Recidivism: Prison and Correctional Education

24 June 2005
Reducing the Prison Recidivism Rate
For Violent Criminals
Recidivism can be viewed as a public safety failure rate; new crime by convicted felony inmates and probationers and is measured by rates of re-arrest for a new misdemeanor or felony offense, reconviction on new charges, and re-incarceration or sentence to another court imposed sanction such as probation, a diversionary program, or a fine. Each measure has strengths and weaknesses, but combined, the three are a more comprehensive and accurate means to measure the rate of recidivism. At least 70% of inmates and 58% of probationers are re-arrested within three years of being released. Males have a high rate of recidivism and young minority offenders are rearrested more often. Most new crime is normally nonviolent, less serious felonies and misdemeanors with violent offenders being the least likely to recommit another violent crime.
The Department of Correctional Education offers academic, vocational and transition programs to those persons who enter the Department of Corrections. Academic programs include instruction in literacy (Literacy Incentive Program), which is mandated by state law for those inmates who score below a predetermined level on standardized testing, Adult Basic Education courses, and GED preparatory instruction. The vocational program includes instruction in 36 trade areas and coordinates an apprenticeship program in various areas. The transition program in the adult system is a relatively new endeavor of the department having been initiated at the Virginia Correctional Center for Women in 1992 and provides instruction in employability skills, career assessment, budgeting and financial management, and life planning.
Most inmates are re-arrested at least once after being released from prison. This does not mean that they committed new crimes, only that they either were suspected of having committed a new crime or violated some rule of their parole. When a crime is committed in the vicinity of a known offender, especially one that fits his or her description, he/she becomes a logical suspect. Once an offender has paid his or her debt to society, police should not automatically assume that an "innocent" person is guilty of a crime. Most people who fail parole fail not because they committed new crimes but because of technical violations. The Bureau of Justice Statistics (1999) reports that of all adults who left parole in 1998, 45% successfully completed their terms, and 42% were returned to incarceration. Only 13% were returned to prison with new sentences. This means most did not actually commit another crime. Irwin and Austin (1997: 116, 123) attribute parole failures to increased supervision capacities of parole officers and to an increased focus on the law enforcement function of parole as opposed to its social service function.
Studies have been conducted in several states and research indicates that prison college programs are among the best tools for reducing recidivism. Individuals who take college courses while in prison improve their chances of attaining and keeping employment after release and are less likely to commit additional crimes that lead to their return to prison. The effectiveness of these programs led to widespread adoption for several years. In 1965, only 12 post-secondary correctional education programs were operating in the United States. By 1982 there were 350 programs with approximately 27,000 inmates, representing almost 9% of the total prison population at the time, receiving some form of post-secondary education (Wolford & Littlefield, 1985). The rapid increase in these programs began in 1965 when Congress passed Title IV of the Higher Education Act. This Act permitted inmates to apply for Pell grants to be used for college courses. Even though higher education through Pell grants reduced an individual 's chances of returning to crime, finding better jobs and holding them for longer periods of time (Batiuk, Moke & Rountree), the U.S. Congress, under pressure from the public, added a provision in the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 eliminating Pell grants for prisoners.

Benefits of correction education
Corrections education has the potential to greatly reduce the costs associated with the cycle of incarceration and re-incarceration. A 1987 Bureau of Prisons report found that the more education an inmate received, the lower the rate of recidivism. Inmates who earned college degrees were the least likely to reenter prison. Inmates who had some high school, the recidivism rate was 54.6 percent; for college graduates the rate was 5.4 percent and for inmates with an associates degree it was 13.7 percent. The "Three State Recidivism Study" indicated that those who benefited from correctional education recidivated 29% less often than those who did not have educational opportunities while in the correctional institution (Steurer, Smith, and Tracy, 2001).
The Changing Minds study, conducted at Bedford Hills Correctional Facility in New York, examined the impact of college in prison after the elimination of Pell grants. This study demonstrated that college prison programs could save taxpayers millions of dollars and showed that college prison programs transform lives, reduce recidivism, create safer prisons and communities, and significantly reduce the cost of prisons (Fine et al, 2001).
A Maryland study demonstrated the effectiveness of educational intervention with inmate populations as related to post-release employment (Jenkins, Steurer, & Pendry, 1995). Of the sample selected, 77% of those persons who had completed formal educational offerings were employed as reported by a supervising parole officer. Those who completed programs were employed at a level above the established minimum wage. The conclusion of this study is clear: educational intervention for inmates results in more positive post-release functioning, including higher employment rates, the type and wages of employment found, and a person 's success on community supervision.

Patterns and trends in recidivism
Many of the same factors that cause a person to initially commit crime are common to repeat offenders. Although the research varies on which specific demographic or crime characteristics are the best predictors of recidivism, there is consensus that some factors have significant correlations to repeat criminal activity. The younger an offender is at first arrest as an adult, the more likely he or she is to become a repeat offender [See figure 1]. Some studies cited 25 to 35 percent of urban males are arrested for a serious crime at some time during their lives and are about three to five times more likely than females to be re-arrested [See figure 2]. Recidivism studies have found that certain minority groups such as African American and Hispanics tend to have higher rates of re-arrest and that African American males are two to three times more likely than Caucasian males to be arrested for a crime [See figure 3]. Studies further conclude, however, that substance abuse, socio-economic status, age, and prior criminal record are stronger predictors of recidivism than race. Many of the offenders who repeatedly committed crimes had a history of drug use. The more chronic and serious the substance abuse problems, the more likely the person was to re-offend and to have an extensive criminal record. Lack of educational attainment and /or work experience has made reintegration into the community after prison and complying with parole or probation requirements difficult for many offenders. Without such skills offenders have trouble attaining steady, gainful employment, and studies suggest these offenders will return to criminal activity either to earn a living or because they believe they have no other alternative lifestyle choice. Re-arrest rates for those without a high school diploma or job training have been shown to be much higher than for individuals with more experience or success in the job market. Offenders with multiple prior arrests and convictions, especially if concentrated in a short time span, are frequently re-arrested. There is a wide range of prison and community-based programs developed to rehabilitate, supervise, and treat offenders. They were designed to address the known causes and risk factors of crime, but there has not been systematic or scientific evaluation of the programs. Interventions for repeat offenders should combine a variety of components such as education, work training, counseling, and other services, be intensive, and be tailored to offender subgroups. However, programs, that have been proven to reduce recidivism in one setting or among a certain type of offender, are not always replicated successfully in another venue or with other offenders. Other means such as prison-based programs keep inmates occupied and may be used as incentives for good behavior thereby reducing disruptions and assaults on staff and other inmates. Community based-programs keep offenders busy and provide a structured routine for those who are not employed or attending school.

The Virginia Department of Correctional Education initiated a study of three thousand records of men and women released during the period 1979-1994 with regards to involvement in educational programs while incarcerated and post-release re-incarceration within the Virginia Department of Corrections and employment status while on parole/probation. Findings suggest that completion of an educational program while incarcerated may be positively and directly related to post-release community adjustment. The Bureau of Justice (1994a) estimates that in 1992, 91.2 violent crimes were committed in the United States for every 1,000 persons over the age of eleven. Approximately two-thirds of offenders released from state prisons will be rearrested for a new crime within three years of their release, and recidivists ' account for a substantial proportion of the crimes reported to the police. There is a common belief that systematic educational opportunities offered to those incarcerated does reduce the number of persons who are returned to prison after a period of incarceration. Current research offers empirical evidence that correctional education programs are effective in reducing crime. Gendreau and Ross (1979) reviewed 95 intervention studies with offenders conducted between 1973 and 1978 and found that 86% were successful, with reductions in recidivism ranging from 30-60%. Ross and Fabiano (1985) have described several deficits common to offenders that appear to be related to their criminality. This includes cognitive impulsivity, concrete reasoning, poor interpersonal problem solving, and a lack of social perspective. When offenders were provided intensive education to develop skills in these areas, recidivism was significantly reduced (Ross, Fabiano, and Ewles, 1988).
The Department of Correctional Education randomly selected three thousand (3,000) inmate records from inmate files located in the Department of Correctional Education repository for a study on inmates released from prison. Information related to educational program participation and program completion was extracted and entered into a data collection system. The identified records were then matched against existing Department of Corrections population lists to determine who had been re-incarcerated. The records of those who were not returned to custody and were still on parole or probation supervision were then cross referenced with parole office records to determine those employed. When possible, individual contact was made to gather data related to the type of employment, skill level, and program evaluation. Over four thousand (4,000) inmate records were initially included in the data pool. These records were selected at random utilizing existing student records housed at the Department of Correctional Education central office located in the James Monroe Building, Richmond, Virginia. The initial pool was screened and one thousand two hundred and seventy three (1,273) records were eliminated because of incomplete or inaccurate information. A working pool of three thousand records became the sample. The pool included records of persons, both men and women, released during the period 1979-1994.
Of the 1,307 persons who had no educational programming while incarcerated, 641 (49.04%) were re-incarcerated in the Virginia Department of Corrections; of the 907 completers of educational programming, 183 (20.17%) were re-incarcerated in the Virginia Department of Corrections. [See Table 1 below.]
Table 1
Percentage of Re-incarceration Total Number Percentage Number Re-incarcerated Re-incarcerated
No educational involvement during incarceration 1,307 641 49.1
Academic enrolled but did not complete 469 179 38.2
Vocational enrolled but did not complete 319 119 37.3
Academic completers 451 86 19.1
Vocational completers 456 97 21.3

Three hundred and forty seven persons were identified as being currently on parole supervision. A survey was sent to those parole districts to determine employment status. Out of the 183 individuals who had no educational programming while incarcerated, 77 (54.6%) were employed for a period exceeding ninety days; of the 96 individuals who were enrolled in educational programming but did not complete the program, 59 (61.4%) were employed by an employer for a period exceeding ninety days; and of the 68 individuals who completed educational programming, 53 (77.9%) were employed by an employer for a period exceeding ninety days. [See Table 2 below.]

Table 2
Employment Status for Individuals on Parole Number Percentage Employed Employed
183 had no educational programming while incarcerated 77 54.6
96 were enrolled but did not complete educational programming 59 61.4
68 completed educational programming 53 77.9

At more than $5 billion a year, California 's prison budget is among the highest in the nation, with a huge chunk spent on housing parolees who are returned to prison for new offenders. Of the 125,000 inmates released each year, 98,750 (79%) are back in prison before their paroles end. The 21% of California 's prisoners, who successfully complete their paroles, compares with a 42% national rate. It means that of the state 's 160,000 inmates. Two-thirds are doing time as former parolees, each cost the taxpayer at least $30,000 a year.
The Greatest Happiness Principle states that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness and wrong if they tend to produce the reverse of happiness can be acquainted with recidivism. If education and training in correctional facilities will produce the greatest good for the greatest number of people and is cost effective, every correctional institution in the United States should focus on the implementation and success of the education and training programs (Houston, 1999).
Many incarcerated individuals are released unconditionally, without parole or other post-release supervision after completely serving their prison term. Each of these individuals will be expected to begin leading a productive, law abiding life outside prison walls. Access to quality education is a cost effective method for increasing their chance of success. Oakland, California has implemented a program were inmates have been trained to be volunteer firefighters. An inmate that was fighting the recent fires said that "being a firefighter gave him great pleasure when he saw the joy and happiness of a family who house he had a hand in saving and to know that he was learning a skill that he could use once he was released from prison gave him something to look forward to." Considerable evidence shows that correctional education reduces crime, re-incarceration, reduction in recidivism rates, and higher wages for inmates who participate in education programs. Program have been put into place to help reduce the recidivism rate throughout the United States, but without the help and dedication of the people, the implementation and success will not only fail the prison inmates but will also fail the people of these our United States.

Works Cited
Batiuk, M., Moke, P., and Rountree, P. "Crime and Rehabilitation: Correctional Education as An Agent of Change-A Research Note," Justice Quarterly, 1997: 14.
Bureau of Justice Statistics (1994a) Criminal Victimization in the United States 1992 (NCJ-145125) Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Fine, M., et al. Changing Minds: The Impact of College in a Maximum Security Prison. The Graduate Center of the City University of New York, 2001. http://www.gc.cuny.edu/folio/index.htm
Gendreau, P., and Ross, R. "Effective correctional treatment: Bibliotherapy for cynics." Crime and Delinquency, 1979: 463-389.
Houston, James G. Correctional Management: Functions, Skills, and Systems. Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1999: 368. http://cga.ct.gov/pri/archives/2001ricreportchap1.htm. Irwin, J., and J. Austin. "It 's about Time: America 's Imprisonment Binge." Belmont: Wadsworth, 1997: 116, 123.
Robinson, Matthew B. Justice Blind: Ideals and Realities of American Criminal Justice. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 2002: 318.
Ross, R., Fabiano, E., and Ewles, C. Reasoning and Rehabilitation. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 32, 1988: 29-35.
Steurer, S., Smith, L., and Tracy, A. "Three State Recidivism Study." Prepared for the Office of Correctional Education, U.S. Department of Education. Lanham, MD: Correctional education Association, 2001.

Cited: Batiuk, M., Moke, P., and Rountree, P. "Crime and Rehabilitation: Correctional Education as An Agent of Change-A Research Note," Justice Quarterly, 1997: 14. Bureau of Justice Statistics (1994a) Criminal Victimization in the United States 1992 (NCJ-145125) Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Fine, M., et al. Changing Minds: The Impact of College in a Maximum Security Prison. The Graduate Center of the City University of New York, 2001. http://www.gc.cuny.edu/folio/index.htm Gendreau, P., and Ross, R. "Effective correctional treatment: Bibliotherapy for cynics." Crime and Delinquency, 1979: 463-389. Houston, James G. Correctional Management: Functions, Skills, and Systems. Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1999: 368. http://cga.ct.gov/pri/archives/2001ricreportchap1.htm. Irwin, J., and J. Austin. "It 's about Time: America 's Imprisonment Binge." Belmont: Wadsworth, 1997: 116, 123. Robinson, Matthew B. Justice Blind: Ideals and Realities of American Criminal Justice. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 2002: 318. Ross, R., Fabiano, E., and Ewles, C. Reasoning and Rehabilitation. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 32, 1988: 29-35. Steurer, S., Smith, L., and Tracy, A. "Three State Recidivism Study." Prepared for the Office of Correctional Education, U.S. Department of Education. Lanham, MD: Correctional education Association, 2001.