Biological Science

Biological Science
Lesson 1

Zoology - branch of biology that deals with the life of animals.

1. Morphology - studies forms and structure of animals. a. Gross anatomy - performs surgical technique ; dissection (cutting up). b. Paleontology - studies pre-historic forms of animals through fossil.
2. Histology - study of tissues & organs, their structure, functions & composition at a microscopic level.
3. Cytology - study of the structure & function and its parts at microsopic level or electromicrospic level.
4. Physiology - study of living organism's function as a whole ; studies function of the vitak processes of living animals.
5. Embryology - study of formation & development of an animal until it is fully grown.
6. Genetics - deals with mode of trandmission of traits from one generation to the next ; studies heredity, and variations in similar related animals.
7. Evolution - any change across successive generations in the inherited characteristics of biological populations.
8. Ecology - study of relation of the animals to their immediate environment. a. Biotic - plantd, other animals, microorganism: bacteria, viruses, protozoa, fungi. b. Abiotic - air, water, land/soil, and rocks.
9. Zoogeography - distribution of animals in space.
10. Taxonomy -classification, study of laws and principle governing the grouping and naming of animals.
11. Parasitology -study of parasites (organism that live on the expense of another organism).
12. Molecular Biology - molecular and subcellular structure the chemical reaction underlying biological processes. * paternity testing - DNA testing in medical legal cases.

Invertebral zoology - without back-bone. a. Protozoology - unicellular animal b. Helmintology - helminths/ parasitic worms c. Malcology - mollusks d. Entomology - insects
Vertebral Zoology - with back-bone. a. Ichthyology - fish b. Herpetology - reptiles & amphibians c. Ornitology - birds d. Mammalogy - mammals
Characteristics of scientist:
- meticulous, curious, observant, neat & tidy, intelligent, intuitive, persistent, hard-working, rational, free of bias, critical thinker, intellectually honest, responsible, and a bit lucky. Scientific Method - scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning. a. observation b. hypothesis (formulated statement) c. predictiom d. experimentation e. conclusion

*History
15th & 16th century
1. Animaxander, Xenophanes Empedodes - contributed on the origin of the earth. (animals, plants or habitat)
2. Aristotle - father of zoology ; first zoologist. - "Historia Animalium" - contains information about animal found in Greece, Macedonia and Asia Minor.
3. Galen - first experimental physiologist.
4. Pliny - a Roman pioneer in Biology who compiled "Natural History", an encyclopedia covering different animals. (facts & fiction)

Renaissance Period
1. Robert Bacon - Roman contributor to arts & humanities related to Human Behavior.
2. Albert Magnus
3. Andreas Vesalius - modern anatomy
4. William Harvey - physiology, introduced experimental & quantative demonstration in physiology. - said that blood flows in vessels.

Industrial Age - first microscopists
1. Anton Leeuwenhook - made the microscope
2. Marcelo Malpighi - traced bloodflow through capillaries
3. Robert Hooke - discovered nucleus, cytoplasm & cell membrane
4. Carolus Linnaeus - binomial system of nomenclature in classifying & namin ; two names - genus species. ex. Human - homo sapien
5. Fabricus - described the early embryonic development
6. Karl Ernst von Baer -germ layer theory ; father of embryology
7. Charles Darwin - theory of evolution
8. Gregor Johann Mendel - father of genetics
9. M.J. Schleiden - formulated the cell theory
10. Louis Agassiz - intiated the present practice of first hand study of the student.
11. Richard Owen - wrote a book "a comparative anatomy & physiology of vertebrates".

Lesson 2 : Cells

Functions of a Cell: a. basic unit of living thing b. retains all the characteristics of every organism c. communication -> for stimulus (senses) d. inheritance e. support (bones) & movement (muscles)

Three basic parts
1. cell membrane 2. cytoplasm 3. nucleus

Cell membrane - all living things are surrounded by a membrane - a cell membrane is also known as plasma membrane - controls exchange of materials such as nutrient & waste - has other important functions, ex. to enable cell to receive hormones - serves as a barrier between a connecting cell
Intracellular Substance - enzymes - hormones - K+ (major intracellular ion)
Extracellular Substance - NA+ - Ca2 - Cl- - H2O - Others
Cell membrane are made of:
- 2 layer of phospolipid with hydrophobic tails protected inside by the hydrophilic head. * Phospolid Bilayer - basic structure of membrane (selectively permeable) * Hydrophilic heads - water liking ; attracted to water ; polar * Hydrophobic tails - water fearing ; not attracted to water ; nonpolar 1. lipids (bilayers) 2. carbohydrates 3. protein a. channel membrane b. carrier molecule c. receptor molecule

Cytoplasm Nucleus - control center of the cell - surrounded by nuclear membrane - nuclear pore -> controls the passage of substances in and out of the nucleus. Nucleolus - manufactures rRNA (ribosomal riboxynucleic acid) - located inside the nucleus * rRNA - will be manufactured and move out then protein synthesis will occur.

Endoplasmic Reticulum a. rough (protein synthesis) - studded with ribosomes b. smooth (lipid synthesis) - aeroid of ribosomes Golgi Apparatus - secretion & packaging of cellular materials ; shipping of proteins Lysosome - destroy foreign material Ceneriole - frame work of the cell involved in cell division Ribosomes - act as the site for protein synthesis a. large - animal/ plant cell (80s) b. small - bateria cells (10s) Mitochondria - powerhouse - ATP (adenosine triphosphate) form of energy ; site of energy conversion.
* Types of transport (ATP)
> Active - with energy
> Passive - facillitated difusion (diffusion through lipid bilayer)

*Diffusion - movement of solute from an area of high concentration Solution (liquid/gas) < solute < solvent (water)
*Osmosis - movement of water from high H2O concentration to low concentration ; selective permeable membrane.

1. Hypotonic Solution - one solution has lower concentration of solute than another. - shriveled, shrink (H2O out)
2. Hypertonic Solution - one solution has a higher concentration of solute than another. - lysed, burst/ swell (H2O in)
3. Isotonic Solution - both solution have same contrations of solute.

Mitosis - cell division - process by which cells reproduces > Chromosome - cell parts that determines what trait a living thing will have > Chromatid - one strand of DNA, after replication, a chromosome is made up of two identical chromatids.
Daughter cell - new cells produced by cell division
Cytokenesis - a division of the cytoplasm of 1 parent cell into 2 daughter cell

Mitosis (somatic/body cell) - no. of chromosomes would be equal to the parents
Meiosis (gemetes/sex cell) - no. of chromosomes of the parent would be reduced into half
* fertilization = zygote (23 pairs)
* Chromatin material - (1) DNA (2) nistone protein (3) acidic & neutral non-histone protein

Stages of Mitosis
* Interphase (not part of mitosis) - this phase of mitosis where cell performs its normal activities for life - resting phase - DNA is in the chromatin state - cytokinesis > after mitosis, two diploid daughter cell have formed
P-M-A-T
(1) Prophase - DNA begins to condense material - chromatin is long and intertwined - centriole pairs move apart - nuclear envelope starts to break up
(2) Metaphase - sister chromatis moved to the center of the cell (equitorial) -spindle fibers begin to appear
(3) Anaphase - sister chromatids move apart
(4) Telophase - cytoplasmic division occurs

Lesson 3 : Tissues

Tissue - group of cell that perform similar functions

4 major types of tissues

(1) Epitheleal tissue - linning of our body & organs. Ex. skin, kidney, etc.
Functions
a. protection - skin b. absorption c. excretion - excretion of waste d. secretion - stomach e. lubrication - production of saliva f. reproduction - ovary & testis
Classification
1. according to number of cell layer a. simple - one layer b. stratified - two or more layers c. pseudostratified - "false"; one layer of cell tha varies in shapes & size 2. accordind to shape a. aquamous - flattened & hexagonal b. cuboidal - cube-like ; height and width are equal c. columnar - tube-like ; height is greater than it's width 3. according to specialized structure - cilia, brushboarder, goblet cell - propel substance 4. according to functions

(2) Muscle tissue - muscle cells & fiber - involuntary & voluntary 1. smooth muscles - centrally located - 1 per cell - fusiform, tappering from each other - involuntary Ex. stomach, intestine, blood vessel 2. skeletal muscles - side of muscle fiber - many per cell - long, elongated muscle cell - voluntary * Fibers are prominate - Striation - alternating dark (A) and light (I) bonds. 3. cardiac muscles - intercalated disk - cylindricall, long, elongated with striation - fiber cells do branch - involuntary Ex. heart
(3) Nervous tissue - nerve cell "neuron" a. dendrites - receive impulse b. axon - transmit impulse

(4) Connective tissue - connects one tissue to another tissue 1. blood - fluid type ; transports hormones, nutrients, gases and waste products 3 components A. Solid a. Red blood cells - biconcave shapes ; no nucleus b. White blood cells - against invading microorganism c. Platelets - blood clotting mechanism B. Liquid - Plasma C. Gases - O2 & CO2 2. bone cells -osteocytes ; poke wheel Parts a. Canaliculi - small canals that serve as transport between one lamella to another b. Lacunae - space where the osteocytes are found c. Lamellae - concentric ridges d. Osteocytes - bone forming cells 1. Osteblast - young bone cell 2. Osteoclast - bone destroying cell e. Haversian Canal