Religion and Homosexuality

1. INTRODUCTION
Around the world, public opinion about homosexuality varies considerably. While, for example, same-sex marriage is permitted in Canada, Belgium, and the Netherlands, homosexuality is illegal and gay marriage is unthinkable in most African nations. To understand why some countries have such strong penalties for homosexuality, we turn to the literature on public opinion and the role that culture and religion have in shaping it. Since public opinion is an important factor in developing laws and policies, understanding the source of these attitudes can shed light on why some nations have such liberal policies, and others continue to punish sexual behaviors like homosexuality. 2. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RELIGION AND HOMOSEXUALITY
The relationship between religion and homosexuality can vary greatly across time and place, within and between different religions and sects, and regarding different forms of homosexuality and bisexuality. Current doctrines of some of the world's largest religions generally view homosexuality negatively. This can range from quietly discouraging homosexual activity, explicitly forbidding same-sex sexual practices among adherents and actively opposing social acceptance of homosexuality, to execution.
Most who are opposed to homosexuality argue that homosexual sexual activity is a sin, not the sexual orientation. Several organizations exist asserting conversion therapy can help diminish same-sex attraction. However within these religions there are also people who view homosexuality positively, and some religious denominations may bless same-sex marriages.

3. HOMOSEXUALITY IN ANCIENT GREECE
Expressions of homosexuality in ancient Greece were commonplace. The ancient Greeks are widely known for their homosexual exploits. Many ordinary people are aware of Greek homosexual love poetry, the same-sex relations of Greek gods and heroes, and the homosexual relationship between Alexander the Great and Hephaestion.
This is only a recent development. Until the second half of the 20th century, historians avoided saying much about the sexuality of the ancient Greeks out of sense of propriety. In 1901, an English classicist named John Addington Symonds published A Problem in Greek Ethics addressing homosexuality in Ancient Greece, but it was provided only to "medical psychologists and jurists" and the number of copies was intended to remain under 100.
However, the practices of the ancient Greeks differ significantly from those generally advocated by moderns. Greek homosexual activities were practiced as expressions of love and devotion, but were also firmly embedded in their culture of social status and therefore had distinct limitations.
Homosexuality is regarded as shameful by barbarians and by those who live under despotic governments just as philosophy is regarded as shameful by them, because it is apparently not in the interest of such rulers to have great ideas engendered in their subjects, or powerful friendships or passionate love-all of which homosexuality is particularly apt to produce.
The form of homosexuality that was most common in ancient Greece was pederasty, meaning a relationship between an adult man and a male youth. For the Greeks, pederasty was more than a sexual pastime or preference; it was nearly a social institution. A same-sex relationship between an older man, probably in his 20s or 30s, known as the erastes, and a beardless boy, the eromenos or paidika, became a cultural ideal. The relationship was regarded as mutually beneficial, as the older man would educate, protect, love, and provide a role model for his lover, while the eromenos offered his partner with beauty, youth, admiration, and love.
The relationship began with a courtship ritual, involving gifts and other norms, and the erastes was to demonstrate that he had nobler interests in the boy rather than a purely sexual concern. The boy was not to submit too easily, and if pursued by more than one man, was to show discretion and pick the nobler one.
Another common form of homosexuality in classical Greece originated in the symposion, an aristocratic male drinking group. Guests reclined on couches in front of low tables laid with light snacks and a mildly alcoholic water-wine mixture.
The wine was poured by young male or female slaves, often chosen for their beauty. There were games, entertainments performed by the slaves, speeches, and conversations. The evening often ended with a drunken riot through the streets.
According to the Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World, the symposion was the main reason for the importance of homosexuality in ancient Greece, as it became the focus of expressions of love, sex, and liaisons both physical and spiritual.
Homosexual liaisons occurred both between drinkers and with slave boys, and the "idealization of these emotions inspired some of the highest expressions of love in European literature."
In ancient Greece, same-sex romantic and sexual attractions were often regarded as a matter of taste or preference rather than a moral issue. However, social status was of utmost importance, as was the differentiation between the active and passive roles in male homosexuality. 4. HOMOSEXUALITY AND BUDDHISM
Buddhism is often characterized as distrustful of sensual enjoyment and sexuality in general. Traditionally, homosexual conduct and gender variance are seen as obstacles to spiritual progress in most schools of Buddhism; as such monks are expected to refrain from all sexual activity, and the Vinaya (the first book of the Tripitaka) specifically prohibits sexual intercourse, then further explain that both anal, oral as well as vaginal intercourse amount to sexual intercourse, which will result in permanent exclusion from Sangha. A notable exception in the history of Buddhism occurred in Japan during the Edo period, in which male homosexuality, or more specifically, love between young novices and older monks, was celebrated.
The third of the Five Precepts of Buddhism states that one is to refrain from sexual misconduct; this precept has sometimes been interpreted to include homosexuality. The Dalai Lama of Tibetan Buddhism interprets sexual misconduct to include lesbian and gay sex, and indeed any sex other than penis-vagina intercourse, including oral sex, anal sex, and masturbation or other sexual activity with the hand; the only time sex is acceptable is when it performed for its natural purpose of procreation. However, the Dalai Lama supports human rights for all, "regardless of sexual orientation.
In Thailand, traditional accounts propose that "homosexuality arises as a karmic consequence of violating Buddhist proscriptions against heterosexual misconduct. These karmic accounts describe homosexuality as a congenital condition which cannot be altered, at least in a homosexual person's current lifetime, and have been linked with calls for compassion and understanding from the non-homosexual populace.

5. HOMOSEXUALITY AND CHRISTIANITY
Christian views on homosexuality sometimes differ between denominations, but they are more commonly seen between liberal and conservative branches of each denomination. As with many Christian debates on ethical issues, the discussion hinges on how the Bible ought to be interpreted, taking into account the historical context and the meaning of specific words. i. Homosexuality and the Bible
The Bible is the Christian sacred text, regarded as the ultimate authority by all denominations. It consists of the Old Testament (roughly equivalent to the Jewish Tanakh) and the New Testament. While the New Testament is the specifically Christian part of the Bible, both parts are regarded as equally authoritative. The following passages are those that are generally considered relavent to the Christian discussion of homosexuality, quoted from the NIV translation in the order they appear in the Bible. * Do not lie with a man as one lies with a woman; that is detestable. (Leviticus 18:22). * If a man lies with a man as one lies with a woman, both of them have done what is detestable. They must be put to death; their blood will be on their own heads. (Leviticus 20:13). * No Israelite man or woman is to become a shrine prostitute. (Deuteronomy 23:17). * In a similar way, Sodom and Gomorrah and the surrounding towns gave themselves up to sexual immorality and perversion. They serve as an example of those who suffer the punishment of eternal fire. (Jude 7)

ii. Homosexuality and Some Modern Christianity a. Adventism
The Seventh-day Adventist Church is opposed to homosexual practices and relationships on the grounds that "sexual intimacy belongs only within the marital relationship of a man and a woman." It believes the Bible consistently affirms the pattern of heteromonogamy, and all sexual relations outside the scope of spousal intimacy are contrary to God's original plan. b. Anglicanism
The Anglican Communion is divided over the issue of homosexuality. Generally the provinces of North America, Europe, Australia, New Zealand and southern Africa, and the Archbishop of Canterbury, hold the view that there are no grounds to condemn homosexuality as sinful in the Bible. Other provinces, such as the majority of Africa and the West Indies, as well as evangelical groups within Anglicanism, hold the view that homosexuality is a sin and believe there are biblical grounds for its condemnation. The latter have threatened schism if their counterparts continue their current practice on the subject. c. Methodism
The United Methodist Church officially considers "the practice of homosexuality incompatible with Christian teaching" and states that "self-avowed practicing homosexuals" cannot be ordained as ministers. Some local congregations, especially members of the Reconciling Ministries Network, have defied the church leadership on this issue and have fought the policy in church courts. In 1987, a Methodist church court in New Hampshire defrocked Methodist minister Rose Mary Denman for being openly gay. In March 2004, a church court in Washington state acquitted minister Karen Dammann, who lived with a same-sex partner, based on an ambiguity in church law. That ambiguity was then eliminated by the Methodist supreme court, and in December 2004 a church court in Pennsylvania defrocked minister Irene Elizabeth Stroud, who lives with a same-sex partner, voting to convict by a seven-to-six majority, though a later higher court overturned the conviction and reinstated her.
Politically, the Methodist church has supported civil rights for gays, although it is unclear whether that support extends to same-sex marriage. d. Roman Catholicism
The Roman Catholic Church describes the homosexual orientation as "an objective disorder" (On the Pastoral Care of Homosexual Persons, 1986). The Catechism of the Catholic Church recognizes that homosexuality is not necessarily a matter of choice, but that such persons must nevertheless refrain from homosexual acts. 6. HOMOSEXUALITY AND HINDUISM
Hinduism has taken various positions, ranging from positive to neutral or antagonistic. Referring to the nature of Samsara,theRigveda,one of the four canonical sacred texts of Hinduism says 'VikrutiEvamPrakriti' (perversity/diversity is what nature is all about, or, what seems un-natural is also natural). Sexuality is rarely discussed openly in Hindu society, and LGBT issues are largely a taboo subject — especially among the strongly religious. A "third gender" has been acknowledged within Hinduism since Vedic times. Several Hindu texts, such as Manu Smritiand SushrutaSamhita, assert that some people are born with either mixed male and female natures, or sexually neuter, as a matter of natural biology. They worked as hairdressers, flower-sellers, servants, masseurs and prostitutes. Today, many people of a "third gender" (hijras) live throughout India, mostly on the margins of society, and many still work in prostitution, or make a livelihood as beggars.
Several Hindu religious laws contain injunctions against homosexual activity, while some Hindu mythologies speak favorably of lesbian relations and some third-gendered individuals were highly regarded by Hindu legends. Hindu groups are historically not unifyed regarding the issue of homosexuality, each one having a distinct doctrinal view.
The Indian Kama Sutra, written in the 4th century AD, contains passages describing eunuchs or "third-sex" males performing oral sex on men. However, the author was "not a fan of homosexual activities" and treated such individuals with disdain, according to historian DevduttPattanaik. Similarly, some medieval Hindu temples and artifacts openly depict both male homosexuality and lesbianism within their carvings, such as the temple walls at Khajuraho. Some infer from these images that Hindu society and religion were previously more open to variations in human sexuality than they are at present. 7. HOMOSEXUALITY AND ISLAM
In Islam, homosexuality is condemned in the story of Lot's people in the Qur'an (15:73; 26:165) and in the last address of the Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W). However, attraction of men to beautiful male youths has been a part of the culture of some Islamic societies and the attraction is not generally condemned in itself.
Islamic teachings (in the hadith tradition) presume same-sex attraction, extol abstention and (in the Qur'an) condemn consummation.
The discourse on homosexuality in Islam is primarily concerned with activities between men. There are, however, a few hadith mentioning homosexual behavior in women; thefuqaha’ are agreed that there is no hadd punishment for lesbianism, because it is not zina. Rather a ta’zeer punishment must be imposed, because it is a sin.'".Relations between women, if they are regarded as problems, are treated akin to adultery, and al-Tamari records an execution of a harem couple under Caliph al-Hadi.
Islam allows and promotes filial love between siblings of the same sex. However, sexual activities between them are totally prohibited. IbnHazm, IbnDaud, Al-Mutamid, Abu Nuwas and many others used this edict to write extensively and openly of brotherly love between men while proclaiming to be chaste. 8. HOMOSEXUALITY AND JUDAISM
The known history of homosexuality in Judaism begins in Leviticus, which describes intercourse between male homosexuals as a capital offence. The historically prevalent view among Jews was to regard homosexual intercourse as sinful, arguing that it was forbidden by the Torah. However, this has been a subject of contention between various Jewish groups and has led to both debate and division among modern Jews.
The Torah (first five books of the Hebrew Bible) is the primary source for Jewish views on homosexuality. It states that: "[A man] shall not lie with another man as [he would] with a woman, it is a toeba ("abomination")" (Leviticus 18:22). (Like many similar commandments, the stated punishment for willful violation is the death penalty, although in practice rabbinic Judaism no longer believes it has the authority to implement death penalties.)
Orthodox Judaism views homosexual acts as sinful. Conservative Judaism has engaged in an in-depth study of homosexuality since the 1990s with various rabbis presenting a wide array of responsa (papers with legal arguments) for communal consideration. The official position of the movement is to welcome homosexual Jews into their synagogues, and also campaign against any discrimination in civil law and public society, but also to uphold a ban on anal sex as a religious requirement.
Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism in North America and Liberal Judaism in the United Kingdom view homosexuality to be acceptable on the same basis as heterosexuality. Progressive Jewish authorities believe either that traditional laws against homosexuality are no longer binding or that they are subject to changes that reflect a new understanding of human sexuality. Some of these authorities rely on modern biblical scholarship suggesting that the prohibition in the Torah was intended to ban coercive or ritualized homosexual sex, such as those practices ascribed to Egyptian and Canaanite fertility cults and temple prostitution. 9. HOMOSEXUALITY AND SIKHISM
Homosexuality in Sikhism is, as in other religions, a very controversial subject. This is especially true in societies that are more tolerant of homosexuality. Most Sikhs however do not strongly disapprove of homosexuality.
Sikhism has no written view on the matter, but in 2005, a Sikh religious authority described homosexuality as "against the Sikh religion and the Sikh code of conduct and totally against the laws of nature," and called on Sikhs to support laws against gay marriage. Many Sikhs are against this view, however, and state that the Sikh Scriptures promote equality and do not condemn homosexuality.
Those Sikhs who are supportive of homosexuality believe that there is nothing unnatural about homosexuality and that it is perfectly normal for a minority of adults. They believe that the concept of family is not restricted to a man and a woman and their biological children, but can come in many other forms including same-sex couples

10. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
This study is the first to systematically explore the influence of a survival vs. self-expressive cultural orientation on attitudes about homosexuality.
These findings suggest that we may need to reorient our thinking about the relationship between religion, and tolerance for unfamiliar groups. Economic and political stability is likely to make all people within a nation more tolerant of nonnormativegroups and ideas. However, as economic and political stability contributes to a self-expressive value orientation, religious attitudes may not become more liberal. Rather than religion having less of an influence on attitudes as nations develop, shifts from survival to self-expression are likely to provide a greater role for religion to influence attitudes. This study can help explain why religious beliefs in countries like the United States continue to have an important effect on people’s moral attitudes, even as the larger culture becomes more liberal. Likewise, this study offers some insight into what we might expect as countries further industrialize and develop –namely increasing tolerance for homosexuality, but also a stronger relationship between religious beliefs and disapproval of homosexuality.