Literature Review

Literature Review 1
Jennifer McReynolds
Northcentral University

Literature Review 1
Research in the area of personality theory has numerous multifaceted concepts. Individualism and collectivism are two of these concepts. Another major concept that must be considered is Michel’s critique. The use of both microcontexts and macrocontexts aid in the understanding of personality theories. Personality also can be understood through the concept of modern interactionism. Understanding how human personality develops can lead to an increased understanding of the behaviors of individuals.
Individualism and Collectivism Every culture in society is unique however each exhibits some degree of individualism or collectivism (McAdams, 2009). Prior research indicates that these concepts influence the social behaviors of individuals. Individuals develop their self-concepts in ways that reflect their experiences within an individualistic or collectivistic society. Kulkarni et al. (2010) sought to determine if the United States and Ireland exhibit more individualistic behaviors than the other countries of Israel, India, and Bulgaria. According to this study, these cultures have difference levels of individualism and collectivism across several dimensions. These dimensions include: lack of sacrifice for the group, individual welfare, solitary work preference, supremacy in both individual goals and interests, and competitiveness (Kulkarni et al., 2010). Kulkarni et al. (2010) used a self-report survey to collect data concerning individualism and collectivism. The sample included 219 subjects from the United States, Ireland, India, Bulgaria, and Israel. Composed of 27 items, the measurement tool collected information on the seven factors (Kulkarni et al., 2010). Information concerning the age and work experience was also collected from each subject. The study found that societies are not simply either individualistic or collectivistic but rather lie somewhere along a continuum with aspects of both within their culture (Kulkarni et al., 2010). Understanding how these concepts affect the personalities and behaviors of individuals is extremely important in the world today because organizations send their employees all around the world.
Michel 's Critique Walter Michel offered his own perspective on the study of personality theory proposing that the behaviors of humans are based on specific situations rather than on personality traits (McAdams, 2009). This theory posits that personality traits are subjective and based solely on the opinion of the observer. Michel sparked the person-situation debate, which supports the idea that an individual’s behavior is specific to the situation that he or she is in and is not consistent from one situation to the next. The behavioral differences across situations can be explained by the differences in stimuli within each situation. Michel’s critique is supported by significant empirical data (McAdams, 2009). Smith (2009) explored Michel’s critique by examining its application to sports psychology. In this study, researchers studied the observed behaviors of coaches during youth baseball games. The Coaching Behavior Assessment System (CABS) was used in this study (Smith, 2008). The CABS examines supportiveness through the analysis of 12 behavioral categories. The sample consisted of 13 coaches observed across 53 baseball games. The CABS provides adequate information concerning the constructs of sports psychology (Smith, 2008).
One construct is achievement goal theory, which attempts to understand the meanings and functioning of goal directed actions. Another important construct is sport performance anxiety. The study conducted by Smith (2009) indicates the importance of applying the cognitive social theory in numerous areas of psychology. Michel’s critique has provided fuel for the person-situation debate for years. The CABS is influential in helping to resolve this issue (Smith, 2008). Further research in this area is needed, but this study does provide adequate information upon which to build.
Microcontexts and Macrocontexts The concepts of microcontexts and macrocontexts are important to research in the area of personality psychology. Microcontexts can be defined as the “immediate and short-term environmental contexts for behavior” (McAdams, 2009, p. 518). In contrast, aspects such as culture, race, and gender are macrocontexts. Muftic (2009) sought to explain the value of both macro and micro theoretical integration. This study also discusses other theories to which multi-level theoretical integration may be beneficial (Muftic, 2009). The focus of the study was to determine the most effective method by which the field of criminology could be advanced through multi-level theoretical integration. With multi-level theoretical integration, macro and micro theoretical explanations are combined to create a better understanding of the concept (Muftic, 2009). Through this application, a link can be created between crime rates and social structural characteristics. Micro-level theories suggest that variations in crime can be explained through individual characteristics. The unique differences of the individual determine the probability that the individual will engage in a criminal act (Muftic, 2009). An individual’s interactions with others in his or her environment are the cause of these individual differences. However, measurable differences between criminals and non-criminals do exist because individual characteristics can be used to explain crime (Muftic, 2009). Crime and delinquency can be explained using multi-level analysis because both macro and micro level variables can be controlled, which allows researchers to discover more accurate causes of crime and delinquency.

Modern Interactionism According to McAdams (2009), interactionism is the idea that an individual’s behavior is based on his or her interaction with the environment. Reynolds et al. (2010) attempted to create a plausible and integrated approach that will increase understanding of individuals and their behaviors. These researchers used information from dynamic interactionism to accomplish this goal. Interactionism can best be understood through the Gestalt theory (Reynolds et al., 2010). This theory supports the concept that an individual and his or her environment should be studied as a whole unit. Interactionism is useful in personality psychology because the person is viewed as both a group member and an individual.
As explained by Reynolds et al. (2010), both self-categorization theory and the social identity theory are useful in explaining the process by which an individual shifts between self-categorization and self-definition. Furthermore, the reasons an individual perceives a stimuli in a specific way is related to its context. With this concept, all aspects of the individual are considered (Reynolds et al., 2010). A connection can be made between personality and social psychology through the application of internationalism. Through the connection of these fields of study, new lines of theory can be developed.
Conclusion
Interactionism is an extremely effective method by which to understand the personality of humans. Applying both microcontexts and macrocontexts to research is necessary in order to gain more detailed and accurate results. Michel also influenced the area of personality psychology by offering a different perspective that helped increase both the interest and understanding of personality. Furthermore, understanding whether a society is individualistic or collectivistic provides valuable insight that can help explain more accurately why an individual behaves the way he or she does. Whether through the application of the trait theories or by studying an individual’s behaviors within a given situation, personality psychology research can create a better understanding of human behaviors.

References
Kulkarni, S. P., Hudson, T., Ramamoorthy, N., Marchev, A., Georgieva-Kondakova, P., & Gorskov, V. (2010). Dimensions of individualism-collectivism: A comparative study of five cultures. Current Issues of Business and Law, 5(1), 93-109. doi:10.5200/1822-9530.2010.03
McAdams, D. P. (2009). The person: An introduction to the science of personality psychology (5th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Muftic, L. R. (2009). Macro-micro theoretical integration: An unexplored theoretical frontier. Journal of theoretical and Philosophical Criminology, 1(2), 33-71. Retrieved from http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/ehost/detail?vid=4&sid=e2e9184f-cc2c-4c35-9755-259e8d156f80%40sessionmgr104&hid=108&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d
Reynolds, K. J., Turner, J. C., Branscombe, N. R., Mavor, K. I., Bizmic, B., & Subasic, E. (2010). Interactionism in personality and social psychology: An integrated approach to understanding the mind and behavior. European Journal of Personality, 24(1), 458-482. doi:10.1002/per.782
Smith, R. E. (2008). Advances in cognitive-social-personality theory: Applications to sport psychology. Revista de Psicologia de Deporte, 17(2), 253-276. Retrieved from http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=6&hid=104&sid=14580887-4de1-4cca-b36f-904a11b85792%40sessionmgr111

References: Kulkarni, S. P., Hudson, T., Ramamoorthy, N., Marchev, A., Georgieva-Kondakova, P., & Gorskov, V. (2010). Dimensions of individualism-collectivism: A comparative study of five cultures. Current Issues of Business and Law, 5(1), 93-109. doi:10.5200/1822-9530.2010.03 McAdams, D. P. (2009). The person: An introduction to the science of personality psychology (5th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Muftic, L. R. (2009). Macro-micro theoretical integration: An unexplored theoretical frontier. Journal of theoretical and Philosophical Criminology, 1(2), 33-71. Retrieved from http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/ehost/detail?vid=4&sid=e2e9184f-cc2c-4c35-9755-259e8d156f80%40sessionmgr104&hid=108&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d Reynolds, K. J., Turner, J. C., Branscombe, N. R., Mavor, K. I., Bizmic, B., & Subasic, E. (2010). Interactionism in personality and social psychology: An integrated approach to understanding the mind and behavior. European Journal of Personality, 24(1), 458-482. doi:10.1002/per.782 Smith, R. E. (2008). Advances in cognitive-social-personality theory: Applications to sport psychology. Revista de Psicologia de Deporte, 17(2), 253-276. Retrieved from http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=6&hid=104&sid=14580887-4de1-4cca-b36f-904a11b85792%40sessionmgr111