sports (2002).
40. The World Bank (2007b) suggests that demo-
29. The Kenyan government defines youths as those between 15 and 30 years of age.
youth policy and the future of african development
graphic variables are consistently predictive of the observed difference between growth in the
29
Sub-Saharan Africa region and other developing regions. 41. The reports rank countries on their overall “ease of doing business” and analyze reforms to business regulation by analyzing the extent to which countries are strengthening their business environment. The 2012 Doing Business report provides information on the time, steps and cost for a private business to get an electricity connection.
For the 2012 report and earlier reports, see http:// www.doingbusiness.org/reports/global-reports/ doing-business-2012.
43. Wall Street Journal, February 27, 2012.
44. Africa’s infrastructure gap is estimated at more than
$90 billion annually, more than twice the current expenditures, based on the five main economic infrastructure sectors—information and communication technology, irrigation, power, transportation, and water and sanitation; see Briceño-Garmendia
(2010).
45. The 1995 Copenhagen Social Summit was part of the motivation for the shift.
46. See Wormser (2004).
30
Global Economy and Development Program
47. The Chinese government has employed youth as part of its massive infrastructure project; see Banerjee, Duflo, and Quan (2012).
48. See United Nations (2011a).
49. See Leautier and Hanson (2012). See also Kararach, Hanson, and Leautier (2011); Proctor and
Lucchesi (2012).
50. The concept of value chain involves the full range of activities required to bring a product or service from conception, through the different phases of production (involving a combination of physical transformations and the input of various producer services), to delivery to the final consumer and final disposal after use; see Kaplinksy and Morris
(2000).
51. See World Bank (2007b).
for Tertiary Education–World Bank Education and
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Report and Accounts.” Available at http://www. youthbusiness.org/. The views expressed in this working paper do not necessarily reflect the official position of Brookings, its board or the advisory council members.
© 2013 The Brookings Institution
ISSN: 2166-5184 (online) | 2166-5176 (print)
Cover photos courtesy of (left to right): Trevor Samson /
World Bank, Hansjoerg Richter, John Hogg / World Bank,
Andrew Martin Green, Lorenzo Codacci, Eric Miller /
World Bank, Ami Vitale / World Bank
1775 Massachusetts Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20036
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www.brookings.edu/global
References: Table 1. Educational Attainment in Africa, 2010: Total Population, Total Youth and Female Youth . . . . . 5 Table 2
Working Paper 9 | April 2013
Youth Policy and the future of african development
Kwabena Gyimah-Brempong and Mwangi S. Kimenyi
Kwabena Gyimah-Brempong is a professor and the chair of the Department of Economics at the University of South Florida.
Mwangi S. Kimenyi is a senior fellow and the director of the Africa Growth Initiative at the Brookings
Institution.
Acknowledgements:
The authors would like to thank Raj Desai for his helpful comments and suggestions on this paper.
Contents
Acronyms and Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2. Characteristics of African Youth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3. Policy Actions Proposed for Youth in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Proposed Youth Policies Advocate an Interrelated Approach to
Economic, Health, Political and Social Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
African Countries are at Different Stages of Developing and Implementing Youth Policies. . . . . . . 15
Several Challenges Confront Those Developing African Youth Policies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4. Policies to Harness Youths’ Talents to Foster Economic Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5. Conclusions and Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Endnotes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Selected References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
List of Tables
Table 1. Educational Attainment in Africa, 2010: Total Population, Total Youth and Female Youth . . . . . 5
Table 2. Youth Unemployment Rates in Africa (%). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Table 3. Selected Frameworks for Developing Youth Policies in Africa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
List of Figures
Figure 1. Youth Population in Africa and the Rest of the World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
iv
Global Economy and Development Program
Acronyms and Abbreviations
AfDB
African Development Bank
ALMPs
active labor market programs
APRM
African Peer Review Mechanism
AU
African Union
AYC
African Youth Charter
ILO
International Labor Organization
MDGs
Millennium Development Goals
NPI-Africa
Nairobi Peace Initiative Africa
NEPAD
New Partnership for Africa’s Development
NGO
nongovernmental organization
OECD
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
PRSPs
Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers
UNECA
United Nations Economic Commission for Africa
WPAY
World Programme of Action for Youth to the Year 2000 and Beyond
YBI
Youth Business International
youth policy and the future of african development
v
Executive Summary
T
his study focuses on the state of youth in Africa, especially their well-being and their participation
in the economy. The study undertakes a broad review of existing studies and policy frameworks on African youth and identifies the gaps, challenges and opportunities for harnessing the youth’s potential. The following is a brief summary of the highlights of the study.
1. Limited data hinder the measurement of the wellbeing of African youth, but the available data suggest that the youth population is large and growing, and has high educational attainment and unemployment rates—with adverse consequences:
• The lack of a universal definition of “youth” makes measuring the youth problem difficult and the comparison of data across countries less reliable.
• The youth population in Africa is large (about 200 million, which is 20 percent of its population of more than 1 billion).
• Africa’s relatively young population (about 42 percent of its population in 2010 was estimated to be below 15 years of age), combined with the continent’s high fertility rate, is likely to magnify the so-called youth bulge. This trend could have positive consequences for Africa’s development, if properly channeled.
• Youth, especially in North Africa and especially males, have higher educational attainment.
However, there are large variations in educational attainment across countries and regions.
• Youth unemployment rates are relatively high, with significant regional differences and adverse consequences such as poverty, migration and diseases. Females particularly face extremely high unemployment rates.
vi
Global Economy and Development Program
2. Policies and actions for youth have not successfully addressed these challenges:
• Effective youth policies require dealing with challenges facing youth that include, but are not limited to, the lack of access to a high-quality and relevant education, high rates of persistent unemployment, a high incidence of chronic poverty, political disengagement and poor environmental health.
• Information on the development and implementation of youth policies in Africa are hard to find, but anecdotal evidence suggests that various countries are at different stages of the process.
• Youth policies potentially have several challenges, and the assessment of problems facing young people is complicated by data limitations. These limitations include a lack of reliable and accurate data; a lack of comparable data across countries and regions; a lack of pro-jobs and pro-youth economic growth agendas; a lack of comprehensive youth policies that are integrated into national development plans; a lack of broad macroeconomic policies and the need to mainstream youth policies; the fact that the costs of programs and sources for funding are not fully known; and the fact that governments lack the capacity to undertake comprehensive monitoring and evaluative processes. 3. The key recommendations arising from this review focus on harnessing the potential of African youth to foster economic development through their participation in the labor market and strategies to improve their living standards generally.
The main strategies proposed include:
• Improving the investment climate by reducing the cost of doing business so as to create jobs for youth; • Expanding infrastructure, especially in rural areas, to boost employment opportunities for youth;
• Harnessing innovation, which has the potential to increase skill formation, enhance productivity and create youth employment opportunities;
• Building institutional quality so that individuals and organizations are effective in responding to the needs of the youth.
youth policy and the future of african development
vii
Youth Policy and the Future of
African Development
Kwabena Gyimah-Brempong and Mwangi S. Kimenyi
1. Introduction
within countries (by gender, education level, ethnicity
O
Conversely, the size, energy, enthusiasm, innovation
ne of the greatest challenges facing governments and policymakers in Africa today is how to pro-
vide opportunities for the continent’s more than 200 million youth so that they can have decent lives and contribute to the economic development of their countries. According to the United Nations (2012), Africa’s
2011 population was estimated at 1.05 billion and is expected to double by 2050. Africa is the youngest continent in the world: About 70 percent of its population is 30 years of age or younger. In 2011, youth, who are defined here as those between 15 and 24 years of age, constituted 21 percent of the more than 1 billion people in Africa, whereas another 42 percent was less than 15 years old. Slightly more than half of the
African youth population is female, and there are more rural dwellers than urban dwellers. With such a large proportion under 15 years of age, Africa’s youth population is expected to grow in the years to come while the youth population in other parts of the world shrinks.
Undoubtedly, the challenges for youth that are central to Africa’s economic development are numerous and varied—they include employment, health and po-
and health status), and across countries and regions. and dynamism of youth are assets that can be harnessed for Africa’s development with appropriate policies that deal adequately with the issues facing them.
The potentially important role of youth in Africa’s development cannot be overemphasized. Youth could be a source of labor inputs as well as human capital in production, which would improve total factor productivity in a region of the world where capital formation is limited.
When employed, youth could be a reliable source of demand for the economy through their consumption activities. In addition, the youth of Africa could be critical for the development of a new class of entrepreneurs that
African countries need to prosper. Furthermore, Africa has an opportunity to harness a “demographic dividend”: With the projection that most countries in Africa will have more working-age adults per child in 2030 than in 2006, there will be a large workforce supporting fewer children and the elderly. This trend would result in a lower dependency burden, freeing up resources for development; see, for example, Ashford (2007).
litical participation. These issues differ among groups
youth policy and the future of african development
1
There are several reasons why youth could become an
developed comprehensive and effective policies to
integral part of Africa’s economic growth and develop-
deal with the issues facing this large and growing seg-
ment. First, they tend to be more educated than their
ment of the African population or to have in place a
older cohorts. Therefore, they can better absorb new
means to assess the progress made. The purpose of
technologies and ideas and adapt them to the African
this study is to advance the discussion of the problems
environment. Second, they tend to take more risks
facing youth in Africa by assessing whether African
than their older counterparts. Finally, they are more
countries’ existing youth policies can meet the chal-
likely to challenge certain norms and sociopolitical
lenges and how these policies can be improved to fos-
processes that may be hindering economic develop-
ter the continent’s equitable and efficient development.
ment. The challenge to African policymakers is how to harness young people’s desire for change that has the
The study finds that policies to address the challenges
potential to translate into positive outcomes.
facing youth have not resulted in a great deal of success. We attribute the failures to a number of factors in-
The consequences of not fully developing and har-
cluding the inadequacy of information about youth that
nessing youth’s potential could be dire, including sig-
is necessary in the design of policy, weak coordination
nificant economic losses, armed conflict, and political
amongst government agencies, donors, regional orga-
and social upheaval and instability—as demonstrated
nizations, and the failure to design specific policies that
recently by the Arab Spring. Youth are more likely to
are suited to deal with the problems of African youth.
become frustrated because of legitimate grievances, including a lack of employment opportunities, low
The rest of the paper is structured as follows. Section
educational attainment, little participation in decision-
2 discusses the characteristics of African youth, includ-
making and low social mobility. In this volatile context,
ing demographic and economic aspects, which provide
greedy and opportunistic politicians could even exploit
insights into their challenges, although data are lim-
these grievances by involving these frustrated youth in
ited. Section 3 looks at policy actions that have been
violent overthrows of legitimate governments—creat-
proposed or taken (by development agencies, part-
ing massive instabilities that could limit the economic
ners and, in particular, individual African countries or
growth of Africa’s countries (see Collier and Hoeffler
countries as a group) to address the challenges of the
2004).
youth, and whether they meet the challenges. Section
4 discusses how African youth can be harnessed to
Despite the elevated awareness of the challenges
foster economic development. The study concludes in
confronting Africa’s youth noted by previous studies,
Section 5 with recommendations.
several African countries still do not seem to have
2
Global Economy and Development Program
2. Characteristics of
African Youth
A
n effective assessment of the well-being of the youth living in African countries requires good
information on their characteristics—including size, gender composition, economic situation, health and sociopolitical makeup. Here we discuss the limitations of the data on African youth, including their lack of availability and uniformity. The discussion that follows is based on the available data, with all their limitations, which make it difficult to fully understand the challenges facing African youth.
There is no universal definition of the youth population. “Youth” is traditionally defined as a period of transition from childhood to adulthood.1 In the African
Youth Report 2009 (hereafter, the AYR) (UNECA
2009), “youth” are defined as people between 15 and
39 years of age.2 However, several African countries define their youth population differently. For example,
Ghana, Tanzania and South Africa define the youth population as those between 15 and 35 years of age;
Nigeria and Swaziland define it as those between 12 and 30 years; and Botswana and Mauritius define it as those between 14 and 25 years. These varying definitions of the youth population make it difficult to effectively discuss issues affecting youth in Africa generally and to compare information across countries.
The age band used in the AYR is too wide because it is generally agreed that people in their 30s are adults, and hence not part of those youth who are in transition to adulthood. For statistical purposes, the United
Nations (2011d) defines youth as those aged 15 to 24 years. Although arbitrary, this is the age group that has been recognized internationally as “youth.” Though generally acceptable and preferable, its implementation often poses problems because the data for dif-
For example, population data are commonly presented in five-year age bands or presented for children (below
15 years) and for adults (15 years and above). Similarly, labor market data are typically presented for adults (16–
64 years). This study adopts the United Nations’ definition of youth. However, given the discussion above, in some situations we depart from the 15–24 year bracket because of data availability. One of the challenges of developing policies for youth is finding the appropriate data on the youth population in Africa because such data are not routinely collected by government agencies.
This study relies on limited data from several sources, including the United Nations, the International Labor
Organization (ILO) and the United Nations Economic
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), as well as national sources whenever possible.
The available data suggest that the youth population is large and growing, but there are limited data on gender and rural/urban distribution. The youth population in Africa is relatively large and is growing very fast. As shown in Figure 1, youth constitute about
20 percent of Africa’s population. Thus, the absolute size of the continent’s youth population is slightly above 200 million (in 2011, Africa’s total population was estimated at about 1.05 billion). Although Asia has the largest youth population in the world because of its large total population, Africa is the region with the highest youth population relative to its entire population. Because Africa’s population is relatively young
(about 42 percent of Africa’s population in 2010 was estimated to be below 15 years of age) and has a high fertility rate, the youth population in Africa is projected to grow very fast and is likely to remain high for a long period of time. As shown in Figure 1, Africa is the only global region where the proportion of the youth population increased between 1990 and 2010. This youth bulge has consequences for the development of Africa.
ferent countries are not provided using this definition.
youth policy and the future of african development
3
Figure 1. Youth Population in Africa and the Rest of the World
PERCENT OF TOTAL POPULATION
25
20
19.0
20.2
20.0
19.5
18.0
17.8
14.0 14.0
14.0
15
13.0
1990
2010
10
5
0
Africa
Asia
Europe
Latin America
& Caribbean
North
America
Source: African Youth Report 2011 (UNECA 2011).
Although Africa’s youth population is relatively large,
gender distribution of the youth population parallels
throughout the continent there are regional and coun-
that of the general population, then the youth popula-
try differences in the size of the youth populations and
tion is composed of slightly more females than males.
in the rates at which these populations are likely to
Similarly, there are limited data on the distribution of the
grow. The youth bulge is larger in North Africa than in
youth population between rural and urban locations.
sub-Saharan Africa, but the growth of the youth popu-
However, given the geographical distribution of the
lation is likely to be higher in sub-Saharan Africa than in
general population in Africa, a larger share of the con-
North Africa because of differences in the dynamics of
tinent’s youth population resides in rural areas as op-
the populations across regions and countries. Though
posed to urban areas and is more likely to be engaged
the youth population is expected to reach a plateau
in agricultural activities than in the modern economic
in North Africa by 2030, in sub-Saharan Africa it is
sector. In general, urban youth have better opportuni-
projected to grow in both absolute and relative terms
ties for education than their rural counterparts.
until about 2050. There are differences in the rates of growth in the youth populations across countries as
Youth, especially in North Africa and especially
well. And though the relative sizes of the populations
males, have high educational attainment. Table 1
are expected to decrease in countries like Tunisia and
presents the educational attainment of the total popu-
Morocco by 2030, they are expected to continue to in-
lation and the total youth and female youth populations
crease in countries like Kenya and Uganda.
in Africa using data from Barro and Lee (2010) showing primary school completion rates, secondary school
There are limited data on gender composition of the youth in Africa. However, if one assumes that the
4
completion rates, tertiary school completion rates, and other measures of the population’s educational
Global Economy and Development Program
attainment. The data indicate that, on average, in
Ondiege 2011). These challenges have implications for
Africa youth have higher educational attainment rates
young people’s employment prospects and their poten-
than the continent’s population as a whole. For exam-
tial contribution to African development.
ple, the average years of educational attainment in the population of Africa is 2.40, whereas it is 3.69 years for
Youth unemployment rates are relatively high, with
youth—53 percent higher. Similarly, youth have more
significant regional differences and potential ad-
education than the average person at every level of
verse consequences, such as poverty, disease and
education, whether primary, secondary or tertiary. In
migration. The contribution of the relatively large youth
addition, Gyimah-Brempong and Ondiege (2011) and
population to Africa’s development depends on the
the World Bank (2000) have shown that tertiary edu-
quality of human capital they possess and crucially on
cation enrollment in African countries has more than
whether they are gainfully employed as employees or
doubled in the last decade.
have opportunities to establish their own businesses.
3
Theoretically, an increase in the youth population will
Like other characteristics of youth in Africa, there are
depress the real wage in an economy by increasing the
regional differences in their educational attainment.
labor supply, which in turn will increase employment,
Youth in North Africa tend to be more educated than
all things being equal. This, of course, may depend
those in sub-Saharan Africa. Similarly, though there is
on the degree to which youth labor is complementary
a large gender gap in education in sub-Saharan Africa,
to, or substitutable for, existing (adult) labor or capital.
the gender gap is almost nonexistent in North Africa,
Therefore, it is not clear whether an increased youth
especially in countries like Tunisia and Morocco.
labor supply may lead to increases in aggregate em-
Although educational attainment by African youth
ployment and output, all things being equal. Because
has increased significantly in the last decade, the rel-
the contribution of youth to economic growth in Africa
evance of the curricula and the quality of education, in
depends on whether or not they are employed, here
most cases, are not good (see Gyimah-Brempong and
we briefly discuss youth employment in Africa.
Table 1. Educational Attainment in Africa, 2010: Total Population, Total Youth and
Female Youth
Total
Population
Youth
(Total)
Youth
(Female)
Primary school completion (%)
9.33
14.76
14.80
Secondary school completion (%)
3.99
6.19
6.49
Tertiary education completion (%)
0.72
0.64
1.45
Years of educational attainment: Total
2.40
3.69
3.52
Years of educational attainment: Primary
1.80
2.70
3.01
Years of educational attainment: Secondary
0.60
0.93
1.21
Years of educational attainment: Tertiary
0.04
0.05
0.05
Level of Education
Source: Barro and Lee (2010).
youth policy and the future of african development
5
Labor market data in Africa are infamously unreliable
a whole. For example, in 2011 the 12.5 percent youth
because most countries do not collect such data on a
unemployment rate in Africa was about four times the
consistent basis. Even when these data are collected,
rate in Southeast Asia. The high youth unemployment
they are available for only the formal sector. Given the
rates in Africa are not limited to those with less edu-
large size of informal sector activities, a focus on the for-
cation. For example, in Tunisia, which has one of the
mal sector is likely to result in seriously understating the
highest-quality tertiary education systems in Africa,
true employment rate. Therefore, the labor market data
only about 30 percent of students graduating from
on youth employment should be viewed with caution.
university are able to find a job in the first year after graduation. Similarly, in Ghana and Nigeria a large
Although youth constitute about 37 percent of Africa’s
proportion of university graduates can find jobs only in
labor force, they account for about 60 percent of total
the informal sector in urban areas.
unemployment in Africa. The labor force participation rate among youth is higher in sub-Saharan Africa than
Although the data given in Table 2 suggest that the av-
in North Africa. Little empirical work has been done on
erage unemployment rate among African youth is not
the causal linkages between youth unemployment rates
different from the average unemployment rate in the
and labor force participation rates in Africa. However,
world, this information should be interpreted with cau-
a simple correlation analysis suggests a strong nega-
tion. As indicated, the unemployment rates reported
tive relationship between the two in Africa. As shown in
reflect more of what is happening in the formal sector
Table 2, despite the higher educational attainment of
labor market, not necessarily what is happening in the
youth relative to the population as a whole, the youth
informal sector. The African data may also not reflect
unemployment rate in Africa tends to be higher than
the large number of underemployed and disguised
for the population as a whole compared with the rest
unemployed workers found in the informal sectors in
of the world.
African countries. For example, the ILO estimates that, in 2007, 65, 39 and 35 percent of youth were under-
Table 2 shows the youth unemployment rates in all of
employed in Mauritania, Mozambique and Cameroon,
Africa, selected regions of Africa and the world. The
respectively. Given the large informal sector in African
data show that youth unemployment rates in Africa
economies, the reported youth unemployment rates
average more than 10 percent and are expected to
may be seriously underestimated and not comparable
remain above 10 percent up to 2015. African youth un-
to the rates in developed countries and in other areas
employment rates are high compared with the world as
of the developing world.
Table 2. Youth Unemployment Rates in Africa (%)
Year
World
Africa
Sub-Saharan
Africa
North Africa
2007
11.6
13.5
11.5
23.8
2009
12.6
13.5
11.5
23.6
2010
12.7
13.3
11.4
23.1
2011
12.6
12.5
11.5
17.9
2015*
12.7
13.9
11.4
26.9
*Projected.
Source: ILO (2012b).
6
Global Economy and Development Program
As with other data pertaining to youth in Africa, there
First, slow economic growth has not generated enough
are large regional differences in youth unemployment
jobs. Although there has been an uptick in the average
rates in Africa. The rate in North Africa tends to be
economic growth rate in Africa in the last decade, the
twice as high as that in sub-Saharan Africa. In addi-
growth rate has been generally low compared with the
tion to regional differences in aggregate youth unem-
rest of the world. Second, Africa’s economic growth
ployment rates, there tend to be regional differences
has been powered by the exploitation of mineral re-
in the gender distribution of youth unemployment in
sources, whose production tends to be capital inten-
Africa. In North Africa, rates are substantially higher
sive and thus creates few employment opportunities.
for females than for males, even though labor force
The choice of capital-intensive production techniques
participation rates among females are much lower than
is itself a function of factor market distortion policies—
those among males. For example, in 2010 the female
policies that tend to subsidize capital and overprice
youth unemployment rate in North Africa was 34.1 per-
labor. Third, the high youth unemployment rate may
cent, whereas that of males was 23.8 percent, even
also be due to skills mismatch—the educational sys-
though labor force participation rates were 19.5 percent
tem produces skills that are not demanded by employ-
and 47.2 percent for females and males, respectively.
ers. In a sense, the educational system is based on
Conversely, there is less gender difference in youth un-
irrelevant curricula and inappropriate pedagogy (see
employment and labor force participation rates in sub-
Gyimah-Brempong and Ondiege 2011).
Saharan Africa. Female and male youth unemployment rates were 13.2 percent and 11.8 percent, respectively,
In addition to high unemployment rates, young people
whereas labor force participation rates were 51.4 per-
in Africa face longer spells of unemployment than
cent and 55.8 percent, respectively. The relatively low
adults, regardless of their level of education. In Tunisia
average youth unemployment rates in sub-Saharan
and Egypt, about 25 percent of university graduates
Africa may reflect the fact that a large proportion of jobs
remain unemployed three years after graduation. High
in sub-Saharan African economies are in the informal
unemployment rates combined with long durations of
sector. Indeed, in several countries—such as Mali,
unemployment imply that youth either lose the skills
Burkina Faso and Uganda—more than 90 percent of
they acquired through education or lose their attach-
youth are employed as unpaid family labor.
ment to the labor market completely. The long-term consequences of high and persistent youth unemploy-
There are also large intraregional variations in youth
ment are a high incidence of poverty among youth and
unemployment rates in sub-Saharan Africa and North
their inability to contribute to the development of Africa.
Africa. For example, the youth unemployment rate is below 5 percent in Malawi, above 20 percent in Ghana
A further consequence of the massive and persistent
and Zimbabwe, above 30 percent in Botswana and
youth unemployment rate is a high incidence of youth
Mauritius, and above even 60 percent in South Africa.
poverty in Africa. The United Nations (2011b) and
In North Africa, youth unemployment rates in Egypt,
World Bank (2009) estimated that in 2008 that more
Tunisia and Algeria are all above 30 percent.
than 70 percent of the youth in Africa lived on less than
$2 a day, and 46 percent lived on less than $1.25 a
What explains the high rates of youth unemployment
day. Again, there are country and regional variations in
rates in Africa? Several factors have been identified.
the incidence of poverty. In Burundi, Ethiopia, Nigeria
youth policy and the future of african development
7
and Uganda, youth poverty exceeds 80 percent,
youth unemployment and poverty could also lead
whereas it is much lower in Ghana. The incidence of
youth to resort to crime and violence, such as armed
youth poverty is highest among females in rural areas.
robbery, to “earn their living.”
And when facing severe poverty, youth resort to survival mechanisms that could have several undesirable
High youth unemployment rates and poverty in Africa
outcomes.
may also lead youth to adopt risky lifestyles that could
The high rates of unemployment and poverty among
The prevalence of HIV among African youth is above
African youth have several negative consequences
5 percent, compared with the world average of less
for the development of Africa. African countries are
than 1 percent. Female youth are three times more at
deprived of their human capital as youth migrate to
risk than their male counterparts (see UNAIDS 2011).
the developed world or the oil-rich Arab Gulf states.
This high HIV/AIDS prevalence among both male and
International migration is generally selective—typi-
female youth is partly due to ignorance about the dis-
cally, the best and the brightest emigrate, depriving the
ease but also due to using commercial sex to earn
African countries of those with the skills and energy
their living.
worsen the prevalence of HIV/AIDS among them.
needed to develop their economies. The ILO estimates that the median age of international migrants from
Bloom, Canning and Sevilla (2007) have argued that
Africa is slightly less than 29 years old.
Africa’s economic growth in the near term will be de-
4
termined by growth in the working-age population and
Under more pessimistic scenarios, the high incidence of youth unemployment and poverty in Africa poses
crucially influenced by the quantity and quality of the
serious problems for social stability and peace. Poor
youth population. Youth policy, especially regarding
and unemployed youth are more likely to be the foot-
investment in human capital and the employment of
soldiers in civil conflicts. The World Bank (2007c) and
these human resources, is therefore very important for
Human Rights Watch (2005) have estimated that more
the future development of Africa. Similarly, the World
than 50 percent of the youth who joined rebel groups
Bank (2007) has argued that institutions, infrastruc-
cited unemployment as the reason. A number of re-
ture, innovation and a good investment climate are
cent events bear testimony to how high rates of youth
the key pillars of Africa’s long term growth. Given the
unemployment and poverty can generate social insta-
potential contribution of youth in all these areas, the
bility and conflict—including the Arab Spring; armed
quality and size of the youth population is again critical
conflicts in Liberia, Sierra Leone and the Democratic
for Africa’s development. We discuss the challenges of
Republic of Congo; and the growing popularity of the
developing effective youth policies in Africa in the next
terrorist group Boko Haram in Nigeria. High rates of
8
improvements in institutional quality. These factors are
section.
Global Economy and Development Program
3. Policy Actions Proposed for Youth in Africa
S
everal studies and reports, predominantly by development agencies and their partners, have dis-
cussed the challenges facing youth in Africa, and what policies could be adopted (see Table 3 for three prominent frameworks—World Program for Action for Youth, the African Youth Charter and the AYR—on developing youth policies in Africa). The objectives of these reports are to contribute to developing an agenda for youth development—which embodies broader economic, social and political goals consistent with the United Nations’
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) by analyzing the major problems facing youth and providing recommendations for African countries. Several priority areas are identified, particularly education and employment, health (particularly HIV/AIDS), and political participation, as well as gender issues. Specific policy recommendations are provided in one of the reports—the
AYR, from the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA). Although the reports recognize the need for African countries to take further steps to develop and implement their national plans and to fully assess their progress, no study has been done to evaluate these aspects of youth policies.
The AYR indicated that African governments have responded to the challenges of youth, but the challenges facing youth in Africa still persists. There is a need to foster youth involvement in the process of policy formulation and to consider youth issues within a general framework that incorporates regional and global responses. A World Bank (2008) report, aimed at providing information to policymakers, who have been hindered by the paucity of information on what policy options are available and what has worked or not worked in different situations, provided stylized facts on the youth and labor markets in Africa as well as past policies and actions. It argued for an integrated, multi-
sector approach that looks directly at the labor market, for policies that indirectly affect employment, and for close monitoring of governments’ actions.
Several African countries have made progress in developing youth policies, as embodied in the African
Youth Charter, a regional framework for youth development, as well as in other reports—including the AYR
(UNECA 2009) and the United Nations’ 1995 World
Programme of Action for Youth to the Year 2000 and
Beyond (WPAY). But overall, the progress seems to have been slow, and the available policies or actions do not adequately meet the challenges.5
Motivation for developing youth policies in Africa has been influenced by a large number of reports by various bodies—including regional member states, international organizations and development partners. At the regional level, a big influence seems to have been the AYR, a relatively recent and comprehensive report on African youth. Partly due to data constraints, the report provides an in-depth and up-to-date analysis of only some of the key issues that arguably disproportionately affect youth—namely, education and employment, health and HIV/AIDS, and youth participation in political and decision-making processes. These priority areas are broadly consistent with the objectives of several initiatives and forums on youth development; see Table 1 for the priority areas identified by selected youth policy frameworks. The AYR recommends a coordinated approach by all stakeholders, including the U.N. system, development partners, African Union
(AU), governments and youth.
In recognition of the necessity to deal with the problems and challenges facing youth in Africa, the AU member states declared 2008 as the “Year of African
Youth.” They also sought to develop policies in a coordinated manner to deal with issues affecting youth. In
youth policy and the future of african development
9
Table 3. Selected Frameworks for Developing Youth Policies in Africa
Year: Report
(Author)
1995: World Programme of Action for Youth to the Year 2000 and Beyond
(United Nations 2010)
2009: African Youth Report—
Expanding opportunities for and with Young People in Africa
(UNECA)
2006: African Youth Charter
(African Union Heads of State and Government)
Objective
Not available
Encourages various stakeholders, including youth, to take action to promote youth development as well as broader economic and social development
(consistent with the MDGs)
Contributes to the youth development agenda by undertaking analysis of the major problems and providing recommendations to enable African
Member States to tackle them
Coverage
Not available
Regional (Africa): Individual countries will be responsible for their programs
Regional (Africa): Individual countries will be responsible for developing their programs
Priority areas
10 priority areas: education,
Not available employment, hunger, poverty, health, environment, drug abuse, juvenile delinquency, leisure-time activities, and girls and young women’s participation Education and employment, health, and political participation
5 emerging issues: globalization, information and communications technologies, HIV and AIDS, youth and armed conflict, and intergenerational relations
Recommended
actions
Not available
Not available
o
o o Comments
Not available
o
o
o
10
Adopted in 2006 at the Fifth
African Development Forum on “Youth and Leadership in the Twenty-First Century,” organized by UNECA, AU, other U.N. agencies, AfDB, and
International Organization of the
Francophone
13 countries have ratified the charter based on the Consensus
Statement, and 32 have ratified
(as of April 2102)
Further steps include development and implementation of national plans
Global Economy and Development Program
o o o
Education and Employment: Access to post-primary education, particularly for girls; curricula development; economic growth; active labor market policies, e.g., internship/training, entrepreneurship; other national policies affecting youth, e.g., poverty; data collection and research
Health: Health services and holistic strategies; education; data collection and more research
Political participation: Create opportunities for youth participation in political debate through youth quotas in parliament, on village councils; increase knowledge of national policies through participation and training; proactive youth organizations
Inaugural report (with attention to the needs of girls’ education)
States have responded to the challenges, but need to fully understand their progress and consider these issues within the overall framework of regional and global responses to youth issues
Effective policies require youth involvement in all issues
addition, some countries—including Algeria, Ghana,
areas. These areas can be grouped broadly into an inte-
Kenya and South Africa—have used the African Peer
grated framework that embodies the economic, health,
Review Mechanism (APRM) as another vehicle to ad-
political and social issues affecting African youth. We
dress youth unemployment. The 2001 New Partnership
next discuss the priority areas that national youth poli-
for Africa’s Development (NEPAD)—a program of the AU
cies should address to promote youth development.
adopted in Lusaka, Zambia, on July 11, 2001—included the goals of achieving the MDGs that explicitly and implicitly concern youth.6 Through the initiatives of NEPAD,
Economic Issues
African youth leaders have established ongoing networks
The economic issues concern how to deal with the
to coordinate their efforts to advance the goals of the
immense youth unemployment problem using an inte-
MDGs and those of other their development partners.
grated approach, including the promotion of economic growth, improving access to high-quality education
Internationally, there have been several youth develop-
and implementing various labor market policies. A
ment initiatives. U.N. member states that are parties
critical implication of youth employment policies is that
to the MDGs, including African countries, resolved to
jobs would be available for those with the right educa-
“develop and implement strategies that give young
tion, skills and training. Thus, national policies should
people everywhere a real chance to find decent and
foster increased and sustained economic growth to
productive work.” The report of the WPAY identified 10
boost the demand for labor and employment, espe-
priority areas, and the U.N. General Assembly agreed
cially for youth. As is well known, the strong correlation
on five emerging issues.7 Also, in 2006, the meeting
between economic growth and employment implies
of the U.N. Office of the Special Advisor on Africa on
that promoting economic growth helps to increase em-
youth in post-conflict countries focused on the social
ployment. For instance, in South Africa it is estimated
and economic integration of youth through job opportu-
that the employment elasticity of economic growth was
nities and the reintegration of ex-combatants into civil
0.7 between 2004 and 2008, meaning that a 1 percent
society. The World Bank’s World Development Report
increase in the growth of the gross domestic product
2007 focused on youth issues. And almost all the re-
was associated with a 0.7 percent increase in employ-
cent Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs), a
ment, all things being equal (see South Africa 2011).10
8
program initiated by the International Monetary Fund and World Bank in 1999 to encourage African coun-
Even when jobs are available, youth must have the
tries to develop integrated poverty reduction strate-
requisite skills to take advantage of the opportunities.
gies, have focused on youth employment. Finally,
Policies should improve formal education and/or train-
several U.N. resolutions concern youth employment.9
ing to increase the supply of skilled youth who are ready for the job market. Several policy actions have
Proposed Youth Policies Advocate an
Interrelated Approach to Economic,
Health, Political and Social Issues
been suggested in various reports that could improve the quality of youth labor. First, policies should seek to improve access to a high-quality formal education and increase graduation rates because deficiencies
As mentioned above and shown in Table 1, the frame-
in the education system limit the ability of young work-
works for youth policies identify about a dozen priority
ers to find decent jobs. For example, in South Africa,
youth policy and the future of african development
11
engineering graduates were found to be unemployable
experimentation. And they will require university-indus-
in the automotive industry because of the low qual-
try linkages to achieve these necessary reforms.
ity of their training (Gyimah-Brempong and Ondiege
2011). Second, policies should aim at increasing ac-
Active labor market programs (ALMPs) are an im-
tivities that would increase the supply of high-quality
portant component of attempts by several African
educational opportunities, including investments in
governments to increase the availability of labor and
infrastructure, textbooks, learning materials, curricula
employment opportunities. These policies are used to
reforms and equipment, and well-trained and moti-
enhance employment opportunities for youth because
vated teachers. Third, in order to minimize mismatches
they increase the chances that a young person with the
between skills and job requirements, formal education
right skills will find work by increasing the demand for
can be combined with work-based training in a con-
his or her labor. ALMPs can take several forms. First,
current or sequential manner.11 Fourth, because most
training programs can be used to enhance skills and
African governments face severe fiscal constraints and
raise human capital, thereby enhancing the productiv-
sustained job creation is arguably the domain of the
ity and employability of youth. These programs include
private sector, public-private partnerships, especially
assisting those who have not completed or have inad-
in the area of curricula reform, would be helpful in
equate formal education to alleviate their conditions
increasing both the demand for and supply of employ-
by providing vocational training and apprenticeships.
ment opportunities for youth.
An example is the Egypt-Germany Initiative, which operated from 1995 to 2002 as a dual education sys-
Furthermore, in order to reduce the mismatch between
tem.13 For these programs to be effective, coordination
the supply of skills coming out of African educational
between the public and private sectors is necessary
institutions and the skills needed by employers, it may
to improve the chances that workers will be gainfully
be necessary to overhaul the educational curricula as
employed after their training. Although the overall
well as pedagogical methods. Whereas employers in
evidence suggests that the impact of skills training on
Africa seek employees with problem-solving scientific
employment may be inconclusive compared with other
skills, the educational systems in Africa turn out gradu-
ALMPs (see, e.g., Kluve 2006), or even less effective,
ates mostly in the arts and social sciences. For ex-
evidence from the World Bank (2007d) indicates that
ample, only 24, 18 and 14 percent of tertiary students
training may be effective in developing countries, espe-
in South Africa, Botswana and Ethiopia, respectively,
cially for female and less-educated individuals.
were enrolled in science, engineering and technology programs in 2009.12 Even when African universities
Second, several policies could help create employ-
turn out science and engineering graduates, the peda-
ment opportunities:
gogy employed involves rote memorization. Employers are looking for graduates with problem-solving skills.
Educational reforms to improve employment opportunities for youth will not only involve an emphasis on science, engineering and technology but also entail a change in the pedagogical approach to emphasize independent thinking, problem-solving skills and
12
Global Economy and Development Program
• Direct public sector employment: Public works programs have been used in several countries, even though the evidence suggests that they are not generally effective (Kimenyi 1995, Kluve
2006). They are usually used to help the unemployed gain experience or to help new graduates gain initial access to the labor market through
employer subsidy) or raise the worker’s wage
(through an employee subsidy).16 The World Bank
(2007d) argues that “wage subsidies have been particularly successful in improving short-term employment outcomes in transition economies, while having mixed outcomes in industrialized economies, but has long-term dynamic effects through improving the permanent employability.”
South Africa has proposed implementing such a program in 2012 and is currently seeking comments on that policy. A related policy involves improving youths’ employability by providing them with skills through general training or more specific vocational training—an example is Kenya’s
Jua Kali Voucher Programme started in 1997.
programs such as national youth service. By providing short-term employment at low wages, they are helpful to young people without skills.14 For example, Ghana has established the National Youth
Employment Program to employ youth to engage in several civil activities.
• Job search assistance: Employment services can be used to reduce labor market frictions by assisting youth in their job searches and with job matching (Kimenyi 1995). These include helping youth with the preparation of résumés and for interviews, with counseling and mentoring, and with providing job market information. Currently, these services are dominated by the public sector, and they tend to target the disadvantaged, the longterm unemployed and discouraged workers.
• Self-employment: Given the lack of jobs for youth in the formal sector, self-employment could yield tremendous benefits, especially with the high levels of underemployment in the informal sector. This policy includes providing microcredit and start-up loans to young entrepreneurs. The World
Bank (2007d) argues that entrepreneurial projects tend to have positive short-term effects on youth employment, even though high dropout rates and business failures are also rampant. For instance,
Youth Business International (YBI), a global network of independent nonprofit initiatives based in the United Kingdom, helps young people start and grow their own businesses and thus create employment. YBI members assist underserved young entrepreneurs with a combination of training, access to capital and mentoring. They work in partnership with governments, businesses and multilateral and civil society organizations.
In 2008, 90 young entrepreneurs were started in three accredited member countries (Kenya,
Nigeria and South Africa) and in two pilot member countries (Ghana and Uganda).15 The College of
Business at the University of Botswana is also in the process of establishing a chapter of YBI.
• Wage or employment subsidies: This policy could increase employment opportunities (through an
• Ensuring competitive labor markets: This policy entails the liberalization of factor markets, reducing subsidies on capital import, reducing labor market rigidities and ensuring that hiring and firing are performance based. These actions will help make the mix of inputs for production reflect their relative scarcity. With the relative abundance of labor in Africa, employers will have incentives to adopt labor-intensive production techniques instead of capital-intensive techniques. Combining these actions with paying the members of the labor force the value of their marginal product and giving them the ability to hire and fire unproductive workers could increase youth employment. These are part of structural adjustment reforms, but it appears that African countries have not fully implemented these factor market reforms.
Health Issues
Youth in Africa struggle with poor health conditions, including diseases (e.g., HIV/AIDS, malaria, tuberculosis), inadequate nutrition, disabilities, mental illness, unhealthy behavior, violence and substance abuse.
Some of these health issues are major causes of mortality. These health problems are complicated by the lack of adequate understanding of their causes, and worsened by inequalities in age and gender.
youth policy and the future of african development
13
Furthermore, as suggested by several bodies, an ef-
these conditions affect the general population be-
fective way to deal with health issues is to take a ho-
cause youth tend to be more active and spend more
listic approach that considers not only youths’ physical
time outdoors engaging in physical activities, they
and mental well-being but also their social, economic
are more vulnerable to environmental health issues.
and cultural environment.
Policies to improve youth health outcomes should include the provision of clean water and sanitation, as
Several recommendations have been suggested for
well as controlling water and air pollution. In particular,
dealing with African youth health problems.17 Policies
African governments should do a better job of abating
could seek to change young people’s behavior as a
pollution, such as that caused by lead from recycling
way to deal with some health problems, especially
batteries and water and air pollution from the disposal
Prevention is also
of electric and electronic waste as ordinary household
recommended, including the so-called ABC (“Abstain,
waste. A rapidly increasing source of environment pol-
Be careful, use a Condom”) campaign, which requires
lution in Africa is the improper disposal of electronic
young people to be active participants in solving the
waste. Perhaps African governments may have to do
problem. While recognizing that there are limited re-
a better job of policing the importing of electronic prod-
sources, it would still be worthwhile for governments
ucts at the end of their useful lives—a major source of
to provide and improve health programs such as im-
electronic waste.
HIV/AIDS, and substance abuse.
18
munizations. Furthermore, it is necessary to increase youths’ capacity to make informed decisions about their health through education and access to youth-
Political and Social Issues
friendly information and services. Youth education
In most African countries, the age hierarchy embod-
should include appropriate health and lifelong skills
ied in the culture has meant that there are limited
through the formal education curricula or after-school
opportunities for youth to express themselves and to
programs organized by nonprofit entities. Finally, the
meaningfully participate in national social and political
development of youth-friendly health services that
discourse. A broad-based participation of the citizenry,
emphasize coordination among the various ministries
including youth, would enhance good governance in
responsible for youth—including health- and educa-
addition to improving democracy. There is evidence
tion-related activities such as nutrition and physical
that a lack of good governance is predictive of the
activities/exercises—would be worthwhile.
poor economic performance of African countries. At the same time, the governance dimension of “voice
One area that has received less attention is the vulner-
cal participation, tends to be high for well-performing
cerns, which is about all the physical, chemical and
economies (World Bank 2009). A study by Karikari
biological factors external to a person and all related
and Gyimah-Brempong (2011) confirms previous stud-
factors that affect the person’s health (WHO 2008).
ies that found that the quality of governance improves
Youths’ vulnerability to environmental health comes
when countries get richer because these countries
from several sources, including unsafe drinking water
then have the resources to pursue good governance,
and sanitation, air pollution (both indoor and outdoor),
even though they also find that governance has not en-
chemical pollution and electronic pollution. Although
14
and accountability,” which is strongly related to politi-
ability of African youth to environmental health con-
hanced economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa. This
Global Economy and Development Program
trend suggests that strong economic growth is neces-
to provide relevant internships for them. And fourth,
sary to advance effective political participation by the
youth can be provided with enhanced social con-
citizenry, particularly youth.
sciousness and political participation with the help of
19
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), which have
African governments are making efforts to provide for
generally been very active and seem to be successful.
the full participation of youth in the political process
Collaboration between the government and the NGOs
through different channels of representation, including
in this area could be beneficial.
the creation of national youth councils, youth parliaments and regional youth advocacy groups. There
such as unemployment and poverty, as well as on
African Countries are at Different
Stages of Developing and
Implementing Youth Policies
strategies (such as PRSPs and the APRM) for dealing
There is limited information on the development and
with their problems. The AYR discusses the extent to
implementation of youth policies in Africa. Nonetheless,
which youth issues have been made an important part
here we seek to provide anecdotal evidence of efforts
of countries’ PRSPs. Participation by youth in the politi-
by certain countries to develop programs that advance
cal process is important to addressing the high poverty
their youth policies, which suggest that African coun-
rate that disproportionately affects them.
tries are at different stages in this process. The selec-
are also consultations with young people on economic issues that have a disproportionate impact on them,
tion of programs is based on several factors, including
However, efforts to encourage effective political par-
the availability of information about the program, the
ticipation by youth have generally not been successful,
program’s efforts to develop and implement youth poli-
partly because of a lack of meaningful access and inte-
cies, the uniqueness of the program in the African re-
gration of youth into the political apparatus of the state,
gion, and the program’s priority area(s).21
along with youths’ and the government’s limited capacities, due to inadequate skills and resources. Four litical process have been recommended.20 First, youth
Ghana: A National Youth Policy Is Finally
Launched
can be provided with the opportunity to participate in
In 2009, three years after the African Youth Charter
politics at all levels, which could even include quo-
(AYC)—which urged member states to endorse and
tas, as well as encouraged to be politically involved.
adopt the charter, and to develop and implement a na-
Second, youth can be provided with the information
tional policy for youth—it was unclear whether Ghana
and training needed to understand key aspects of
had a national youth policy in place.22 This was appar-
the government, including the budget process. Third,
ent at the youth stakeholders’ forum in 2009 organized
youth can be provided with the opportunity to witness
by two NGOs—the Youth Bridge Foundation and the
and learn about the political process at the regional
Ghana Centre for Democratic Development. Ghana of-
and local levels. This is important because some na-
ficially launched its national youth policy on August 12,
tional policies are based on consensuses developed at
2010, as part of the International Youth Day celebra-
the regional and local levels, including youth policies.
tion, a day that the U.N. General Assembly endorsed
One way to increase involvement by youth would be
upon the recommendation of its ministers responsible
main solutions for effectively involving youth in the po-
youth policy and the future of african development
15
for youth. The lack of a national concerted effort to
the Youth Bridge Foundation and the Ghana Centre for
develop a youth policy by Ghana is also reflective of
Democratic Development) that could be useful chan-
the experiences of several other African countries.
nels as Ghana seeks to develop and implement an
Although the key issues affecting youth have been uni-
effective national youth policy. However, it does not ap-
versally identified, including linkages to overall youth
pear that Ghana has an integrated policy to deal with
welfare, not all countries have ratified the AYC.
the problems affecting youth.
23
As in many other African countries, given the large and lack of attention to their development has long been a
The Gambia: A Third National Youth Policy
Is Launched for 2009-18
growing proportion of unemployed youth in Ghana, the concern for all stakeholders. Youth in Ghana make up
The Gambia has launched its Third National Youth
about a quarter of the population.24 It has been esti-
Policy for 2009-18.26 This policy immediately followed
mated that of about 250,000 young people entering the
the Second National Youth Policy of 1999-2008, which
labor market annually, only 2 percent (5,000) become
was charged, among other things, to be an advocate
employed, primarily in the formal sector. The rest are
for youth development and to create opportunities for
either openly unemployed or underemployed in the
youth. The new policy seeks to invest in youth as part
informal sector. Thus, the problem of youth unemploy-
of its aim to achieve sustainable economic develop-
ment is getting worse over time.
ment by addressing the critical issues they face. The overall objective is to get youth involved in all as-
Ghana needs a national youth policy that generates
pects of national development, and to empower them
benefits from promoting all the priority areas that affect
through their participation and mentoring. The policy
youth and is consistent with the MDGs. Furthermore, a
seeks to provide a more serious outlook for the devel-
far-reaching policy will help allay the concerns of sev-
opment of youth because the Second National Youth
eral stakeholders who believe that helping youth does
Policy of 1999-2008 is believed to have fallen far short
not seem to be a top priority of the government. It is
of its “key goals of empowering young people to be
noteworthy that Ghana’s 2012 budget statement has
able to harness their potential for self-fulfillment and
programs targeting youth. Under its social intervention
responsible citizenship.”
program, the Ghana School Feeding Programme will be expanded to cover an additional 500,000 students
The Gambian Ministry of Youth and Sports has tradi-
from its current level of 1,040,000. Also, it is projected
tionally been in charge of youth affairs but in a second-
that the National Youth Employment Programme will
ary role to education. Over time, the ministry has been
recruit about 692,000 people under its 15 modules and
overhauled to deal with the youth population, which
projects, which is expected to create 500,000 new jobs
was growing very rapidly. The lack of strategic direction
during the next four years.
hampered the ability of the ministry to deal effectively
25
with the challenges facing youth. In 1973, youth affairs
Ghana has in place various governmental programs (e.g., the National Youth Council, National
Sports within the Ministry of Education, Youth, Sports,
Service Council and the National Youth Employment
and Culture. Later, in 2000, the National Youth Council
Programme) as well as well-organized NGOs (e.g.,
16
came under the control of the Department of Youth and
was set up to coordinate youth activities as part of the
Global Economy and Development Program
Department of Youth and Sports. A major objective of
evenly distributed across the country’s regions, and
the Third National Youth Policy is to mainstream youth
they are of low quality.
problems, taking into account regional and global developments. In particular, increasing youth employment through education and training, and investments in youth are critical parts of the policy.
Kenya: Tackling Youth Development through an Agenda for Peace
Kenya attempted to develop a national youth policy
Like those in many African countries, Gambian youth
when it adopted the National Youth Policy in 2002 “to
face several challenges, including limited opportuni-
promote youth participation in community and civic af-
ties for viable employment, education and training,
fairs and to ensure that programs are youth-centered
access to good health care and social services as
and engages the youth.” 28 The policy emphasized
well as meaningful participation in policy discussions.
employment creation, health, education and training,
Youth make up at least 47 percent of the population,
sports and recreation, environment, youth and the me-
with youth unemployment estimated at 22 percent.
dia, and youth participation and empowerment, among
Furthermore, the majority of youth, who mostly reside
other objectives. Youth with disabilities, street youth,
in urban areas, are classified as poor, and unemploy-
female youth, youth with HIV, out-of-school youth,
ment among males is higher than females. There is
and unemployed youth were particularly targeted for
a high incidence of drug abuse and criminal activity
special attention. A National Youth Council was to be
among youth. Furthermore, it is believed that Gambian
formed to oversee the implementation of the policy.
youth suffer from the “Babylon” syndrome—that is, the
Events of 2007 and a subsequent study (see below)
desire to migrate out of Gambia by any means neces-
suggest that this policy was either not implemented or
sary. The prevalence of HIV/AIDS is very high among
not successful if it was implemented.
27
the cohort of age 16 to 35 years, and the infection rate is higher compared with the older cohorts.
A study sponsored by the Nairobi Peace Initiative
Africa (NPI-Africa, n.d.), with funding from UNESCO,
The population and housing census of 2003 indi-
was charged with providing an understanding of how
cated that the government has promoted initiatives
the challenges facing Kenyan youth could become
to achieve universal access to basic education for all
part of a broader agenda for promoting peace after the
school-going ages. These initiatives have included the
2007 postelection violence. Although the study was
construction and maintenance of school facilities, the
based primarily on a very small sample of 180 youths,
abolition of fees at the lower basic school level (grades
it provided some insights into the conditions of youth
1-6), free education for girls and increased enrollment
in Kenya and how they could be helped to become
at the upper basic level (grades 7-9). The gross em-
part of the process of achieving peace in the country.
ployment rate increased by 25 percent at the upper ba-
The study’s findings indicated that achieving political
sic level and doubled at the secondary level. However,
stability and peace in Kenya would mainly depend on
retention and the quality of education and training,
addressing the challenges facing youth. The study
and disparities between boys and girls, remain prob-
implored several stakeholders (including the state,
lematic. In addition, vocational or skill centers are not
private entrepreneurs, civil society organizations, faith-
youth policy and the future of african development
17
based organizations and donor agencies) to become
Regarding unemployment, the youth believed that
active participants in the process.
the major causes include inadequate jobs, a lack of technical skills and experience, and job discrimination
About 75 percent of Kenya’s population is below 30
against them. Furthermore, it is the youths’ opinion
years of age, which makes it a youthful country. Like
that in addition to the government, other stakeholders,
the youth in almost all African countries, the challenges
particularly youth and their parents, can play crucial
facing youth in Kenya include unemployment, limited
roles in addressing their challenges, especially in help-
access to high-quality education (especially higher
ing those who have a sense of hopelessness about their
education), health care, training and recreation, and
future and are likely to be attracted to criminal activity.31
29
peer pressure.30 Youth also feel marginalized and frustrated, conditions that have been exacerbated by the
The youth in the study confirmed what many observers
recent violence, and they are vulnerable to exploitation
believed—that they participated heavily in the 2007
by political and ethnic leaders. Furthermore, the youth
postelection violence. Although the youth attribute the
themselves were very much involved in the postelec-
violence primarily to tribalism, other factors are related
tion violence, and many of them became victims of
to the challenges facing them—flawed elections, land
the conflict or internally displaced persons. The study
issues and poverty. A major conclusion of the study is
suggested that Kenyan youth are aware of their predic-
that “to build everlasting peace in Kenya, it is critical
ament and regard unemployment to be their most im-
to address the challenges faced by the Kenyan youth
portant challenge, followed by poverty and harassment
effectively.”
by the authorities, including the police. It is important to note that youth harassment has not conventionally been recognized as a youth challenge in many other countries in Africa.
South Africa: Using Employment Subsidies to Enhance Youth Employment
According to the late president of the African National
The government of Kenya has made efforts to address the problems facing youth, but it is believed those ef-
take care of its youth has no future, nor does it de-
forts have been inadequate and ineffective. The Ministry
serve one.” 32 As a result of South Africa’s unique
of State and Youth Affairs was created in 2005, fol-
history, youth policy has been an integral part of its
lowed by the 2006 Kenya National Youth Policy and the
policy of providing social justice and equitable devel-
Strategic Plan (2007-12). The NPI-Africa study finds
opment. Post-apartheid South Africa has adopted a
that though the country’s youth were aware of the ex-
series of youth policies, including the 2000 National
istence of the Ministry for Youth Affairs, most of them
Youth Policy (NYP), the National Youth Development
believed the ministry had virtually no impact on their
Framework (NYDF) of 2002-07 and the NYP of 2009-
lives because it does not focus on their problems. In
14. In addition to these, the South African govern-
particular, it is the view of youth that the government’s
ment passed the National Youth Commission (NYC)
plans and policies could be helpful if they addressed
Act of 1996 and has established such a commission.
the challenges facing youth on education and employ-
The NYP 2009-14 focuses on four areas of interven-
ment, involvement in decision-making and extending
tion—education, health and well-being, economic par-
infrastructure countrywide to reach youth in all areas.
18
Congress, Oliver Tambo, “a nation that does not
ticipation and social cohesion. Youth groups targeted
Global Economy and Development Program
for special attention include female youth, youth with
According to the Quarterly Labour Force Survey,
disabilities, unemployed youth, out-of-school youth,
a publication of Statistics South Africa, in the third
rural youth and at-risk youth. The policy instrument
quarter of 2010, about 42 percent of South African
provides specific interventions for each objective with
youth under 30 years of age were unemployed, com-
measurable benchmarks. Implementation of the policy
pared with 17 percent for adults over 30 years of age,
will involve the government, private sector and NGOs.
implying a ratio of youth to adult unemployment of 2.5.
NYP 2009-14 calls for the establishment of a youth
The youth who are unemployed tend to be less skilled
unit/directorate in every government ministry or depart-
and inexperienced. Furthermore, almost 86 percent of
ment. It also sets up a mechanism to conduct impact
youth do not have formal further or tertiary education,
assessments of youth programs in South Africa. Given
and 66 percent have never worked.
the high rate of youth unemployment in South Africa, the NYP heavily focuses on providing employment for
The employment subsidy program, which targets
the youth. Here we discuss some of the policies to in-
young individuals earning below the personal income
crease employment for youth.
tax threshold, was planned for implementation on April
South Africa’s New Growth Path calls for the state to
be operated by the South Africa Revenue Service.
“provide bold, imaginative and effective strategies to
Individuals can use this program for a maximum pe-
create millions of new jobs that South Africans need....
riod of two years at a maximum value of 12,000 South
To this end, the outcomes-based approach that has
African rand (R) (approximately $1,500), which is
been adopted by government identifies the need to de-
about 50 percent of the average income of the targeted
velop a multi-pronged strategy to tackle youth unem-
cohort.35 The program is expected to subsidize a net of
ployment.”33 South Africa has published a discussion
423,000 new jobs at a cost of R5 billion (approximately
paper for public comment on using employment subsi-
$625 million) in tax expenditures during the three-year
dies as an important part of its youth policies. Although
initial implementation period. There will be detailed
the employment subsidy program has been used in
quarterly monitoring and reporting during the imple-
several countries worldwide for quite some time, it is
mentation period to help evaluate the effectiveness of
new to Africa. A key motivation of this program is the
the program.
1, 2012, through the Pay as You Earn system and will
34
recognition that, whereas the supply of high-quality labor is a critical component of youth unemployment,
The targeted employment subsidy program is intended
stimulating the demand for labor is necessary to
to boost the demand for the young and less skilled
complement the need for a high-quality education and
individuals who are between 18 and 29 years of age
human capital investment, which generally takes more
and have little work experience by, among other things,
time and is often very costly. Furthermore, the program
helping to reduce their training costs to employers. The
would increase the opportunity for the private sector to
subsidy would increase demand for labor because it
be involved in labor market policies that have generally
decreases the gap between youth productivity and the
concentrated on issues that are under the control of
real wage. Giving youth the opportunity to work would
the public sector such as education and direct public
improve their long-term employability because work
employment.
experience is generally found to be a key determinant of an individual’s likelihood of finding a job and keep-
youth policy and the future of african development
19
ing it. For instance, in South Africa the evidence shows
The South African subsidy program is an example of
that unemployed young people with experience are
a well-planned youth policy effort targeting the unem-
almost three times more likely to find a job than those
ployed who lack skills and work experience, albeit at
without experience.37
substantial costs to the government.
The proposal provides a balanced account by also subsidy would be minimized or less likely to material-
Several Challenges Confront Those
Developing African Youth Policies
ize. It is argued that whereas the employment subsidy
Based on the framework(s) for developing youth poli-
program could be costly in terms of increasing the
cies in Africa and the efforts made by several countries
deadweight loss (when a subsidy is paid to a currently
in this regard, we have identified several challenges
employed young worker), the potential distortions
that could have an impact on the development and
from substitution effects (when a firm is incentivized
implementation of effective youth policies.
discussing why the potential adverse effects of the
to replace unsubsidized older workers with subsidized younger workers) are less likely in South Africa.
Assessments of the problems facing youth are
Regarding the potential for firms to seek younger
complicated by data limitations. The availability of
new hires compared with older ones, it is argued that
sufficient and reliable data is obviously pertinent to the
such a substitution might not be as harmful because it
formulation of effective youth policies. For instance,
would help to minimize the advantage that older work-
available data on measured unemployment rates do
ers have over the young regarding work experience.
not take into account the large number of underem-
Furthermore, it is argued that “destructive churning,”
ployed, especially in rural areas, and migration to ur-
whereby current subsidized workers are replaced by
ban areas. Also, the extent of unemployment due to
newly subsidized workers at the end of each subsidy
skill mismatches is not well known. A mismatch could
period, is not likely for several reasons, including the
result from the “educated youth hypothesis,” whereby
fact that the two-year period gives ample time for the
better-educated youth queue for limited lucrative pub-
worker to develop the necessary job skills. Moreover,
lic sector jobs (Leibbrandt and Mlatsheni 2004), along
the stigma generally associated with the subsidy is ex-
with a mismatch between acquired skills and vacan-
pected to be minimal because the program would be
cies (Boateng 2002, 2004). Another problem is that low
available to young people based on age who meet the
labor force participation by women generally tends to
earnings threshold, unlike programs that target disad-
bias the reported unemployment rates. Furthermore,
vantaged youth, as in the United States.
knowledge of the causes or types of unemployment
(e.g., frictional, structural/wait or cyclical) is important,
Finally, the program proposes a primer for evaluating
especially for developing and implementing ALMPs.
the success and cost-effectiveness of the program using the measures provided in the World Bank’s 2007
grams, the lack of conclusive results on which level of
effectiveness of the intervention and the quality of the
education yields the highest returns to education is a
intervention, based on a comparison of more than 300
serious limitation. Although an efficient policy would
youth employment programs in about 90 countries.
20
Given the scarcity of funds for youth employment pro-
Youth Employment Inventory, a global database on the
imply allocating resources to educational levels where
Global Economy and Development Program
the returns are highest, equity would imply targeting
On the issue of economic growth and job creation, the
the most disadvantaged groups (rural areas, girls, in-
study by Leautier and Hanson (2012) is informative.
digenous communities; see World Bank 2005). Also,
They argued that the agricultural sector is suited for
it is important to note that the targeting of policies to
playing a crucial role in dealing with Africa’s unem-
certain groups could be subject to influence by special
ployment problems. The size and rural character of
interest groups, and that the problem of balancing the
the agricultural sector provides the opportunity for job
efficiency and equity of improving access to a high-
creation and reduction in unemployment, growth of
quality education could be challenging.
the agricultural sector. In addition, the sophistication and innovative potential of the agricultural sector, es-
Given the importance of having reliable and accurate
pecially agricultural value chains, can attract educated
data for policymaking and the current data limitations
youth.
vis-à-vis youth, the steps taken by the AU to develop the African Youth Statistical Database are commend-
The Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy
This database is expected to include relevant
Analysis Network (FANRPAN), at its 2011 Regional
indicators to measure progress on youth development
Food Security Policy Dialogue, focused on “advo-
and empowerment in Africa. The database will further
cating for the active engagement of the youth in the
be utilized as the main platform for gathering informa-
agriculture value chain.”39 According to the head of
tion from countries in an effort to also develop country
FANRPAN, Lindiwe Majele Sibanda, youth have a
profiles of AU member states on youth for comparabil-
role to play in dealing with the challenge of increasing
ity analysis.
agricultural productivity and promoting growth in rural
able.
38
areas. It is suggested that these challenges could be
The effectiveness of programs depends crucially
overcome through investment in social and economic
on economic growth and the types of jobs that are
infrastructure in rural areas, the creation of tailor-made
created. The outcomes of ALMPs depend on the cre-
opportunities and economic incentives for young
ation of enough “right” jobs for youth. In this regard, it is
people to engage in agriculture and the rural non-
important to promote economic growth as well as bal-
farm economy, and more training for young men and
ance several trade-offs, including job creation in the in-
women to build skills in both agroeconomy and busi-
formal versus formal sectors, urban versus rural areas,
ness. Specifically, FANRPAN has launched the African
and the quantity and quality of jobs (in terms of pay and
Youth in Agriculture Policy initiative to engage youth in
work conditions). Improving the quality of jobs to meet
the Comprehensive African Agriculture Development
the requirements of the so-called decency of work
Programme (CAADP), which includes assisting youth
would imply improving access to insurance and social
to collect evidence and case studies and contribute to
protection, developing health and safety standards,
future policymaking.
encouraging worker representation and freedom of association, and eliminating all forms of discrimination,
There is a lack of comprehensive youth policies
exploitation and child labor (ILO 2002). These efforts
that are integrated with national development
may complicate the policy of creating more jobs for
plans and broad macroeconomic policies. There
youth, given that the policies are likely to increase the
is a general lack of adequate human and financial re-
cost of employment for employers.
sources devoted to youth issues, which has resulted
youth policy and the future of african development
21
in the so-called Cinderella ministries for youth—minis-
people’s capabilities and opportunities require mas-
tries that exist but have very little functionality. National
sive infusions of resources, especially financial and
youth policies tend to operate on separate tracks:
human. Generally, the full costs and the sources of
formal education policies and youth policies (see
funding of these programs are not completely known.
Chingunta 2002). The formal education policy deals
For instance, improving access to education includes
with the formal education system and the formal labor
making education affordable, which may include abol-
market, such as national youth service programs that
ishing tuition fees, making nontuition costs such as
provide work primarily in the formal sector. Conversely,
uniforms and meals affordable, and providing female
the youth policy includes different youth initiatives such
role models (e.g., teachers and administrators) for girls
as training for informal sector jobs and make-work
in their educational process. Although these efforts can
programs.
cost a lot of money, their ultimate costs, both direct and indirect, are typically unknown. Also, the funding for
Perhaps governments should have a comprehensive
ALMPs, such as public works, is typically mismanaged
youth policy on education, health, employment and
or not well accounted for. Furthermore, as is typical of
the political and social engagement of youth in na-
government programs, it may be difficult to terminate
tional affairs. For instance, youth in Africa are often
inefficient programs once started (e.g., Kenya’s 1997
not involved in national debates on issues, even on
Jua Kali Voucher Programme).
issues that affect them, directly or indirectly. African policies should engage youth in national policy delib-
Governments lack the capacity to undertake com-
erations. In this connection, the “International Institute
prehensive monitoring and evaluative processes.
for Environment and Development Project Young
Although it is important to monitor and assess the
Citizens: Youth Participatory Governance in Africa”
effectiveness and efficiency of programs, especially
Perhaps an effec-
the various ALMPs, African governments typically
tive way to harness the energy, passion and talents
lack the capacity to monitor and evaluate the relevant
of youth for development in Africa is to “mainstream”
processes. To date, no reliable assessment has been
youth policies. This means that government policies,
done for the few existing ALMPs. An effective youth
expenditures, strategies and actions will be evaluated
policy should seek to mitigate risks by setting perfor-
for their potential effects on youth. African govern-
mance measures and benchmarks that can be moni-
ments have mainstreamed gender policies, and a simi-
tored and reported on regularly—in this regard, the
lar approach would be appropriate for youth.
approaches provided in the World Bank’s 2007 Youth
is an effort in the right direction.
40
Employment Inventory could be useful.
The costs of programs and funding sources are not fully known. All programs to develop young
22
Global Economy and Development Program
4. Policies TO Harness
Youths’ Talents to Foster
Economic Development
U
nfortunately, youth policies in Africa have fallen short of the massive challenges facing youth.
African youth have responded to these challenges with several coping mechanisms, including withdrawal from the labor market and political processes, emigration (within and outside Africa), and resorting to activities that challenge the existing orthodoxy either through political agitation or by joining rebel groups.
Nonetheless, youth are a resource that needs to be developed and harnessed as part of African governments’ comprehensive strategies to foster economic growth and development.
Youth unemployment is at the core of the economic
suitable to promote economic development generally and for youth in particular in all countries. It is therefore appropriate to discuss approaches that could harness the development of youth in most countries. Because an effective youth development strategy needs to be heavily intertwined with economic growth, this study focuses on strategies of youth development that are consistent with economic growth and development that are both pro-employment and pro-youth. Furthermore, there is a need to mainstream youth issues in government actions and policies. We use a framework that reflects these ideas—in particular, we exploit the key strategic challenges of economic growth and development in Africa, as identified by the World Bank (2006): improving the investment climate, expanding infrastructure, harnessing innovation and building institutional quality.
challenges facing youth and is also related to health, and political and social isolation. Increasing youth employment would require an acceleration of economic growth, especially because the youth populations are large and growing in several African countries. At the same time, economic growth and development can be enhanced if youth development is an integral part of the development process.41 Moreover, there are serious economic, social and political costs of neglecting youths’ predicament—including underutilized human and social capital, stunted economic growth and development and weakened national security. Therefore, there is a need to pay greater attention to the youth development dimension of economic growth, particularly by enhancing employment opportunities for youth and by enabling their greater participation in the growth process. To effectively address the challenges of youth would require assessing policies as well as the related institutions and strategies.
Given the diverse economic and political environments
Youth Development: Improving the
Investment Climate
A key challenge for youth is unemployment, which means that a solution to youth problems should include increased economic activity and youth employment.
An important obstacle to economic growth in African countries is how to improve the investment climate, which involves reducing indirect costs to businesses.
Although a high proportion of the costs to businesses include the costs of energy and transportation, there are also the costs of reducing and mitigating risks that are related to youth activity—including crime and political instability. The role of the investment climate in economic growth has received much attention since the
World Bank’s Doing Business annual reports began to be published in 2003.42 A key basis of Doing Business is that good, transparent and universal rules promote economic activity by avoiding burdensome regulations and promoting competition.
of African countries, no single approach would be
youth policy and the future of african development
23
Clearly, crime and political instability adversely affect
partners from infrastructure to social programs, and
investments. The destabilizing effects of the violence
partly to the unreasonable expectation that the embry-
and political instability in Kenya after the 2007 election
onic private sector would fill in the gap.45 It has been
are a testament to how crucial it is to maintain stabil-
estimated that sub-Saharan Africa needs massive fi-
ity in the vulnerable economies of Africa. Also, during
nancing of about $18 billion in infrastructure projects
the 2012 presidential elections in Senegal, the mem-
to promote the economic growth necessary to reduce
bers of a youth movement swore to render the country
extreme poverty by 50 percent and another $18 bil-
“ungovernable” if the incumbent president won. Their
lion per year to achieve its MDGs.46 There are obvious
reasoning was that the incumbent president was violat-
challenges in marshalling the needed resources for
ing the two-term limit he had signed into law in 2001.
43
infrastructure investments. Such challenges include
Such turmoil would threaten the investment climate
evaluating the suitability and viability of public vis-à-vis
with adverse consequences for investment, trade and
private sector financing.
even aid. So efforts to reduce or redirect the energies of youth into productive activities would be useful.
One of the challenges for youth development is the
Furthermore, youth are a potential resource that firms
persistent migration from rural to urban areas, which
could employ directly as inputs into their production
exacerbates the problems of the youth in urban areas
process if they have the right education and training
because there are not enough jobs and social services
and as consumers if they are gainfully employed. More
to accommodate the massive inflow. To reduce young
important, youth are more entrepreneurial than their
people’s attraction to urban areas for elusive jobs, the
elder cohorts. Improving the investment climate could
allocation of a sizable proportion of infrastructure de-
unleash this entrepreneurial spirit for national develop-
velopment to rural areas would be beneficial for youth
ment.
development. Of course, this infrastructure expansion should include the building of educational facilities to
Youth Development: The Need to
Expand Infrastructure
improve education and training, as well as the provision of health and social services. It is important to recognize that because infrastructure projects in rural
The huge infrastructure deficit in Africa is well known,
areas may not be commercially viable initially because
even though its extent is not exactly clear. It is esti-
of a lack of sufficient market size, there may be resis-
mated that inadequate and expensive infrastructure
tance, especially by the private sector in a public–pri-
is retarding growth by 2 percentage points each year.
vate partnership.
Also, there is the potential to recover an additional $17 billion a year by improving the efficiency of the exist-
Apart from investing in infrastructure that is pro-youth,
ing infrastructure with sensible policies, management
several strategies have been suggested to increase
Many countries lack high-quality
the productivity of new as well as existing infrastruc-
roads and a steady supply of electricity—conditions
ture. These include making the development of infra-
that, as indicated above, exacerbate a poor invest-
structure pro-job creating by adopting labor-intensive
ment climate. It is believed that the infrastructure deficit
techniques (when viable), using youth to help collect
is partly due to the shift of development emphasis in
the necessary information to inventory, manage (e.g.,
the 1990s by African governments and development
through revenue collection), and maintain the existing
and maintenance.
24
44
Global Economy and Development Program
infrastructure, as well as employ them in the construc-
jobs in their destination countries, mainly the skilled,
tion of new infrastructure. Also, youth can be trained
adventurous or the most entrepreneurial are likely to
to be the voice and locus of accountability for the in-
emigrate internationally. For example, Clemens and
tegrity of infrastructure projects as a part of improving
Patterson (2007) calculated that about 50 percent or
regulation.
more of physicians trained in some African countries
47
are working in OECD countries, while the health care
Youth Development: Harnessing
Innovation
systems in their home countries remain in shambles.
This robs Africa of its most talented human capital, with serious consequences for development.
Key factors for economic growth are investments that increase skill formation to exploit the world’s bur-
Innovation could help overcome the shortages of
geoning information and communication technology
skilled and trained labor power in African countries
advancements. Obviously, there are second-mover
because wages in the information and communication
advantages in technology from which African coun-
technologies are generally more competitive. African
tries could benefit but that would require them to make
countries have struggled to deal with “brain drain”—
the necessary investments in information technology.
that is, how to retain the few skilled professionals they
Arguably, investments in youth through education and
produce. Conversely, policies can be put in place to
training would enhance their productivity and improve
attract skilled professionals living in the diaspora to
their competitiveness in the labor market. Moreover,
return home to help train the youth. But this will require
youth are more open to technological developments.
committed political will from governments. Africa could
Such an investment could promote jobs that are out-
take advantage of international trade to create jobs for
sourced from developed countries, including telemar-
youth by exploiting its comparative advantage and the
keting call-centers.
development of new technologies. For example, North
Africa can produce and export solar energy to Europe.
In recent decades, one of the remarkable features of globalization is the movement of people across national
Some studies have recommended promoting youth
boundaries—international migration. This phenom-
development through integrated rural and agricultural
enon has gathered momentum among African youth
policies and investment. The idea is that policies and
in the last two or three decades, with educated African
programs that promote the modernization of agricul-
youth seeking their fortunes in OECD countries or in
ture through innovation would help attract youth back
the oil-rich Gulf region. The median age of migrants
to rural areas, which has a predominant share of the
to OECD countries is about 27 years of age, slightly
labor force in agriculture.49 A large number of jobs can
older than the youth population (however, most youth
be created in the agricultural sector for youth from
aspire to migrate for a better life). Indeed, the United
agricultural value chains.50 Although farming may not
Nations calculated that for most West African coun-
be attractive to youth, especially educated youth, they
tries, the proportion of migrant stock under 20 years
could be employed in the storage, processing, packag-
exceeded 40 percent. An important characteristic of
ing, transporting and marketing of agricultural prod-
international migration is its selective nature. Because
ucts. Similarly, employment could be created for youth
48
emigrants from African countries must compete for
youth policy and the future of african development
25
in the production, storage, marketing and distribution
capacity include “the exercise of voice as an agency of
of agricultural inputs, such as fertilizers and irrigation.
restraint,” including fighting corruption. Moreover, the active involvement of youth in improving governance
Youth Development: Building
Institutional Quality
would create social stability, thereby averting potential social and civil unrest, which has serious consequences not just for the economy but also youth. For
Building institutional capacity involves strengthening the
presidential elections in Senegal to safeguard the con-
organizations more effective, and enforcing the rules
stitution suggests that youth participation in political
of the game, which all help to improve the climate for
discourse could be a positive development that bodes
businesses. The strategic actions to build institutional
26
example, the active role played by youth in the recent
competencies of individuals and organizations, making
well for institution building in Africa.
Global Economy and Development Program
5. Conclusion and
Recommendations
S
everal theories, including demographic factors, have been proposed to explain the poor economic
performance of African countries compared with other regions of the world.51 Africa is the youngest continent in the world, with about 70 percent of its population 30 years of age or younger. And with a large proportion of the population now below even 15 years, the youth population in Africa is expected to grow rapidly into the foreseeable future. Unfortunately, the plight of youth has been neglected far too long, but African governments still have the opportunity to utilize this resource or face the consequences of social unrest and stunted economic growth and development.
This study has investigated the role of youth policies in promoting economic prosperity in Africa, as governments seek to address the challenges facing youth, including a lack of access to a high-quality and relevant education, high rates and long durations of unemployment and underemployment, a high incidence of chronic poverty, political disengagement, and health and environmental risks. The study’s salient findings and recommendations are as follows.
Improve the quality and scope of data of youth in
Africa. One of the major problems for studying youth in
Africa and crafting policies for them is the lack of data.
As the adage goes, “You can’t manage what you can’t measure.” It is recommended that policymakers gather and store high-quality data on youth in Africa (both in
Integrate youth and economic growth. Even with the limited data, there is enough evidence that youth suffer from high levels of unemployment, underemployment and chronic poverty. Although the lack of a high-quality and relevant education is part of the problem, these problems exist because there are no jobs for youth.
Economic growth policies can alleviate these problems by having a pro-youth focus. As we have discussed, policies can integrate youth with the four pillars of economic prosperity—improving the investment climate, expanding infrastructure, harnessing innovation and building institutional quality.
Mainstream youth policies. Problems facing youth are multifaceted. This means that the effects of policies and actions for youth would be more effective if they were mainstreamed. Governments should continuously ask how policies and actions would have an impact on youth. This can be done in conjunction with gender issues, because these two groups have been neglected despite their potential to contribute to the prosperity of African countries.
Develop effective youth policies. Finally, it is important to have youth policies that seek to address the challenges facing youth as discussed in this study.
Part of the process is to be able to assess the costs of youth programs and set performance measures with benchmarks that can be monitored and reported regularly. On this account, there should be a process whereby countries can learn from the best practices of other countries, as in Latin America and the Caribbean.
their cross-national and time-series dimensions) to guide research and policy on the youth. As part of this process, it would be useful to have a common definition for the youth cohort and also to include information on gender and rural/urban dimensions. In this regard, the steps taken by the AU to develop an African Youth
Statistical Database are commendable.
youth policy and the future of african development
27
ENDNOTES
1. Different chronological ages are used to define this period of transition because of differences in
technical body of the AU to replace the NEPAD
Secretariat. The NEPAD Agency is a key outcome of the integration of NEPAD into the AU.
cultures and purposes; i.e., several African coun-
7. See Table 3.
tries define years of adulthood differently, and
8. See United Nations (2006).
for different genders in some countries. Different countries have different minimum ages at which a
9. For a partial list, see UNECA (2009, 46).
person can independently enter into a marriage;
10. We note, however, that in a recent study by Leau-
some cultures (e.g., South Africa) even set differ-
tier and Hanson (2012) they found that high eco-
ent ages for boys and girls. Also, for the purposes
nomic growth has had differential effects on job
of migration, most countries set a minimum age
creation across countries in Africa.
of 18 years for an individual to be regarded as an independent migrant. For these reasons, an agebased definition of the youth is arbitrary across African countries.
2. The African Youth Charter defines the youth as persons between the age of 15 and 34 years.
3. Years of schooling is not a good indicator of the human capital accumulated. A better measure for comparison purposes would be returns to education but such data are not readily available for most countries.
4. Migrants are likely to be among the highly skilled workers. It is estimated that more than 50 percent of all doctors trained in Ghana since the 1980s are practicing in OECD countries. It is not uncommon to see university graduates from Africa driving taxi cabs in the United States and the United Kingdom.
5. The African Charter was adopted at the Seventh
Ordinary Session of the Assembly of Heads of
State and Government of the African Union in Banjul, Gambia, in July 2006.
11. See, for example, Chingunta (2002).
12. The data were calculated from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2009).
13. See Kanyenze, Mhone, and Sparreboom (2000).
14. Examples include a program in Senegal funded by the AfDB and the World Bank in 1989, and programs by Youth Business International (YBI 2008).
15. See YBI (2008).
16. For a detailed discussion of labor market policies used in both developed and developing countries, see Kimenyi (1995), Chapter 8, “Labor Market
Policies.”
17. See, for example, UNECA (2009).
18. The Advocates for Youth (a nonprofit organization and advocacy group based in Washington dedicated to sex education, the prevention of HIV and of sexually transmitted disease, teenage pregnancy prevention, youth access to condoms and contraception, equality for lesbians and gays, and youth participation) launched a three-year initiative in
6. NEPAD is a radically new intervention, spearheaded by African leaders to pursue new priorities
Epidemic (YouthLife), which partnered with four
and approaches to the political and socioeconomic
youth-led NGOs in three countries severely affect-
transformation of Africa. Its objective is to enhance
ed by HIV/AIDS: the Youth Health Organization
Africa’s growth, development and participation in
(YOHO) of Botswana, the Youth Action Rangers
the global economy. In February 2010, the 14th
of Nigeria (YARN), and the Township AIDS Project
AU Assembly established the NEPAD Planning
(TAP) and the South African Centre for Organisa-
and Coordinating Agency (NEPAD Agency) as a
28
2001 called the Youth Leadership in Fighting the
tional Development (SACORD) of South Africa.
Global Economy and Development Program
Their activities included skills-based training, advo-
30. See World Bank (2005); Kenya Ministry of State
cacy program implementation, organizational development and youth participation in policymaking.
and Youth Affairs (2007).
31. It has been reported that some parents stop sup-
19. The potential links between education, income and
porting their children financially after they finish
democracy is what social scientists in the middle
the form-four grade level, which is the last stage
of the last century referred to as the “moderniza-
before entering university. Also, the youth are not
tion hypothesis.” However, the empirical evidence
granted access to assets, such as land, until they
on education and democracy is unclear.
got married; see Mbatia (1987). The other stakeholders include faith-based organizations, com-
20. See, for example, UNECA (2009).
munity based organizations, NGOs, private sector
21. Apart from the cases discussed for the three countries there is limited information on national youth policies of Botswana, adopted in August 1996;
firms, and banks and other financial institutions.
32. The discussion here is based primarily on South
Africa (2008, 2011).
Guinea’s policies on youth, culture and sports, declared in April 1993; Malawi’s first youth policy in
1995; Namibia’s first youth policy in 1993; Nigeria’s first youth policy in 1983; and Sierra Leone’s
33. South Africa (2011, 5).
34. E.g., Australia had the Special Youth Employment
Training Program for 15 to 24 year olds from 1976
national youth policy in 2003. See “African Youth
to 1985 (see Richardson 1998), and the United
Policy Update 1,” http://blog.developmentparter-
States had the “Targeted Jobs Tax Credit” program
ship.org/?p=4.
for disadvantaged youths from 1979 to 1994 (see
22. This section is based partly on http://allafrica.com/ stories/200907061784.html. 23. To our knowledge, 32 African countries have ratified the AYC, as of April 2012 (see Table 1).
24. The proportion is based on a youth definition of 18
Katz 1996).
35. Wall Street Journal, February 27, 2012.
36. South Africa (2011, 34, 36).
37. See “Monitoring and Reporting on the Implementation of the AU Youth Decade Plan of Action
to 35 years.
2009–2018: Peer Review and Stakeholders Tech-
25. See Ghana (2011).
nical Consultations on the Conceptual and Practical Framework of an African Youth Empowerment
26. This section is based partly on http://thepoint.
and Development Index,” November 17, 2011.
gmafrica/gambia/article/natioanl-youth-poli-
http://africa-youth.org/sites/default/files/DB_Meet-
cy-2009-2018.
27. The youth is defined as those between 13 and 30 years of age, but those falling outside this range
ing.pdf.
38. See http://www.trust.org/alertnet/blogs/climate-conversations/enticing-africas-youth-to-agriculture/.
could be included in the policy’s programs and activities under special circumstances.
39. See “IIED, Program 64: Young Citizens: Youth
Participatory Governance in Africa” (Institute for
28. The discussion here is based primarily on NPI-Africa
Development Studies 2011).
(no date). For the quotation here, see Kenya Ministry of Home Affairs, Heritage, and Sports (2002).
40. The World Bank (2007b) suggests that demo-
29. The Kenyan government defines youths as those between 15 and 30 years of age.
youth policy and the future of african development
graphic variables are consistently predictive of the observed difference between growth in the
29
Sub-Saharan Africa region and other developing regions. 41. The reports rank countries on their overall “ease of doing business” and analyze reforms to business regulation by analyzing the extent to which countries are strengthening their business environment. The 2012 Doing Business report provides information on the time, steps and cost for a private business to get an electricity connection.
For the 2012 report and earlier reports, see http:// www.doingbusiness.org/reports/global-reports/ doing-business-2012.
43. Wall Street Journal, February 27, 2012.
44. Africa’s infrastructure gap is estimated at more than
$90 billion annually, more than twice the current expenditures, based on the five main economic infrastructure sectors—information and communication technology, irrigation, power, transportation, and water and sanitation; see Briceño-Garmendia
(2010).
45. The 1995 Copenhagen Social Summit was part of the motivation for the shift.
46. See Wormser (2004).
30
Global Economy and Development Program
47. The Chinese government has employed youth as part of its massive infrastructure project; see Banerjee, Duflo, and Quan (2012).
48. See United Nations (2011a).
49. See Leautier and Hanson (2012). See also Kararach, Hanson, and Leautier (2011); Proctor and
Lucchesi (2012).
50. The concept of value chain involves the full range of activities required to bring a product or service from conception, through the different phases of production (involving a combination of physical transformations and the input of various producer services), to delivery to the final consumer and final disposal after use; see Kaplinksy and Morris
(2000).
51. See World Bank (2007b).
for Tertiary Education–World Bank Education and
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© 2013 The Brookings Institution
ISSN: 2166-5184 (online) | 2166-5176 (print)
Cover photos courtesy of (left to right): Trevor Samson /
World Bank, Hansjoerg Richter, John Hogg / World Bank,
Andrew Martin Green, Lorenzo Codacci, Eric Miller /
World Bank, Ami Vitale / World Bank
1775 Massachusetts Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20036
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References: Table 1. Educational Attainment in Africa, 2010: Total Population, Total Youth and Female Youth . . . . . 5 Table 2
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Dolby, Nadine. “Research in Youth Culture and Policy: Current Conditions and Future Directions.” Social Work and Society: The International Online-Only Journal 6.2 (2008): n. pag. Web. 20 May 2009.…
- 2386 Words
- 10 Pages
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Dolby, Nadine. “Research in Youth Culture and Policy: Current Conditions and Future Directions.” Social Work and Society: The International Online-Only Journal 6.2 (2008): n. pag. Web. 20 May 2009.…
- 5625 Words
- 23 Pages
Satisfactory Essays -
15. UNECA, 2002. Youth and Employment in Africa, Retrieved from http://www.uneca.org on March 30, 2010.…
- 8133 Words
- 33 Pages
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United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA) (2006) Guide to the implementation of the world programme of action for youth. [Accessed: Sep, 25th, 2013] Available at: http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unyin/documents/wpay_guide.pdf…
- 2572 Words
- 11 Pages
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The Nigerian Natinal Youth Policy (2001:2) defines youth as comprising all young persons between the ages 18 and 35 years who are citizens of the Federal Repulic of Nigeria. Youth are the engine of economic growth; since, they constitute largely the workforce and consuming class in an economy. The productivity of labour and the quality of consumer demand are two critical drivers of economic growth from both supply and demands sides. The future of any nation lies in the strength of her youth; how they are empowered to face the challenges of the globe. They are the well spring of ideas and innovation which would spur economic, political and social growth. It is expected that they be meaningfully employed. The role of young people in the society cannot be over-emphasized. They are important because they have the potentials and vigour that will help our nation chart new ways out of the several incubuses we are trapped.…
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Youth unemployment in Nigeria has eaten deep into the agile and intelligent youths who despite the lack of jobs cannot do without activities. They get involved in crime, juvenile delinquencies, cultism, indecent partying and other social vices. I see a future where the agility of Nigerian youths would become effective productive resources to develop a Nigeria which shall be a desirable country for all to live in.…
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According to African Economic Outlook 2012 unemployment is becoming a concern with nearly 2.4 million unemployed people most of them young representing 10.7% of the population. Indeed, the situation of the youth population, particularly those in urban areas, is critical in terms of unemployment. Lack of sufficient employment opportunities for young women, who have increasingly participated in the labor market, further complicates the situation. The effects of the current global crisis, though not yet showing up in the statistics, could create additional challenges, in particular with respect to the tourism industry and export-oriented sectors.…
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Africa is the world’s youngest continent, as the proportion of youth among the region’s total population is higher than in any other continent. About 36.8 percent of Africa’s work force are youth; and 23.7 per cent in North Africa; particularly affecting young females. In 2009, the youth unemployment rate was at 11.9 per cent in Sub Saharan Africa. High rates of youth unemployment represent both widespread personal misfortune for individuals and a lost opportunity for critical national and global economic development. Unemployment in youth has been shown to have lifelong effects on income and employment stability, because affected young people start out with weaker early-career credentials, and show lower confidence and resilience in dealing with labor market opportunities and setbacks over the course of their working lives.…
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References: Goko, C 2013, ‘National Development Plan criticised for ‘simplified’ view of SA’s youth’, BD Live, 21 March 2013, viewed 7 April 2013, http://www.bdlive.co.za/national/2013/03/21/national-development-plan-criticised-for-simplified-view-of-sas-youth…
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Some shocking discoveries made by (DAN, 2011) is that the number of youths living in sub-Saharan Africa is expected to increase by almost 20 million. (NGUBENI, 2013) states that the youth unemployment statistics are very concerning. Statistics SA shares that in the third quarter of 2012 the unemployment rate of the youth was 36% and in that timeline, the youth (people between 15 – 34 years of age) was about 3.3 million in South-Africa. What is the contributing factor to this increase in youth unemployment?…
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Africa is now having the most youthful population in the world with the youth covering close to between 60% and 70% of the continents population. This menace poses great threats to the strength and growth of Africa. Though unemployment is seen manifested all over the world, the case of Africa is very dilapidating to say the least.…
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