Pharmacopaper
Bilal I. H. Simms
Grand Canyon University: Pharmacology and Addictions
3/20/13
Historical Perspective
For thousands of years psychoactive substances were utilized for both intoxication and medical purposes. Research shows that ancient civilizations were located where various substances were indigenous to the land. In many cultures it was customary to use these psychoactive substances on various occasions such as for the reduction of anxiety before battle, in rituals and ceremonies, and also to relieve social phobia at a party. Some of the earlier identified civilizations like the Mayans, Incans, and Aztec hieroglyphs have depicted substance use for ritualistic reasons (Francis, Mack, & Miller, 2005).
With respect to the pharmacology of substance use, it is believed that various factors affect choice of psychoactive substance use among varying populations. Historical and cultural factors may theoretically affect the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of psychoactive substance, just as the pharmacology of these substances may affect their historical and traditional use. A case and point is the flushing reaction observed among a greater-than-expected- number of Asians and Native Americans (Francis, Mack, & Miller, 2005). This particular flushing reaction has been offered as a reason for two opposite phenomena:
1. The low rates of alcoholism among Asian peoples, who presumably find the reaction aversive and hence drink little-although rates are increasing across much of Asia.
2. The high rates of alcoholism among certain Native America groups, who presumably must “drink though” their flushing reaction to experience other alcohol effect (Francis et al, 2005).
Arguably so, it was historically believed that there had been some biological causation that depicted the varying effects of psychoactive substances among different ethnic groups. However, when it comes to an individual’s experience with psychoactive substances use, dual roles are more
Grand Canyon University: Pharmacology and Addictions
3/20/13
Historical Perspective
For thousands of years psychoactive substances were utilized for both intoxication and medical purposes. Research shows that ancient civilizations were located where various substances were indigenous to the land. In many cultures it was customary to use these psychoactive substances on various occasions such as for the reduction of anxiety before battle, in rituals and ceremonies, and also to relieve social phobia at a party. Some of the earlier identified civilizations like the Mayans, Incans, and Aztec hieroglyphs have depicted substance use for ritualistic reasons (Francis, Mack, & Miller, 2005).
With respect to the pharmacology of substance use, it is believed that various factors affect choice of psychoactive substance use among varying populations. Historical and cultural factors may theoretically affect the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of psychoactive substance, just as the pharmacology of these substances may affect their historical and traditional use. A case and point is the flushing reaction observed among a greater-than-expected- number of Asians and Native Americans (Francis, Mack, & Miller, 2005). This particular flushing reaction has been offered as a reason for two opposite phenomena:
1. The low rates of alcoholism among Asian peoples, who presumably find the reaction aversive and hence drink little-although rates are increasing across much of Asia.
2. The high rates of alcoholism among certain Native America groups, who presumably must “drink though” their flushing reaction to experience other alcohol effect (Francis et al, 2005).
Arguably so, it was historically believed that there had been some biological causation that depicted the varying effects of psychoactive substances among different ethnic groups. However, when it comes to an individual’s experience with psychoactive substances use, dual roles are more
References: Chao, J., & Nestler, E. J. (2004). Molecular neurobiology of drug addiction. Annual Review Of Medicine, 55113-132. doi:10.1146/annurev.med.55.091902.103730 De Fonseca, F., & Schneider, M. (2008). The endogenous cannabinoid system and drug addiction: 20 years after the discovery of the CB1 receptor. Addiction Biology, 13(2), 143-146. doi:10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00116.x Fortuna, J. L., & Smelson, D. A. (2008). The phenomenon of drug craving. Journal Of Psychoactive Drugs, 40(3), 255-261. doi:10.1080/02791072.2008.10400640 Kalivas, P. W. (2007). Neurobiology of cocaine addiction: Implications for new pharmacotherapy. The American Journal On Addictions, 16(2), 71-78. doi:10.1080/10550490601184142 Kozlowski, L. T., & Edwards, B. (2004). Breaking Up With Your Drug Can Be Hard to Do, But is it Mainly Because Compulsive Behavior Involves Specific Brain Regions?. Addiction, 99(12), doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2004.00896. Laviolette, S. R., & van der Kooy, D. (2004). The neurobiology of nicotine addiction: Bridging the gap from molecules to behaviour. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 5(1), 55-65. doi:10.1038/nrn1298 Frances, J. R., Mack, H. A, Miller, I. S., &. (2005).Clinical textbook of addictive disorders. New York, NY: The Guilford Press. DOI: www.guilford.com