Introduction to Sociology: National Open University of Nigeria
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
COURSE CODE: CSS 111
COURSE TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY
CSS 111
COURSE GUIDE
COURSE GUIDE CSS 111 INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY
Course Developer/Writer Solomon Ojo University of Ibadan Dr. (Mrs.) I. Udofot National Open University of Nigeria
Course Co-ordinator
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA ii CSS 111
COURSE GUIDE
National Open University of Nigeria Headquarters 14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way Victoria Island Lagos Abuja office No. 5 Dar es Salaam Street, Off Aminu Kanu Crescent Wuse II, Abuja Nigeria e-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.ng URL: www.nou.edu.ng Published by: National Open University of Nigeria 2008 First Printed 2004 ISBN: 978-058-348-3 All Rights Reserved
iii
CSS 111
COURSE GUIDE
CONTENTS
Introduction ………………………………………………… What You Will Learn in This Course ……………………… Course Aims ………………………………………………... Course Objectives…………………………………………… Working Through This Course………………………………. Course Materials ……………………………………………. Study Units ………………………………………………….. Textbooks and References…………………………………... Assignment File …………………………………………….. Assessment ………………………………………………….. Course Marking Scheme ……………………………………. Course Overview ……………………………………………. How to Get the Most from This Course ……………………. Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials …………………………….
PAGES
1 1 1 2 2 3 3- 4 4 4 4- 5 5- 6 6- 7 7- 9 9 - 10
iv
Introduction
GSl15: Introduction to Sociology is a one year, twenty credit, foundation level course. It will be available to all students to take towards the core module of their BSc. and BSc. (Hons.) in Co-operative Management. This course is suitable for any foundation student in the school of Business and Administration. The course will consist of twenty units, which involves Definition of Sociology (consisting of its origin, its scope, its uses and its methods, etc.), leadership, social change, conformity, power, marriage and family. This material has been developed for Nigerian students. There are compulsory prerequisites for this course. This Course Guide tells you briefly what the course is about, what you are expected to know in each unit, what course materials you will be using and how you can work your way through these materials. It also emphasises the need for tutor-marked assignments. Detailed information on tutor-marked assignments is found in the separate file, which will be sent to you later. There are periodic tutorial classes that are linked to the course.
What You Will Learn in This Course
The overall aim ofGSl15: Introduction to Sociology is to introduce the students to the basic concept in Sociology, Social issues in Sociology and general introduction of Sociology. During this course, you will learn about the definition of Sociology, its origins, its scopes, uses and methods. The course will also expose you to some practical social issues in our society in particular and the world in general. These social issues include family and marriage; power and authority, socialisation and leadership. Your understanding in this course will prepare you fully for other social sciences, and hence you will be grounded in Social Sciences. Specifically, this course will make you to have a better understanding of your main programme, Co-operative Management.
Course Aims
The aim of the course can be summarised as follows: this course aims to give you an understanding of basic concepts in Sociology, Social issues in Sociology and general introduction of Sociology.
CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
Course Objectives
To achieve the aims set above, there are set overall objectives. In addition, each unit also has specific objectives. The unit objectives are always included at the beginning of a unit; you should read them before you start working through the unit. You may want to refer to them during your study of the unit to check on your progress. You should always look at the unit objectives after completing a unit. In this way, definitely, you can be sure that you have done what was required of you by the unit. Stated below are the wider objectives of this course as a whole. Definitely, by meeting these objectives, you should therefore know that you have achieved the aims of the course as a whole. On successful completion of the course, you should be able to: Know the definition of sociology, its scope, its origin, its methods and its uses. Know the meanings of family and marriage, their activities and relationships. Know the concepts of socialisation, conformity and deviance. know the concepts of leadership, power and authority, and their relationships. Know the concepts of group, social organisation and social interactions. Know the concepts of social stratification, social differentiation and social mobility. know the processes and importance of collective behaviour, public opinion and social change.
Working through This Course
To complete this course, you are required to read the study units, read recommended books and read other materials provided by the National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN). Each unit contains some selfassessment exercises, and at points in the course, you are required to submit assignments for assessment purposes. At the end of this course is a final examination. Stated below are all the components of the course and what you have to do.
ii
CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
Course Materials
Major components of the course are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Course Guide Study Units Textbooks Assignment File Presentation
In addition, you must obtain the text materials. They are provided by the N0UN; so therefore, obtain your copy. You may also be required to purchase your own copy from the bookshops. You may contact your tutor if you have problems in obtaining the text materials.
Study Units
There are twenty study units in this course, as follows: Module 1 Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Module 2 Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Module 3 Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Social Organisations Group Social Differentiation Religion Social Interactions Conformity Deviance Power Authority Leadership Definition of Sociology Family Marriage Society and Culture Socialisation
iii
CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
Module 4 Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Social Stratification Social Mobility Collective Behaviour Public Opinion and Propaganda Social Change
Each unit contains a number of self-tests. In general, these self-tests question you on the materials you have just covered or require you to apply it in some ways and, thereby, help you to gauge your progress and to reinforce your understanding of the material. Together with tutormarked assignments, these exercises will assist you in achieving the stated learning objectives of the individual units and of the course.
Textbooks and References
You are required to purchase these textbooks stated below. They are compulsory for you: Gelles, R. J & Levine, A. (1996). Sociology: An Introduction. (6th ed.) McGraw Hill Giddens, A. (1993). Sociology: An introduction. Polity Press in Association with Blackwell Publishers, (2nd ed.)
Assignment File
The Assignment file will be posted to you in due course. In this file, you will find all the details of the work you must submit to your tutor for marking. The marks you obtain for these assignments will count towards the final mark you obtain for this course. Further information on assignment will be found in the Assignment File, itself and later in this Course Guide in the section on assessment. There are more than thirty Assignments for this course. Each unit is loaded with a minimum of two Assignments. In any way, there are many Assignments for this course and they cover every unit.
Assessment
There are two aspects to the assessment of the course. First are the tutormarked assignments; second, there is a written examination. In tackling these assignments, you are expected to apply information, knowledge and experience gathered during the course. The assignments
iv
CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
must be submitted to your tutor for formal assessment in accordance with the deadlines stated in the Assignment File. The work you submit to your tutor for assessment will count for 50% of your total course mark. At the end of the course, you will need to sit for a final written examination of three hours' duration. This examination will also count for 50% of your total course mark. There are twenty tutor-marked assignments in this course. You only need to submit all the assignments. The best five (i.e. the highest five of the twenty marks) will be counted. Each assignment counts 20 marks but on the average when the five assignments are put together, then each assignment will now count 10% towards your total course mark. This indicates that the total marks for the best five (5) assignments which would have been 100 marks will now be 50% of your total course mark. Assignment questions for the units in this course are contained in the Assignment File. You will be able to complete your assignments from the information and materials contained in your set books, reading and study units. However, it is desirable in all degree level-education to demonstrate that you have read and researched more widely than the required minimum. Using other references will give you a broader viewpoint and may provide a deeper understanding of the subject. When each assignment is completed, send it, together with a TMA (tutor-marked assignment) form, to your tutor. Make sure that each assignment reaches your tutor on or before the deadline given in the, Assignment File. If, for any reason, you cannot complete your work on time, contact your tutor before the assignment is due to discuss the possibility of an extension. Extensions will not be granted after the due' date unless there are exceptional circumstances. The final examination for GS 115 will be of three hours' duration and have a value of 50% of the total course grade. The examination will consists of questions which reflect the practice exercises and tutormarked problems you have previously encountered. All areas of the course will be assessed. Use the time between finishing the last unit and sitting the examination to revise the entire course. You might find it useful to review your tutormarked assignments and comment on them before the examination. The final examination covers information from all parts of the course.
v
CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
Course Marking Scheme
The following table lays out how the actual course marking is broken down: Table 1: Course marking scheme Assessment Marks Assignment 1-20
Final examination Total
20 assignments, best five marks of twenty count @ 10% each (on the averages) = 50% of course marks 50% of overall course marks 100% of course marks
Course Overview
This table brings together the units, the number of weeks you should take to complete them, and the assignments that follow them. Table 2: Course Organiser Unit Title of Work Course Guide Module 1 1 2 3 4 5 Definition of Sociology Family Marriage Society and Culture Socialization Module 2 1 2 3 4 5 Conformity Deviance Power Authority Leadership Module 3 1 2 3 Social Organizations Group Social Differentiation 4 4 3 Assignment 1l Assignment 12 Assignment 13 Assignment 14 3 6 3 3 3 Assignment 6 Assignment 7 Assignment 8 Assignment 8 Assignment 10 Weeks Activity 1 Assessment (end of unit)
3 3 3 3 4
Assignment 1 Assignment 2 Assignment 3 Assignment 4 Assignment 5
vi
CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
4 5
Religion Social Interaction Module 4
3 3
Assignment 15
1 2 3 4 5
Social Stratification Social Mobility Collective Behaviour Public Opinion Social Change Revision Total
4 3 4 3 4 2
Assignment 16 Assignment 17 Assignment 18 Assignment 19 Assignment 20
How to Get the Most from This Course
In distance learning, the study units replace the university lecture. This is one of the great advantages of distance learning; you can read and work through specially designed study materials at your own pace, and at a time and place that suit you best. Think of it as reading the lecture instead of listening to a lecturer. .In the same way that a lecturer might set you some reading to do, the study units tell you when to read, your text materials or set books. You are provided exercises to do at appropriate points, just as a lecturer might give you an in-class exercise. Each of the study units follows a common format. The first item is an introduction to the subject matter of the unit and how a particular unit is integrated with the other units and the course as a whole. Next to this is a set of learning objectives. These objectives let you know what you should be able to do by the time you have completed the unit. These learning objectives are meant to guide your study. The moment a unit is finished, you must go back and check whether you have achieved the objectives. If this is made a habit, then you will significantly improve your chances of passing the course. The main body of the unit guides you through the required reading from other sources. This will usually be either from your set books or from a Reading Section. The following is a practical strategy for working through the course. If you run into any trouble, telephone your tutor or post the question on the web GS OLE's discussing board. Remember that your tutor's job is to help you. When you need help, don't hesitate to call and ask your tutor to provide it.
vii
CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
1. 2.
Read this Course Guide thoroughly Organize a Study Schedule. Refer to the 'Course Overview' for more details. Note the time you are expected to spend on each unit and how the assignments relate to the units. Important information, e.g. details of your tutorials, and the date of the first day of the Semester is available from the WebGS OLE. You need to gather together all this information in one place, such as your diary or a wall calendar. Whatever method you choose to use, you should decide on and write in your own dates for each unit. Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything you can to stick to it. The major reason that students fail is that they get behind with their course work. If you get into difficulties with your schedule, please let your tutor know before it is too late for help. Turn to Unit 1 and read the introduction and the objectives for the unit. Assemble the study materials. Information about what you need for a unit is given in the 'overview' at the beginning of each unit. You will almost always need both the study unit you are working on and one of your set books on your desk at the same time. Work through the unit. The content of the unit itself has been arranged to provide a sequence for you to follow. As you work through the unit you will be instructed to read from your set books. Keep an eye on the WebGS OLE. Up-to-date course information will be continuously posted there. Well before the relevant due dates (about 4 weeks before due dates), access the Assignment File on the WebGS OLE and down-load your next required Assignment. Keep in mind that you will learn a lot by doing the assignment carefully. They have been designed to help you meet the objectives of the course and, therefore, will help you pass the examination. Submit all assignments not later than the due date. Review the objectives for each study unit to confirm that you have achieved them. If you feel unsure about any of the objectives, review the study materials or consult your tutor. When you are condifent that you have achieved a unit's objectives, you can then start on the next unit. Proceed unit by
3.
4. 5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
viii
1CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
unit through the course and try to pace your study so that you keep yourself on schedule. 11. When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for marking, do not wait for its return before' starting on the next unit. Keep to your schedule. When the assignment is returned, pay particular .attention to your tutor's comments, both on the tutor-marked assignment form and also written on the assignment. Consult your tutor as soon as possible if you have any questions or problems. After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare yourself for the final examination. Check that you have achieved the unit objectives (listed at the beginning of each unit) and the course objectives (listed in this Course Guide).
12.
Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials
There are 40 hours of tutorials (twenty 2-hour sessions) provided in support of this course. You will be notified of the dates, times and location of these tutorials, together with the name and phone number of your tutor, as soon as you are allocated a tutorial group. Your tutor will mark and comment on your assignments, keep a close watch on your progress and on any difficulties you might encounter and provide assistance to you during the course. You must mail your tutormarked assignments to your tutor well before the due date (at least two working days are required). They will be marked by your tutor and returned to you as soon as possible. Do not hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone, e-mail, or discussion board. If you need help the following might be circumstances in which you would find help necessary. Contact your tutor if you do not understand any part of the study units or the assigned readings. you have difficulty within the exercises. you have a question or problem with an assignment, with your tutor's comments on an assignment or with the grading of an assignment. You should try your best to attend the tutorials. This is the only chance to have face to face contact with your tutor and ask questions which are answered instantly. You can raise any problem encountered in the course of your study. To gain the maximum benefit from course
ix
CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
tutorials, prepare a question list before attending them. You will learn a lot from participating in discussion actively.
x
1CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
Course Code Course Title Course Developer/Writer
CSS 101 Introduction to Sociology Solomon Ojo University of Ibadan Dr. (Mrs.) I. Udofot National Open University of Nigeria
Course Co-ordinator
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
xi
CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
National Open University of Nigeria Headquarters 14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way Victoria Island Lagos Abuja office No. 5 Dar es Salaam Street, Off Aminu Kanu Crescent Wuse II, Abuja Nigeria e-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.ng URL: www.nou.edu.ng Published by: National Open University of Nigeria 2008 First Printed 2004 ISBN: 978-058-348-3 All Rights Reserved
xii
CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
CONTENTS
PAGES
Module 1 ……………………………………………………… 1 Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Definition of Sociology ………………………. Family ………………………………………… Marriage …………………………………….... Society and Culture ………………………..… Socialisation………………………………….. 1- 7 8 - 12 13 - 15 16 - 21 22 - 25
Module 2 ……………………………………………………… 25 Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Conformity …………………………………… Deviance ……………………………………... Power …………………………………………. Authority ……………………………………... Leadership ……………………………………. 25 - 29 30 - 37 38 - 41 42 - 44 45 - 49
Module 3 ……………………………………………………… 50 Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Social Organization ………………………….. Group ………………………………………… Social Differentiation ………………………… Religion ………………………………………. Social Interaction …………………………...... 50- 53 54 - 65 66 - 63 64 - 71 72 - 76
Module 4 ……………………………………………………… 77 Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Social Stratification ………………………….. Social Mobility ……………………………..... Collective Behaviour ………………………… Public Opinion and Propaganda ……………... Social Change…………………………………. 77 - 79 80 - 84 85 - 88 89 - 92 93 - 96
xiii
CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
MODULE 1
Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Definition of Sociology Family Marriage Society and Culture Socialisation
UNIT 1
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
DEFINITION OF SOCIOLOGY
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 Definition of Sociology 3.2 Origin of Sociology 3.3 Scope of Sociology 3.4 Methods of Sociology 3.5 Practical Significance of Sociology 3.6 Social Issues in Sociology Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
You will bear with me that the world today is characterised by high levels of worry, concern and anxiety, for the future and yet full of promises that the future holds. In reality, the world nowadays is known to be characterised by tensions, social divisions, day by day conflicts, international terrorism, assassinations, including the destructive operations of modem technology on the existing natural environment. Despite all these concerns, the people still have the assurance and possibilities of controlling their destiny and ensuring that their lives are shaped for the better, which might have been unachievable to the earlier generations. Why this obvious difference? In what directions will change take in the future? These questions and more are the major focus of Sociology. It is in the interest of Sociology to ensure playing a significant role in these modem times (i.e. understanding why people change from a particular way to another). This is what actually makes the field of Sociology to be much concerned with people's actions over time.
1
CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
2.0
OBJECTIVES
It is hoped that by the end of this unit, you should be able to: define extensively what Sociology is; explain the origins of Sociology; explain the scope of Sociology; express the methods used by Sociologist in their study of human. Behaviour; understand the practical significance of Sociology; and describe social issues that are of interest to Sociology.
3.0 3.1
MAIN CONTENT Definition of Sociology
Sociology is like every other social science such as Psychology, Economics, Geography, Political Science, etc., but its approach, assumptions and methods are to some extent different from others. Sociology is the systematic study of the groups and societies in which people live, how social structures and cultures are created and maintained or changed, and how they affect our behaviour. As we noted earlier on, Sociology is part of the family of social sciences that includes psychology, anthropology, geography, political science and parts of history. All Social Sciences are concerned with human behaviour. Although they share the same basic subject matter, each Social Science focuses on a different aspect of behaviour, for example, psychologist are most interested in the internal sources of behaviour; sociologist in the external sources of behaviour. Psychologists study the workings of the nervous system and the effects of neurotransmitters, hormones, or stress on individual. Sociologists look at the workings of society and the effects that social class, gender roles, age, new technologies, changing attitude towards reckless behaviour, or political revolutions have on people. Psychologists focus on personality -on the behaviour and attitudes that are characteristics of person regardless of the situations. Sociologist focus on roles -on the behaviour and attitudes that are characteristic of people in a given social position or situation regardless of their individual personalities. Anthropology shares Sociology's interest in the impact of social structure and culture on behaviour; but anthropologists usually study non-western societies, preliterate societies, local communities, or small groups. Sociologist, too, study communities and small groups, but they also examine modem industrial societies and large-scale .
2
CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
Economists and political scientists single out particular kinds of social activity; sociologists look at the nature of social action itself and at the manner in which different kinds of activities fit together to create the larger pattern of society. Sociologists are primarily interested in areas where social structure and culture intersect. One of these is social institutions. Social institutions are established patterns of action and thought that organize important social activities -the family, education, religion, the political and economic systems. These institutions provide ready-made answers to the recurring problems of life; how to make community decisions (the political system), how to produce and distribute goods and services (the economic system), how to arrange house-holds and provide child-care (the family), and so on. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Define sociology and relate it to other social sciences.
3.2
Origin of Sociology
Considering the origins of sociology, one would then have to look at the contributions made by some founding fathers. The contributions of Max Weber, and August Compe shall be considered. Max Weber (1864-1920) Max Weber was one of the founding fathers of Sociology whose work has been a great influence on the study of Sociology. In his own contribution, sociology is a science of social action. He made a clear distinction between action and social action. To him, action has to do with all human behaviour in so far as the actor attaches a subjective meaning to it; but for that of social action, the actor does not only and usually attach a subjective meaning, the action itself must also be seen to take account of the behaviour of others (1968: 1,4). Emily Durkheirn (18S8 - 19l7) This is one of the early Sociologists. Emily Durkheim dealt with two types of social solidarity. By 'Solidarity', Durkheim meant the moral beliefs and ideas which formed the 'common-sense' underlying social life. Mechanical solidarity (characteristic of pre-industrial societies) was said to be based on agreement and identity between people; organic solidarity derived from agreement to tolerate a range of differences,
3
CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
conflict being moderated through a variety of institutional arrangements, such as courts, political parties, etc. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Describe the contributions of Max Weber and Emily Durkheim to Sociology.
3.3
Scope of Sociology
The scope of study of sociology is extremely wide beginning from studying and understanding interactions among individuals up to the scientific analysis of global social processes such as globalisation and information technology; globalisation and sustainable economic development.
3.4
Methods of Sociology
In understanding human behaviour, Sociologists use methods which are mainly scientific in discovering facts about human beings. The major scientific tools usually being used in sociological research are: Survey Archival research Participant observation Surveys The survey is a method of systematically collecting data from people about their behaviour, attitudes and beliefs. Subjects for surveys are carefully selected to represent the group of people about whom the investigator intends to draw conclusions. The subjects in a survey can be interviewed in persons, as they were or on the telephone; or they might complete a self-administered paper -and -pencil or computerised questionnaire. Whatever the mode of data collection, the questions in a survey are carefully constructed to yield the precise information that the investigator is seeking. Usually, surveys require respondents to choose between response alternatives that are supplied by the researchers. Archival Research The questions and results of some comprehensive national surveys are published so that other researchers, not involved in the study can conduct their own analyses of the data. Results published in this manner are said to be archived, and research using these results are called archival research. Archival research in actual fact, uses existing records,
4
CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
gathered originally for some other purpose, as data. An archival study might examine census figures; birth records; scores on tests administered in schools, clinics or businesses; criminal records; or personal documents such as diaries or letters. Participant Observation The term "participant observer" was coined by Eduard Linteman (1924), a university of Chicago Sociologist, to refer to individuals who belong to a group and report on that group to investigators. Today, the term still is used, but now it refers to a researcher who interacts with group members for the purpose of studying them. The extent of participants observers' involvement with their subjects varies from study to study, as do the means they use to gain entry into their subjects worlds. Researchers may spend extended periods of time with the people they study, sharing many life experiences with them, or the data may be gathered over a relatively short time by means of one or a few intensive interviews. Some investigators have gained access to groups deceptively, by passing themselves off as regular group members. Others identify themselves as researchers from the outset, hoping that those they plan to study will grant them access to information usually reserved for insiders. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3 Explain the methods of Sociology.
3.5
Practical Significance of Sociology
The practical significance of Sociology is stated below: It provides more adequate and clearer understanding of social situations. It gives practical implications in terms of assessing the results of policy initiatives. It makes possible the promotion of cultural awareness on the different groups in society. It promotes deep self-understanding, etc. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4 State the practical significance of Sociology.
5
CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.6
Social Issues in Sociology
There are many social issues that are of great interest to Sociology. Some of these social issues do result into problems, and they are stated below: Rape Armed Robbery .Assassination AIDS/HIV Terrorism Prostitution War Conflicts Area boys’ syndrome, etc.
40
CONCLUSION
It is essential to note that Sociology developed as a result of attempts to understand the far-reaching changes that took place in human societies which followed the growth of industries and large cities. You should now know that the distinctive feature of Sociology is its focus on how Society influences human behaviour and vice-versa. Some Sociologists study human behaviour of a more general behaviour (why do fishing communities worship gods of the sea?), crime (why do some young people steal from shops?), and family problems (are all modem societies associated with the breakdown of the pattern of a large families?). Others are interested in human behaviour of a more specific nature such as the response of audiences at pop song concerts, or queuing for buses or the shopping behaviour of people of a particular income group.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have dealt with the definition of Sociology, its origins, scope, uses, methods and some of the social issues Sociologists are interested in.
6.0
1.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
What do you understand by the term of "Sociology" and what is the relationship to other social sciences? (a) (b) (c) Describe the scope of Sociology. Explain the methods of Sociology. Describe the practical significance of Sociology.
2.
6
CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Gelles, R. J. and Levine, A. (1996). Sociology: An Introduction (6th ed.) McGraw-Hill.
7
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
UNIT 2
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
FAMILY
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 Definition of Family 3.2 Types of Family 3.2.1 Nuclear Family 3.2.2 Extended Family 3.2.3 Polygamous Family 3.2.4 Monogamous Family 3.3 Activities in Family 3.4 Functions of Family Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment Reference/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Many Sociologists have regarded the family as the cornerstone of society. It forms the basic unit of social organisation and it is difficult to imagine how human society could function without it. Although the composition of the family varies -for example, in many societies two or more wives are regarded as the ideal arrangement -such differences can be seen as variations on a basic theme. In general, therefore, the family has been seen as a universal social institution, an inevitable part of human society. On balance, it has been regarded as a good thing, both for the individual and society as a whole. For some time, it has been thought natural and normal for households to be based around families.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: describe what is family; describe the types of family; understand the activities with family; and describe the functions of family.
8
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.0 3.1
MAIN CONTENT Definition of Family
In a study entitled social structure, George Peter Murdock examined the institution of the family in a wide range of societies. Murdock (1949) took a sample of250 societies ranging from/small hunting and gathering bands to large -scale industrial societies. He claimed that some form of family existed in every society and concluded, on the evidence of this sample, that the family is universal. Murdock (1949) defines the family as follows: The family is a social group characterised by common residence, economic co-operation and reproduction. It includes adults of both sexes, at least two of whom maintain a socially approved sexual relationship, and one or more children, own or adopted, of the sexually cohabiting adults. Thus the family lives together, pools its resources and works together, and produces offspring. At least, two of the adult members conduct a sexual relationship according to the norms of their particular society. Such norms vary from society to society. For example, among the Banaro of New Guinea, the husband does not have sexual relations with his wife until she has born a child by a friend of his father. The parentchild relationship, therefore, is not necessarily a biological one. Its importance is primarily social, children being recognised as members of a particular family whether or not the adult spouses have biologically produced them.
3.2
Types of Family
3.2.1 Nuclear Family
The concept of family refers to different levels of social organisation in different cultures. For example, in Euro-American societies, a family consists of a man, his wife, and children. This type of family is called the nuclear family. It is also known as the Elementary family. There is also the conjugal family or the family of procreation where one is a father or mother, or husband or wife. In these societies (i.e. EuroAmerican societies) the father’s or mother’s natal family (sometimes referred to as family of orientation) that is, the family where a man or woman was born, is regarded as a different family. The nuclear family appears to be as a result of industrialization and modem development. In Nigeria, today, this type of family is now a common practice.
9
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.2.2 Extended Family
This is a type of family that have been in existence for a number of years for now. An extended family consists of two or more nuclear families. For example, a man's family (conjugal family) is joined to his father's family through him to form one extended family. Hence, a man and his wife and children together with his father and mother and their other children (if any) form one extended family.
3.2.3 Polygamous Family
This is a type of family practice where a man is married to more than one wife. In this type of family, a man may be married to two, three, four or even more than that. This is a type of practice that has been in existence for a very long time and it is still seen among us today, particularly among the rich people, kings, etc.
3.2.4 Monogamous Family
This type of family is referred to as one man one wife, that is, a man is said to have only one wife as a legal wife and no other one. These days in Nigeria, monogamous family practice is a common sight everywhere. Majority of men prefer to be involved in this than polygamous family. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 i. ii. iii. Differentiate between nuclear and extended family. What do you understand by conjugal family? Explain the terms 'Monogamous family' and 'Polygamous family'.
3.3
Activities in Family
Every member of a family has some functions to perform in maintaining the unit. The father is seen as the leader who directs the affairs of the unit, but usually takes vital decisions after consultation with the wife and children. It is the role of the father to ensure that the family is protected from danger, the father ensures that the physical well-being of his family is assured and maintained. The physical well-being has to do with food, clothes and shelter. He is not only the provider of all these, he also ensures that he provides and maintains moral and philosophical training of the children. Apart from the father, the mother also is involved in some vital activities. It is the woman who performs the role of a house-wife and sexual consort and bears and suckles children. She sees to the daily feeding of the family members.
10
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
In this line, the children are made to observe the division of labour within the family and of the mutual role dependence and they also contribute whatever they can in order to see to the daily maintenance of the family. As seen from above, the activities in the family has been to regard men as superior to his wife. This can easily be observed in many African societies where a man expects respects and obedience from his wife and children. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Explain the activities in a family.
3.4
Functions of the Family
George Peter Murdock gives the universal functions of the family as stated below: 1. Functions for Society
From his analysis of 250 societies, Murdock argues that the family performs four basic functions in all societies, which he terms the sexual, reproductive, economic and educational. They are essential for social life since without the sexual and reproductive functions there would be no members of society, without the economic function (for example, the provision and preparation of food), life would cease, and without education (a term Murdock uses for socialisation) there would be no culture. Human society without culture could not function. Clearly, the family does not perform these functions exclusively. However, it makes important contributions to them all and no other institution has yet been devised to match its efficiency in this respect. 2. Functions for Individuals and Society
The family's functions for society are inseparable from its functions for its individual members. It serves both at one and the same time and in much the same way. The sexual function provides a good example of this. Husband and wife have the right of sexual access to each other and in most societies there are rules forbidden or limiting sexual activities outside marriage. This provides sexual gratification for the spouses. It also strengthens the family since the powerful and often binding emotions which accompany sexual activities limit husband and wife.
11
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
The sexual function also helps to stabilize society. The rules which largely contain sexual activity within the family preventing the probable disruptive effects on the social order that would result if the sex drive were allowed "free play". The family thus provides both control and expression of sexual drives and in doing so perform important functions not only for its individual members, but also for the family as an institution and for society as a whole.
4.0
CONCLUSION
There are shared assumptions that relationship between family members is prototype for all other social relations, that the family unit is the fundamental building block for all societies, and that the family is society's shock-absorber of social change. One cannot, for instance, expect a person to do more for a stranger or an acquaintance than what he/she would do for a family member.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to deal with the word 'family' in detail. We have dealt with the definition of family, the types of family, activities in the family and functions of the family. The concept of family has been expressed to mean a social group characterised by common residence, economic co-operation and reproduction. Family has been said to perform different and important functions which include economic functions, educational functions, reproductive functions, sexual function, socialisation functions, etc.
6.0
1. 2.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
What do you understand by the term "family"? Explain activities in family. Explain the functions of family.
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Murdock, G.P. (1949). Social Structure, Macmillan: New York.
12
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
UNIT 3
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
MARRIAGE
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 Meaning of Marriage 3.2 Types of Marriage Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment Reference/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
In all societies, arrangements exist for the social recognition of who may legitimately mate with whom, which we call marriage. While the social recognition of mating itself may be of some importance, its importance is probably outweighed in most societies by that of legitimating the children that may result that is, giving them social recognition, an identity, a name, membership of a socially recognised group and some indication of who must assume the obligation to support them and their mother. Marriage is probably best regarded as an anticipatory provision for the needs of the mother-child unity, which we regard as the basic unit of the kingship system. While all societies have a system of marriage (and make a social distinction between legitimate and illegitimate children) there are wide variations in different marriage systems. The more important variables concern the number of mates each marriage partner may have; the locality of the marriage; the arrangements that exist for the transfer of wealth at the marriage; and the terms, if any, on which a marriage may be dissolved.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: describe what is actually meant by marriage; and describe the types of marriage.
3.0
MAIN CONTENT
13
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.1
Meaning of Marriage
Marriage is traditionally conceived to be legally recognised relationship, between an adult mate and female, that carries certain rights and obligations. However, in contemporary societies, marriage is sometimes interpreted more liberally, and the phrase 'living as married' indicates that for many purposes it makes no sense to exclude cohabitation. It should be noted, however, that even this more liberal definition usually excludes homosexual couples. Although cohabitation is increasingly accepted, and is now the normal prelude to marriage. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Describe your understanding of marriage.
3.2
Types of Marriage
There are two basic types of marriage, so far as numbers are concerned: Monogamy and Polygamy. Monogamous norms restrict the individual to one spouse at a time. Polygamous norms permit plural marriage and take the form either of polygamy (one husband and two or more wives) or of polyandry (one wife and two or more husbands). There is a fourth type of marriage, usually called "group marriage" in which there are both plural wives and husbands in the marital unit. The last form is rare, and in all known cases the marital rights of one pair in the group take precedence over others. Monogamy is permitted in all societies, although polygamy is the preferred form in most societies. These different kinds of marital arrangements frequently may be interpreted in terms of conditions outside the marriage structure itself. Polygamy is often associated with a shortage of men, although this is not necessarily the case; multiple wives are sometimes a form of conspicuous consumption -a sign of affluence. Because of warfare and the more hazardous occupational pursuits of males, primitive societies often have a predominance of females. This, however, does not place the male in the enviable position that some of you (males) students might assume. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Describe the major types of marriage.
4.0
CONCLUSION
In most societies, marriages are arranged by older relatives, with an eye to expanding their network of kin. The most important criteria in mate
14
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
selection are economic security and family background, not mutual attraction. Research suggests that in arranged marriages, the couples' romantic attachment to one another grows over the years, whereas couples who married for love report that their attraction to one another dropped precipitously after the first two to five years of marriage.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to give the meaning of marriage and types of marriage. Marriage is seen as a legally recognised relationship between an adult male and female, that carries certain rights and obligations. The two major types of marriage are monogamy and polygamy. Monogamy norms restrict the individual to one spouse at a time. Polygamous norms permit plural marriage and take the form either of polygyny (one husband and two or more wives) or of polyandry (one wife and two or more husbands).
6.0
1. 2.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMEBT
What do you understand by the term "Marriage"? State and explain two major types of marriage.
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Giddens. A, (1993). Sociology: An introduction. Polity Press in Association with Blackwell Publishers. (2nd ed.).
15
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
UNIT 4
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
SOCIETY AND CULTURE
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 What is Society? 3.2 Definition of Culture 3.3 Society and Human Behaviour 3.4 Elements of Culture 3.5 Importance of Culture Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Since the influence of society on human behaviour is the central interest of sociologists, it is important to know how sociologists see the relationships between individuals and society as a whole. This kind of concern is like the situation when, for example, a young person commits suicide and some people conclude that "it is the fault of society". In other words, this individual's behaviour was influenced by society. But what exactly is society. Furthermore, the concept of culture together with that of society, is one of the most widely used notions in sociology. When we use the term culture in ordinary daily conversation, we often think of culture as equivalent to the 'higher things of the mind' -art, literature, music and painting. As sociologists use it, the concept includes such activities, but also far more. Culture has been seen as the ways of life of the members of a society, or of groups within a society. It concludes how they dress, their pattern of work, etc.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
This unit is expected to expose you to the: definitions of culture and society; relationship between society and human behaviour; elements of culture; and importance of culture.
16
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.0 3.1
MAIN CONTENT What is Society?
It may be tempting to think that a society is simply a collection of individual person. Much of the time, we 1ike to think of ourselves as individuals who are different to everyone else, and that we are not affected by what other people say or do. However, this does not seem to reflect what people and societies are really alike. How much of the time are you totally alone, doing exactly what you want without any influence from others? Most of the time what we do is influenced directly or indirectly by the various kinds of groupings with whom we interact. For example, much of what we do reflect the fact that we are involved in social relationship! with other members of our family. As children we were influenced by what we learned from our parents grandparents, brothers, sisters and so on. Then, throughout life our feelings and behaviour are often shape (by what other members of our family are doing. For many of us, much of our behaviour is also shaped by the fact that we go out to work. The organisation we work for sets the context for our behaviour. It requires u: to do certain things: It provides us with sets of colleagues and acquaintances with whom we may spend par of our non-working hours. Also our behaviour is affected by other kinds of groupings. We may be members of sports clubs, or work for a charity. We are also affected by being part of National Open University of Nigeria. As you read this you may be an individual: but you bring to your studies what you learned at school; you may be tired as a result of what your employers asked you to do; you are connected to other students and tutors in the Open University of Nigeria; and you may be planning to get through this work quickly so that you can spend some time with your children. The point of all this is to emphasise that what we do as individuals is best seen in the context of our membership of what sociologists call social institutions or social units. A social unit mayor may not have a clear organisation. It can be an organised institution with clear rules and buildings, e.g., a business firm; 0 it could be something without any formal organisation, e.g., the expatriate community in Nigeria. These unit can have different purposes, e.g. making money or providing all the kinds of physical and emotional SUPPOI that good families provide. Sometimes, a social unit can itself be part of other units, or may have sub-division within It. For instance, refugee camp, there are subdivisions: the Liberian refugees, the Sierra-Leone refugee and other refugees from war-tom countries in Africa. There are further sub-
17
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
divisions within this refuge camp: the male and female groups; the Christian, Muslim, traditionalist; the young and the old, etc. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Write down some of the various kinds of social units that you are involved in?
3.2
Definition of Culture
Culture refers to shared, consensual and learned pattern of behaviour. Suppose that A and B are sitting together and B is telling a story about the origin of the people that A and B consider themselves to be. This story is one that is known by all of B's generation. What is told to A by B is culture. Suppose also that B has thought about this story and has some different ideas about the elements of the story but B has never told this to anyone else. So long as B keeps this to herself, it is not a part of the culture of the people of A and B. Therefore, culture is said to be shared and learned. The consensual element means simply that many share it and agree to its meaning and importance. Culture is the embodiment of the people, it is also of the things they share and do together. Language, family structure, how and when they plant, how they live out their lives, how they die, what they hold to be sacred. In fact, virtually everything the people hold in common is a part of their culture. Tools, paths, techniques, for using tools, these are also part of the culture. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 i. ii. What do you understand by culture? Describe the culture of your place.
3.3
Society and Human Behaviour
We have been able to explore what was meant by society, and saw that in one sense society is made up of its constituent parts, but what we now explore is the effect which society as a whole has on those parts: how society influences the behaviour of social units and individual people. We have discussed how each social unit and each person has functions to perform and roles to play. But how can the functions and roles be accomplished? As an example, let's consider the social unit known as Federal Road Safety. How does it as a social unit achieves its role of promoting and facilitating smooth traffic system in the country. At the outset, the government set up working parties to decide on what sort of organisation should be established to deal with general issues of traffic
18
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
system in the country, what this organisation should or should not do, and what power and resources it needed. Eventually, after much discussion within the Federal Government of Nigeria the ordinance setting up the Federal Road Safety was enacted in more than twelve years ago. The ordinance sets up rules and regulations concerning the purposes, powers, resources, duties and the operation of th~ corporation. These rules and regulations, because they are imposed by an ordinance, possess legal power. The Federal Road Safety Corps (FRSC), a social unit, has to observe the rules contained in the ordinance when it performs the functions of ensuring smooth traffic system. But we have seen that it is the people who work or live in social units that perform tasks on behalf of these units. The staff of the corporation has to observe the terms of the ordinance when they work. Working -a kind of human behaviour -is thus shaped by the rules operating within its social unit. In the ordinance, the terms and conditions of appointment of the Chief Executive of the corporation are stated. These terms and condition state the role of the Chief Executive and how this role should be carried out. So, the working behaviour of the Chief Executive is not only governed by the rules of the corporation as a whole, but also by the rules governing this particular post. Likewise, there are other documents specifying the roles and rules of other posts in the corporation. People taking up the posts will work according to the roles and rules of the corporation in general and of the posts in particular. Can you identify the roles and the rules of the units in which you work? Can you identify the roles and rules specific to your position in the organisation concerned?
3.4
Elements of Culture
Culture is made up of different elements, and these elements include: norms, values, beliefs, technology, etc, Norms Rules that govern behaviour, expectations we hold for how to behave in a given situation. These rules that govern our behaviour can be quite informal (rules about how we dress, stand when talking to others, how we address one another) to formalised laws.. Beliefs These are often associated with religion. They refer to those things that we hold to be true. Beliefs and values blend together. Our national ideologies are also beliefs. Many contemporary Americans believe that people were not created, but evolved from other forms of life over a
19
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
very, very long period of time. If you are a fundamental Christian perhaps you believe the world was created in 7 days and that it was created by God. Both of these are belief systems (involving certain assumptions about what is and how things have come to be), that shape the lives of the true believers. They shape their lives by supporting their notions of what is important, what is real and how we are to belief at all times. True, most of us do not think of this all of the time, but there are times when we are reminded of our beliefs and their importance and then act accordingly. It is also the case that for most that these beliefs remain in the background, but do shape our day to day behaviour. Technology These are the material good of the culture. In what we are doing, the computers are the technology. Technology is often more than the tools, since it involves the techniques as well as the tools themselves. The programming languages that make all of the things we do on the computers work are techniques, the wires that link us together are tools, but how we link those wires for what purposes are techniques. Consider that 'gun-powder' was known to the Chinese for centuries (a tool), but that it was only used to make noises al festivals. It took the Europeans to change these tools with a different set of techniques into a weapon 01 destruction.
3.5
Importance of Culture
The following are the importance of culture: sets behaviour standards for a given setting defines the structure of relationships defines importance of setting, relationship, things (VALVES) defines who we are and what we hold to be true (BELIEFS)
4.0
CONCLUSION
The concept of culture, together with that of society, is one of the most widely used notions in sociology Culture consists of the values the members of a given group hold, the norms they follow, and the material goods they create. Values are abstract ideals, whole norms are definite principles or rules which people are expected to observe. Norms represent the 'dos' and don't's of social life. Culture refers to the ways of life of the members of a society, or of groups within a society. It is said to include how they dress, their marriage customs and family life, their patterns of work, religious ceremonies and leisure pursuits. It also covers the goods they create and
20
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
which become meaningful for them -bows and arrows, computers, books, dwellings.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have dealt with what is meant by society, definition of culture, relationship between society and human behaviour and importance of culture. Culture has been referred to as shared, consensual and learned pattern of behaviour. Society has been seen as human relationships which may be organised or dis; direct or indirect; or even co-operative or unco-operative.
6.0
1. 2. b.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
What do you understand by the terms "Culture" and "Society"? a. Explain the elements of culture Describe the importance of culture.
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Gelles, R..J. & Levine, A. (1996). Sociology: An Introduction. (6th ed.) McGraw Hill. Giddens, A. (1993). Sociology: An Introduction. Polity Press in Association with Blackwell Publishers, (2nd ed.).
21
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
UNIT 5
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
SOCIALIZATION
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 What is Socialization? 3.2 Agents of Socialization Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
For the beginner, there may be a tendency to confuse socialization with other processes of change. It is essential, therefore, to emphasize that there is a difference between them. Two aspects of socialization distinguish it from those other processes of change. Firstly, socialization refers only to the changes in behaviour and attitude having their origins in interactions with other persons. Secondly, socialization includes only those which occur through learning. Other changes, such as those resulting from physical growth, are not part of the socialization process. Other illustrations of socialization include learning the folksways and customs of one's society and regional groups and the religious beliefs and moral values of one's society and family.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: describe in detail what is referred to as socialization; and describe the agents of socialization.
3.0 3.1
MAIN CONTENT What is Socialization?
Socialization into society involves being socialised into various subgroups within the society (e.g. the family, school, peer group association, work place, etc). Being looked at from the perspective of the individual being socialised, the function of socialization is to secure entrance into and acceptance by his society and its sub- groups. But as a matter of life, looking at it from the societal perspective, socialization is the process by which different individuals are prepared to play many
22
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
different and varied roles and interact in such a way that the interrelated individuals and groups can functions as a whole -as a society. This is not to imply that those undergoing socialisation experiences consciously tell themselves that they are doing what they are doing for the reason enumerated. Whatever the intended immediate results may be, the overall result is to make those involved sufficiently alike so that they can function as interacting members of a group, and sufficiently different so that the various behaviour pattern's needed to maintain the society are produced. By definition, socialisation is an interactional process in which an individual's behaviour and attitude are modified to conform with the members' expectation of the groups to which he or she belongs. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 What is your understanding of Socialisation?
3.2
Agents of Socialization
The following are agents of socialisation: Family Peer and own preferences Television and Mass Media Schools Family This is one of the agents of socialization. Parents are the most important socializing agents for the child at the very early stages of his development. Parents and the child's siblings form the only significant group on whom the child depends physically and psychologically. In reality, parents and siblings of the child under socialization are usually referred to as significant others, on whom the child can observe, imitate and identify with. In actual fact, the value, attitudes, the norms, folks ways and beliefs of a society are learned by the child from his interaction with his parents and siblings. Peer and Own Preferences This is another important agent of socialization for a child. As the child matures, he begins to interact with his friends (i.e. friends in the neighbourhood, church/mosque and other important places). The child begins to learn new things which he might not have learnt from his
23
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
parents and siblings. A lot of things (good or bad) are learned from these interactions. Can you remember what your peer group taught you while you were maturing from childhood to adulthood? Just have a flashback, you will definitely remember what you were taught by your peer group members. Television and Mass Media It is a fact that television and other mass media such as radio, print advertisement, films, etc. do go a long way to socialize children. As a matter of fact, the increasing industrialization and ubanisation have greatly influenced the impact of television and mass media on child's socialization; for example, in Nigeria today, newspaper, magazines and other printed materials have increased tremendously just as radio and television have. These have become important media through which certain types of socialization take place. Schools As the child grows older and mature, then the family role alone becomes inadequate for the socialisation of the individual. Therefore, it becomes more and more necessary for professionally trained personnel (such as teachers) to be involved in the socialisation process of the individuals. The role of schools in the socialisation process is now becoming more and more prominent and recognised. .As you can observe these days in Nigeria, children are sent to school much earlier, particularly with the introduction of day care centres where children, even six weeks old are sent while their mothers are at work. Not only this, nowadays in Nigeria, there are improved educational opportunities opened to individuals for adequate training. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Explain the agents of socialisation.
4.0
CONCLUSION
You can now bear with me that socialisation is inevitable in our daily lives. There is no how an individual will not pass through these stages of socialisation in one way or the other. We want to assure that the symbols and their associated definitions which are normally included in the culture of the group or society usually form the major part of what is learned in the process of socialisation. Through socialisation, the individual learns language(s) and other communication symbols. Such an individual learns how to interpret or label objects, other people with whom he interacts with, himself, and the situation.
24
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
It is good to conclude that throughout an individual's life, the individual continues to learn to take on behaviour appropriate to the expectations associated with whatever new positions he occupies (e.g. as an infant, a toddler, a boy, a youth, an adolescent, an adult, a middle-age man or an adult, a student or a worker, etc.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to describe fully what is meant by socialisation. Efforts have also been made to explain the agents of socialisation. Now, better understanding of the concept of socialisation and its agents should have been developed. Therefore, you should now know that socialisation is a life-long process and an uneven process with many advisors (e.g. parents.. schools, media, etc).
6.0
1. 2.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
What do you understand by the term "Socialisation"? What are the agents of Socialisation?
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Gelles, R.J & Levine, A. (1996). Sociology: An Introduction. (6th ed.) McGraw, Hill. Giddens. A. (1993). Sociology: An Introduction. Polity Press in association with Blackwell Publishers. (2nd ed.).
25
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
MODULE 2
Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Conformity Deviance Power Authority Leadership
UNIT 1
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
CONFORMITY
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 What is Conformity? 3.2 Why do people Conform? 3.3 When do people Conform? Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment Refernces/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Conformity is usually generated by a group's spoken or unspoken norms. Conformity occurs as a result of real or imagined, though unspoken, group pressure. When everyone around you stands up to applaud a performance you thought was mediocre or average, you may conform by standing as well. No one tells you to do this. Therefore, we can say the group's behaviour simply creates a silent but influential pressure on its members.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: describe what is meant by conformity; describe the reasons why people conform; and describe when people conform.
26
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.0 3.1
MAIN CONTENT What is Conformity?
Conformity is defined as behaviour which follows the established norms of a group or society. People do not always conform to social norms because they accept the values that underlie them. They may behave in the approved ways simply because it is expedient to do so, or because of sanctions. No society can be divided up in a simple way between those who deviate from norms and those who conform to them. Most of us on some occasions transgress generally accepted rules of behaviour.
3.2
Why do People Conform?
Research suggests three influential factors. First, people are motivated to be correct and norms provide information about what is right and wrong. Second, people are motivated to be liked by other members of the group. Finally, norms guide the dispensations of social reinforcement and punishment. With this, you should note that from childhood on, people in many cultures learn that going along with group norms is good and earns rewards. People also learn that breaking a norm may bring punishments ranging from scoldings for small violations to imprisonment for non-conformity with norms that have been translated into laws. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 What factors influence people's level of conformity?
3.3
When do People Conform?
The following are factors that influence conformity: Ambiguity of the Situation: This is one of the factors that encourage conformity. As the physical reality of a situation becomes less clear, people rely more and more on others' opinions, and conformity to a group norm becomes more likely. Unanimity and Size of the Majority: In actual fact, people experience great pressure to conform as long as the majority is unanimous. Conformity also depends on the size of the group. The larger the group, the more conformity members experience. Personal Characteristics: This is another factor that influences when people conform. In nearly any situation, some people will conform than others. One major determinant of conformity is
27
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
familiarity with the task; social status is another. Research suggests that people who are unfamiliar with a situation or have relatively low status in a group are the ones most likely to conform. Attraction to a group also influences conformity. People are more likely to conform when they like the members of a group than where is no title or no attraction. It should be noted here that attraction may increase conformity because people tend to trust the judgment of those they like or because they want the approval of people to whom they are attracted. Another personal characteristic that may shape conformity is the degree to which people are concerned with being liked or with being correct. People who are preoccupied with being liked are likely to conform particularly when they are also attracted to the others in the group. In contrast, people who are preoccupied with being right are likely to conform, no matter how much or how little they are attracted to others in the group. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Explain when people conform, citing examples peculiar to yourself?
4.0
CONCLUSION
Conformity has been identified to mean a change in behaviour or beliefs to match those of others in a group. It is a kind of social influence. In cases of ambiguity, people slowly develop a group norm an4 then adhere to it. Conformity occurs because people want to be right, because they want to be liked by others, and because conformity to group norms is usually reinformed.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have dealt with the definition of conformity, the factors influencing why people conform, and lastly the factors influencing when people conform. Conformity is expressed as behaviour which follows the established norms of a group or society. People do not always conform to social norms because they accept the values that underlie them. People tend to conform because in most cases, they are usually motivated to be correct and as a matter of fact, norms provide information about what is right and wrong. People are also motivated to be liked by other members of the group, and for that they tend to conform. People tend to conform usually when there is ambiguity of situation, familiarity with the task, etc.
28
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
6.0
1. 2 b.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
What do you understand by "Conformity"? a. Why do you think people conform? When do you think people conform?
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Giddens, A. (1993). Sociology: An Introduction. Polity Press in Association with Blackwell Publishers. (2nd ed.).
29
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
UNIT 2
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
DEVIANCE
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 Definition of Deviance 3.2 Perspectives on Deviance 3.2.1 Biological, Individual, Psychological 3.2.2 Social Perspective 3.2.3 Labelling Perspective 3.2.4 Social Control Perspective Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Deviance is seen as non-conformity to a given norm, or set of norms, which are accepted by a significant number of people in community or society. Most of us on some occasions transgress generally accepted rules and behaviour. I must say here that many people have at some point committed minor acts such as theft, like taking something from a work -such as office note-paper -putting them to private use. For some groups, an act is not deviant -If I use marijuana, that is not deviant in the Jazz playing groups to which I might belong, if I drink and I get drunk most of the time, that is not deviant among transient and fellow alcoholics. You should note here that what is defined as deviant is done by those with the power to make the definitions stick. The 'establishment', lawmakers, opinion leaders, heads of departments, leaders in groups and so forth.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: define deviance; have a different look about deviance; and have a clear understanding of perspectives on deviance.
30
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.0 3.1
MAIN CONTENT Definition of Deviance
Deviance is defined thus: (a) (b) behaviour that violates important norms of the group (or society); the behaviour must occur frequently, e.g., if I show up at work once a year or only once drunk, chances are no one will call that deviant, but if I show up in that condition everyday, then it is deviant; the rule violated must be important e.g., If I wear jeans to class all of the time, that will not be enough to label me serious deviant, eccentric perhaps, but not deviant. However, if I persist in propositioning students in the class in an examination period for favours of various kinds, that rule is considered important and I am likely to be labelled as deviant for this activity. It is also likely to cost me my position at the University (Open University of Nigeria) the seriousness of the deviance: The deviance is considered serious if the rule being violated is important. Important rules are those that often govern acts and activities that are seen as threatening to the group. You have to keep in mind that this kind of thing is relative (what is considered as serious and threatening to the group depends entirely on the group in question). Think of examples where acts arouse a great response, but you do not see them as being that serious. Then consider the response from the group and how that response relates to the integrity of the group. Often you will find something very important to the group being threatened. Abortion, for example, threatens the sanctity of life for some group, for others it threatens the integrity of the family by permitting women to engage in sexual activity outside the bounds of matrimony. Since life and the family are seen as very, very important by these groups, abortion is seen as a threat to the group, and therefore, must be abolished so the sanctity of the group may be maintained.
(c)
(d)
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 From your own understanding, what is deviance?
31
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.2
Perspectives on Deviance
In this section, the perspectives on deviance will be examined. Four (4) major perspectives on deviance will be explained for your understanding:
3.2.1 Biological, Individual, Psychological
(a) Lombroso's discussion two things are of importance here. First, this is an early attempt to explain "criminal behaviour's through physical characteristics. I would think that Lombroso was motivated by a sincere desire to be able to identify criminal behaviour and once identified to eliminate it. Second, the manner in which this was shown to be in-correct. This is very important since we draw conclusions of the kind made by Lombroso even today (that is we assume that because two things occur together in one kind of group, they must therefore be linked). Genetic Based Violence, e.g., XYZ chromosomal difference. Personal Space and Violent Behaviour: Personal space is the area around us that we consider to be an extension of our body or selves. The size of this bubble is culturally defined. Americans and Northern Europeans like a distance of 18" to 2", Mediterranean and Arabic people tolerate a much small space, often on the order of 15" or less. They like to be able to feel the breadth and to smell the other person. There is some suggestion that the size of the personal bubble each of us carries with us is related to violent behaviour, researchers have noted that violent prisoners often have a need for a larger personal bubble than most of us, they react violently when that bubble is unexpectedly violated. The violent behaviour in this case is attributed to the size of personal space, an individual social psychological characteristic. Alcoholism: This is seen to be partially, perhaps entirely genetically based. Personality Based Theories of Deviance: This relates to weak self-esteem, inability to control temper, rage. Another relates to too much self-control, holds in, then explosion.
(b) (i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
32
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.2.2 Social Perspective
(a) Differential Association
Differential association defines the cause of deviant or delinquent behaviour in the pattern of associations that we have. We are deviant or delinquent because we associate with people who are deviant or delinquent. Your parents (or you as a parent) are aware of this potential whenever you make a point of the kinds of children your children play with or go out with. Note that much of our prison system is based in part on this set of ideas that one learns from association with criminals. The key point is that the young person becomes deviant through association with others, learning from them. Some researchers suggest that children become involved in deviant acts because others reject them, not that they associate with delinquents. (b) Subcultural
The deviant groups exist within the community, youths are attracted to them. As a matter of fact, this is not a full deviance theory since it does not address how such subcultures come into existence in the first place. It is useful in general discussion of delinquency and deviance when people are drawn into such groups or 'subcultures'. (c) Deviant Attachments
This comes close to helping to explain how deviance comes about, but suffers from the same flaw of the above, it does not address the issue of how the groups to which they become attached came into existence in the first place. Gangs come to have a prominent place in the discussion as they are often seen as meeting needs that some young people have and are not being met in the home. The gang forms to provide this kind of support, identity and attachment. Once formed, the bonds can be quite strong.
3.2.3 Labelling Perspective
Labelling occurs in response to the commission of deviant acts and is influential in how those acts and the actors are seen by others. Labelling occurs in a series of steps, outlined below: (a) The first time we commit a deviant act that is primary deviance.
33
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
(b)
If we are identified with the deviant act, then others may come to expect us to commit further acts of this kind (even if we did not do so in the first place). When we do respond to this expectation with a deviant act. the act we commit is called secondary deviance. That is, the act is a response to be called a deviant, even if we were not to that point. For example, suppose that a boy or a girl samples a drug. The parents, school authorities find out and are constantly watching the kid. The kid does not want to use drugs again, but everyone seems to believe that they are junkies, no one believes they are clean. Finally, the kid says to hell with it, if they think I am then I may as well go ahead and do it. THIS IS SECONDARY DEVIANCE. Labelling is the process of labelling someone as deviant, criminal, or whatever the acts that follow from the secondary deviance. Note that this is a social process involving both the deviant and the group or persons doing the labelling.
(c)
(d)
(e)
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Consider why you conform to the rules of the society.
3.2.4 Social Control Perspective
Rather than ask why people are deviant, we turn the question around and ask why do people conform? As we, look about us, we find that most people conform to the rules most of the time. Few of us are 'deviant' or criminal. If we did not conform there would have to be a policeman to watch each and everyone of us, everyone would be a policeman watching everyone else. In such circumstances, there is a low level of trust and the sense of community disappears. There are better ways of maintaining order and conformity. Efficient control is maintained when each of us is our own policeman. There are a number of social factors that contribute to this conformity and social control. Most notable among these are the internal controls of conscience and our attachments to groups. Direct and indirect external controls also exist. (1) Conscience -your own internal policeman: Each of us has been carefully taught by our parents and by others to understand and to obey the rules. We have been instilled with a conscience that makes us feel guilty whenever we violate the rules. For example, I grew up in a rural area and was taught that it was wasteful to drop picked fruits and vegetables. I still wince whenever a piece
34
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
of fruit gets away from me and drops to the ground or into the mud. This is a form of conscience. It is this internal 'policeman' that keeps us from driving through a red light very early in the morning when there is no traffic warden anywhere to be seen. Notice that kind of control is very, very efficient, it is always with us and means that we always conform to the norms, rules and expectations of our community. (2) Attachments -the 'baggage' we pick up, e.g. jobs, wives, kids, friends and so: These attachments provide us with a lot to lose. These are a variation on the attachments discussed above (those often related to the links that provide us with emotional support and worth). The 'attachments' in this sense are more the accumulated wealth and position we have in the community. One way to assess the kind of attachment is to look at a small businessman, who provides a service to the community in contrast to a similar individual who earns his living from a large corporation. The businessman has many, many links and connections to the community that are necessary for his survival and continued well-being. The corporate employee has no link to the local community (other than friends and perhaps family). The result is that the employee may not worry about cheating people in the community or actually stealing from them. He could move easily within the corporation and be gone. In this same thread note that as we grow older, we collect things that link us to the community and that make it more difficult to cheat, lie and steal in the community because we have so much more to lose. The young person who is just starting out has little in the way of things or reputation to risk, so can try many different kinds of things, including those that are illegal or deviant. Note that most deviance occurs among those in their late teens and twenties, people with few attachments. In the effort to keep young people in school, the emphasis is on extracurricular activities, where you develop attachments to people in the activities and to the school. The more of these activities, and the more the attachments, the less likely the students is to drop out. Direct, External Controls These are the forces that can be brought to bear upon us. The state monopolises the legitimate use of force to control the population. Such force works so long as it is seen as being legitimate and not excessive. However, as soon as groups begin to see the application of force as illegal or excessive, then the effectiveness of these controls is greatly lessened and armed
(3)
(a)
35
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
conflict will break out. Several examples of the use of excessive or perceived illegal force come to mind. (b) Indirect, External Controls It is a fact to note that rewards and punishments are associated with work. People are often held under control by the threat of the loses of a job or loss of pay in that job. These become very powerful deterrents to those who might otherwise consider challenging authority. Consider your own position in the university as a student. If you want a degree, you must play by the rules, whether you like them or not. Those indirect, external controls become increasingly effective as we mature and gain more position within the society. Such controls often rest upon our fear of loss of income, position, or other material objects that we have accumulated.
4.0
CONCLUSION
Deviance is seen to be relative, that is what is considered to be deviant or criminal behaviour depends upon what groups are in power and what they consider to be deviant. Furthermore, there are differences among groups as to what is considered to be deviant behaviour. Jazz musicians have rarely considered the use of marijuana deviant, businesses almost always consider such as deviant. There are many explanations for deviant behaviour, some based in the individual and her/his psychology. Most explanations place the source of deviant behaviour in the realm of the social, in the structure of the society. These same explanations also note that most of us do not deviate seriously, but rather conform most of the time. Conformity is attributed to social control, both formal and informal and direct and indirect.
50
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have dealt with the definition of deviance and perspectives of deviance. Deviance has been defined as behaviour that violates important norms of the group (or society); the behaviour must occur frequently, and the rule violated must be important and serious.
6.0
1. 2.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
Explain the concept "Deviance" State and explain the perspective on deviance.
36
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Gelles, R..J. & Levine, A.. (1996). Sociology: An Introduction. (6th ed.) McGraw Hill. Giddens, A. (1993). Sociology: An Introduction. Polity Press in association with Blackwell Publishers. (2nd ed.).
37
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
UNIT 3
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0
POWER
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives 3.1 Definition of Power 3.2 Roles of Power Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment References/Further Readings
Exercising influence over others depends on factors, which are valued by the others, knowledge and rank, for example. The degree of value of such factors depends on circumstances. For example: A personnel manager whose role is seen by line colleagues as essentially a servicing (servile) function, and whose positional power is rather weak, may find his or her situation transformed by the on-set of a mass of employ merit legislation to which the firm must respond. Overnight, almost, the personnel role has become that custodian of the company's approach to the new laws, with the responsibility for ensuring consistency of behaviour throughout all functions.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: describe what power; and explain the forms of power.
3.0 3.1
MAIN CONTENT Definition of Power
Power has been seen as the ability to ensure compliance despite resistance from the individual involved. It is the ability to compel or influence others to do what they would otherwise not do. A person who has power can impose his will on others. He can do this by the use of threat of punishment if they disobey him. Power is exercised in all human relationship. For example, teachers have power over their students. Also, parents have power over their children.
38
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
Power is a key aspect of any managerial post, and springs from a variety of sources. Legge (1973) describes power as "(the) capability of exercising influence over the attitudes and/or behaviour of other individuals or group". This is a useful definition since it emphasises the capability of exercising influence. In other words, power does not necessarily rely either on formal authority, i.e. power granted by the organisation to a particular ' position-holder. Power is more of matter of what a person does, or is potentially capable of doing, to influence others. Thus, a trade union representative who successfully persuades a group of work mates to stop work has exercised power, regardless of whether he had any authority to do so under his union's rule.
3.2
Roles of Power
An understanding of role is vital to the effective performance of any job, because it enables the job-holder to assess his or her power position. A role may be defined as: 'the set of expectations held by the individuals concerned and those about them concerning how a job or task is to be performed.' A role needs to be distinguished from a position, or job, which is primarily a statement of duties an individual has been allocated. The job description is merely the script, but the role is the way the script is acted out. The various forms of power that are available to managers have been described by Handy (1985) as follows: Physical Power – this is the capability of using physical force to achieve influence. An unlikely source of power for a manager, but a lockout is one .such manifestation. Resource Power - 'the possession of valued resources', as Handy puts it. Examples include control over salary and promotion prospects. This form of power is less available to managers in large bureaucracies, where such issues are dealt with in accordance with centrally-directed procedures. Position Power – this is the power of office or position, as described by Weber. It refers to the rights written into the particular position (to allocate work, assess performance, etc.). Position power relies closely on resource power. However, it does give access to what Handy calls 'invisible assets', i.e. information, rights of access to key groups, and the right to organise work.
39
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
Expert Power – this arises from the possession of acknowledged expertise. This is power which, in effect to a position by those over whom it is to be used. Expert’s power only exists if other people recognise it and value it. Personal Power – this is the power of personality (charisma). Like expert power, it is only effective when it is recognised by those concerned. Negative Power – this is the power to stop things happening, for example. Even lowly members of an organisation may have this form of power. It finds expression in the filtering or distorting of information. It tends to surface at times of low morale. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE Describe the forms of power known to you.
4.0
CONCLUSION
The possession of power, however achieved, is one thing. The use of power is another. As Legge puts it: '.. .he (the manager) also needs sufficient political sensitivity to know how to relate the resources available to him to interests that are salient to those he wishes to influence'. This political sensitivity represents the subjective dimension of power and on this the perception of one's role is crucial. In this unit, we have dealt with the concept of power, and relationship between roles and power. Power has been described, as stated by Legge (1978) as the capability of exercising influence over the attitudes and/or behaviour of other individuals or groups. For your information, you should note that power is exercised when potential power wielders, motivated to achieve certain goals of their own, marshal in their power base resources (physical power, resource power, position power, expert power, personal power and negative power) that enable them to influence the behaviour of respondents by activating motives of respondents relevant to those resources and to these goals. This is done in order to realise the purpose of the power wielders, whether or not those are also the goals of the respondents.
40
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
6.0
1. 2.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
What do you understand by the term "Power" Describe the forms of power known to you.
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Handy, C. (1993). Understanding (4th ed.), Penguin. Legge, K. 1978. Power, Innovation and Problem-solving in Personnel Management. McGraw-Hill.
41
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
UNIT 4
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
AUTHORITY
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 Defining Authority 3.2 Types of Authority Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Power is seen as the ability to control what other people do, even when they resist. In its raw form, power is the use of intimidation or physical coercion to force someone else to do one's bidding. All societies distinguish between the legitimate and the illegitimate use of power. For example in Nigeria today, most people consider it legitimate for the government to require that citizens pay income taxes but it is illegitimate for a politician to demand or accept a bribe. Now coming to authority, sociologist uses the term authority to refer to the legitimate use of power. Authority depends on agreement that certain uses of power are valid and justified. Whereas power depends only on might, authority depends on cultural idea of what is right.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: define and describe authority in detail; differentiate authority from power; and describe types of authority.
3.0 3.1
MAIN CONTENT Definition of Authority
Authority has been identified as meaning legitimate use of power. It is depended on agreement that certain uses of power are valid and justified. This means further that not only by those who make decisions and issue commands can determine the validity and justifiability of authority, but also by those who are subject to those orders.
42
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
One of the central functions of political institutions is to legitimized the ways in which power is exercised in a society. Nigerians, from example, usually assume that democracy -rule by the people -is the only legitimate form of government. But in different times and places, other political systems have enjoyed widespread popular support and voluntary allegiance.
3.2
Types of Authority
Max Weber (1946), identified three main sources of political legitimacy: traditional, charismatic, and rational-legal authority. Traditional authority is based on customs handed down through the generations. It is the sacred right of a king or queen, an emperor or tribal chief, to command his or her subject. In many cases, traditional authority is inherited. Although custom may impose some limits, traditional leaders are free to make unilateral decisions. A modern example of traditional leadership, although outside politics, is the Pope, whom many Roman Catholics recognise as the supreme authority on issues of morality. Charismatic authority is based on special personal qualities. Charismatic leaders have no traditional or legal claim to power; indeed, they often oppose prevailing custom and existing laws. Their authority derives from their followers' belief that they have exceptional insight and ability or, perhaps, supernatural powers. Mahatma Gandhi, who used non-violent resistance to oppose British rule and lead India to independence, is an example of a charismatic leader. Another example is the Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. Who viewed Gandhi as a model. Although King never held public office, he was considered the spokesperson for African Americans and he inspired collective action, against violent opposition, in the civil rights movement. The third type of authority is Rational- Legal authority. In actual fact, rational-legal authority is derived from a formal system of rules or laws that specify who has the right to make which decisions and under what conditions. Authority is vested in the position or office, not in the person, who temporarily occupies that position, and the office-holder's authority is clearly defined and limited. For example, the President of Federal Republic of Nigeria does not have the authority to tell Nigerian coaples to limit their families to two children; our constitution protects individual liberty and our culture holds family matters as private.
4.0
CONCLUSION
Traditional, charismatic, and rational-legal authority are "ideal types", or abstractions of key characteristics. In practise, political systems depend
43
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
on varying combinations of all tree. Charisma plays a role in who gets elected as President of the United States; once elected, the president has both rational -legal authority and traditional authority that accompanies this position. Above all, it should be noted that authority is the right and duty to make decisions and the power to enforce them. It is power that is based on agreement by a majority of people in a society or group.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to explain in detail what is meant by authority, the difference between authority' and power, and types of authority. Authority has been described as legitimate use of power. Authority depends on agreement that certain use of power is valid and justified -not only by those who make decisions and issue commands but also by those who are subject to those orders. Three types of authority have been identified and these are: traditional authority, charismatic authority and rational-legal authority. Traditional authority is an authority which derives from customs and traditions of a particular society. The authority of traditional rulers, for example, Obas, Obis and Emirs, is traditional. Charismatic authority is an authority which is based on the person's unique personal qualities which enables him to mobilise and lead people. Legal-rational authority is a type of authority which confers on the person the legal right to exercise that authority, for example, the authority of the president of Nigeria is legal -rational.
6.0
1 b. 2.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
a. What do you understand by "Authority"? What is the difference between power and authority? State and describe the three types of authority.
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Gelles, R..J. and Levine, A. (1996). Sociology: An Introduction. (6th ed.) McGraw Hill.
44
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
UNIT 5
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
LEADERSHIP
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 Definition of Leadership 3.2 Leadership Theories 3.3 Leaders versus Managers Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Leadership is a vital element in the social relationships of groups at work. Groups need leaders and leaders need followers. The academic and management literature on leadership focuses almost exclusively on the individual traits, styles and behaviour that characterise the leaders. Some recent research in leadership has advanced beyond these more simplistic individual level models by calling attention to such things as "meaning -making" and "influence" and to the importance of understanding "followers". We are left wondering about the contexts in which creative, inclusive, inspiring individuals make sense of their work together. We think of leadership as a dynamic process in which people come together to pursue changes, and in doing so collectively develop a shared vision of what the world (or some part or corner of it) should be like, making sense of their experience and shaping their decisions and actions. The role of articulating the vision of the group may be taken on by one individual or by several. It may be rotated or shared. The emergence of leadership is therefore, always a collective process of meaning-making.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, you should be able to: define or describe leadership;. describe the major leadership theories; and differentiate leaders from managers.
45
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.0 3.1
MAIN CONTENT Definition of Leadership
Leadership is a concept that many people have written about but few have defined. However, a working definition is suggested as follows by Cole (1997): "Leadership is a dynamic process at work in a group whereby one individual over a particular period of time, and in a particular organisational context, influences the other group members to commit themselves freely to the achievement of group tasks or goals" This working definition encompasses several important features of leadership: 1) Leadership is a dynamic process, influenced by the changing requirements of the tasks, the group itself and the individual members. The implication of this is that there is no "one bestway' of leaders and leaders need to be able to exercise a range of behaviour to maintain their role effectively. Leadership is not necessarily confined to one person, but may be shared between members. Usually, an appointed leader (e.g. manager) is nominally in charge of a group, but he or she may not always be the leader in practice. The leader's principal role is to influence the group towards the achievement of group goals. Leadership is exercised in, and influenced by, the particular set of circumstances which form the organizational context.
2)
3) 4)
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 What is leadership?
3.2
Leadership Theories
Leadership itself, has been accompanied throughout time, by numerous theories, all claiming to answer the question: Are Leaders born or made? Those who accept the verdict, that leaders are born and not made, maintain: "... that there are certain in-born qualities such as initiatives, courage, intelligence and humour, which altogether predestine a man to be a leader... the essential, pattern is given at birth" (Adler, 1991, p.4).
46
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
Two leadership theories which concentrate on this point, are the greatman/greatwoman and the trait theories. The “'greatman/woman” theory involves its followers believing that major events, both nationally and internationally, are influenced by those persons in power. The trait theory expand further on this conjecture, by concentrating on the personal characteristics of the leader. The theory, which until the mid-1940sformed the basis for most leaders, the list of which grew in length over the years, to include all manner of physical, personality and cognitive factors. including height, intelligence and communication skills. However, few traits emerged to conclusively differentiate leaders from non-leaders. The traits an individual has may increase the probability that a person will become a leader though whether such leadership is guaranteed, is uncertain. Nevertheless, it can be seen to be true that some people are more likely than others to assume leadership positions. However, this theory still did not answer, why one member of a group emerged as the leader, rather than another, or why one particular leader proved to be better in some situations than another. The emergence of a related theory, the interactionist approach, attempted to explain the existing anormalies. The interactionist theory, proposed that both the characteristics of the individual, and the situation in which the group found itself, accounted for whom would become the leader. Resulting from this theory, was the view that leaders are both born and made, due to the leader requiring certain abilities and skill, but as the situation and the needs of the group changed, so too the person acceptable as leader changed. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Describe the two theories explaining the concept of leadership.
3.3
Leaders versus Managers
Most people view leadership as being associated with the role of a manager. However, there are some, who suggest that leaders and managers are not equal positions. It has been said, that leading and managing involve separate and distinct behaviours and activities. Leaders and managers, these sources continue, vary in their orientation towards goals, conceptions about work, inter-personal style and selfperceptions. Leadership has been described as being one aspect of what a manager does; but certainly not all of it. Managers, they assert, fulfill four
47
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
functions, namely: planning, organising, controlling and leading. Thus leading aspect of management, involves influencing subordinates towards the achievement of organisational goals. It is necessary here to point out that a manager may not necessarily be a group's leader. While a manager of a group performs activities of a planning, organising and controlling nature, the real leader may be one of his/her sub-ordinate. In essence, managers, we can summarise, can in certain situations, be leaders, however, leadership is only one aspect of their function. Some people have the capacity to become excellent managers, but not strong leaders, others have great leadership potentials but for a number of reasons, have great difficulty becoming strong managers. Both leading and managing are desired aspects in a group situation, i.e. in a group situation, both shall be present, in order for the group to become an efficient and effective body. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3 What is the relationship between managing and leading?
4.0
CONCLUSION
Academic research on leadership- mostly done in applied psychology and management - has shifted its focus overtime from defining leadership as a trait or a behaviour, to defining it as a relationship, and in some cases as an activity. But most accounts of leadership still tend to emphasize traits, styles and contingency theories in an effort to formulate what makes X rather than Y a "good leader". Even in the more recent accounts, where leadership is linked to influence -how to most effectively mobilise others -or to transformational actions that recognise the value of culture, the heroic view of leadership tends to remain unchallenged.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to define leadership and we have also discussed the major theories of leadership in addition with comparing leaders and managers. While the term leadership is seen as a process of influence between a leader and his followers to attain group, organizational and societal goals, a leader is defined as "someone who occupies a position in a group, influences others in accordance with the role expectation of the position and co-ordinates and direct the groups in maintaining itself and reaching its goals.
48
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
6.0
1. 2.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
What do you understand by the term "Leadership"? State ten (10) good characteristics of a leader. Differentiate between trait theories and interactionist theory of leadership.
7.0
Adler,
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
R.B. & Rodman, G. (1991). Understanding Human Communication. Holt Rhinehart and Winston, Forth Worth: Texas.
Cole, E.A. (1997). Personnel Management: Theory and Practice. London: Letts Educational: Aldirie Place, (4th ed.).
49
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
MODULE 3
Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Social Organisation Group Social Differentiation Religion Social Interaction
UNIT 1
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
SOCIAL ORGANISATIONS
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 Meaning of Social 3.2 Levels of Social 3.3 The Roles of Individuals in Social Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Social organization is an important area of study by the social scientists. You should bear with me that all societies are , some simple, others complex. It is a thing of interest to note that social organization gives the basis for maintaining order in a society and for predicting its behaviour as well as those of its members. You should note that it is usually being emphasised that the units in social organization could be individuals, institutions or . A social organization can be organization or . The form which a social organization takes has to do with its complexing and its defined or vagues, simple or multiple, but changing functions.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, each student is expected to have better understanding of: what is meant by social organization; levels of social ; and the roles of individuals in social organization.
50
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.0 3.1
MAIN CONTENT Meaning of Social
Social organization has been considered by social scientists as indicating an organization in which individuals and relationships are ordered with reference to the goals of the society concerned. Social organization is said to have two aspects which include, first, the form of structure which relates to the fact that all the individuals and institutions that compose a society are given sizes and positions which functions in an interrelated pattern. Secondly, social organization has been seen as a process. This has to do with the order of the social organization i.e. how the components of the society are ordered. As a matter of fact, social organization is said to be dynamic. Usually, there is growth, and adaptation in the structure as well as in the functions of any social organization. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Describe what is meant by social organization.
3.2
Levels of Social
There are three levels of social, namely: inter-personal level, group level and the total level of the society. The inter-personal level usually occurs between persons, it is the most elementary form of social organization. Examples of interpersonal level of relationship include a teacher and his/ her students, a father and his children, a pastor and his followers; a leader and his followers, etc. You should note that to study adequately social organization in any society, there is need for adequate knowledge of inter-personal relations. The group level of social organization relates to a large number of people whose interests vary. When group relations are adequately studied, then people's attention to major areas of social conflict can be easily directed. Apart from this, it should be noted that social scientists particularly Sociologists, Social psychologists, etc. are usually interested on group behaviour. The third and highest level of social organization, total level of the society, is made up of both interpersonal and inter-group relations. The inter-play between various groups is part of the organization at the societal level. You should bear in mind that it is at this level that various personal, institutional and group roles are related to one another.
51
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Describe the levels of social.
3.3
The Roles of Individuals in Social
Different individuals or institutions are not equally talented or equipped to function or perform adequately effectively. Social organization, however, recognizes and utilizes these inequalities amongst the components of any given society. This means that social organization signified some notions of division of1abour, of social differentiation and of differences in thecapabilities of individuals. Obviously, the individual differences can be the result of physiological or hereditary elements or environmental factors. On this note, social organization recognizes the importance of division of labour. People and institutions are arranged into different positions and roles which they hold in the service of the whole unit. Through this, the best in everybody is being utilized. As a matter of fact, every individual is given the opportunity to contribute his or her skill or ability in the activity in which he or she has been considered capable and fit for. Therefore, it is now interesting to note that social organization is an organization of roles. Every individual is a role player in any given society. Bodies such as school, church, mosque, military, police, etc are role players in any given society. For example, within government, there are role players in the executive arm of government, legislative arm of government and judiciary arm of government. In addition, in our secondary school system, the role players include the principal, a number of vice- principals, Heads of Department, School Counsellors, some student representatives, etc. A major point you should be aware of is that the various roles are not played just haphazardly. On this note, it is, therefore, the concern of social organization in ensuring that roles are ordered and also that positions are duly regulated. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3 Explain what you understand by the role of individuals in social organization.
4.0
CONCLUSION
Social organization has been regarded as an important area for maintaining orderliness and possible prediction of human behaviour in
52
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
any society. It emphasises the importance of division of labour which gives room for individuals to contribute their quotas to the functioning of a society based on their levels of skill and knowledge.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit; efforts has been made to define social organization and explain the levels of social organization. Efforts have also been made to describe the role of individual in social organization. Social organization has been described as an organization in which individuals and relationships are ordered with reference to the goals of the society. It is also being described that social organization is of three levels: interpersonal level, group level and the total level of the society. It was also said that in social organization, the best of everybody is utilised in that every individual is given the opportunity to contribute his or her talent or labour in any activities he is considered capable and fit for.
6.0
1 b. 2.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
a. What do you understand by the term Social organization? Describe the roles of individuals in Social organization. Describe the levels of social organization.
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Giddens, A. (1993). Sociology: An Introduction. Polity Press in Association with Blackwell Publishers. (2nd ed.).
53
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
UNIT 2
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
GROUPS
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 Definition of Group 3.1.1 Informal and Formal Group 3.1.2 Primary and Secondary Group 3.1.3 In-Group and Out-group 3.1.4 Group Cohesiveness 3.1.5 Group Effectiveness 3.1.6 Team Process Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
In the beginning, God made an individual- and then he made a pair. The pair formed a group, together they begat others and thus the group grew. Unfortunately, working in a group led to fiction, the group disintegrated in conflict and Cain settled in the land of Nod -there has been trouble with groups ever since. When people work in groups, there are two quite separate issues involved. The first is the task and the problems involved in getting the job done. Frequently, this is the only issue which the group considers. The second is the process of the group work itself: The mechanisms by which the group acts as a unit and not as a loose rabble. However, without due attention to this process, the value of the group can be diminished or even destroyed; yet with a little explicit management of the process, it can enhance the worth of the group to the many times the sum of the worth of its individuals. It is this synergy which makes group work attractive in corporate organisation despite the possible problems (and time spent) in group formation.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: define group, why a group, and process of group development; differentiate between informal and formal group; differentiate between primary and secondary group; differentiate between "in-group and out-group"; understand what is meant by group cohesiveness;
54
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
describe group effectiveness and factors encouraging it; and describe team processes.
3.0 3.1
MAIN CONTENT Definition of Group
A group of people working in the same room, or even on a common project, does not necessarily involve the group process. If the group is managed in a totally autocratic manner, there may be little opportunity for interaction relating to the work; if there is functioning within the group, the process may never evolve. On the other hand, the group process maybe utilised by normally distant individuals working on different projects. Schein (1965) defines a group as any number of people who (1) interact with one another, (2) are psychologically aware of one another, and (3) perceive themselves to a group. In his view, these three conditions need to be fulfilled if a group is to be distinguished from a random collection of individuals. Schein also assumed that groups share some common aim or purpose. Workgroups, for example, have a clear purpose, spelt out in the picture of the tasks assigned and the standards to be achieved. Why a Group? Groups are particularly good at combining talents and providing innovative solutions to possible unfamiliar problems. In cases where there is no well-established approach/procedure, the wider still and knowledge set of the group has a distinct advantage over that of the individual. In general, however, there is an over-riding advantage in a group-based work force which makes it attractive to Management: that it engenders a fuller utilisation of the work force. A group can be seen as self-managing unit. The range of skills provided by its members and the self- monitoring which each group performs makes it a reasonably safe recipient for delegated responsibility. Even if a problem could be decided by a single person, there are two main benefits involving the people who will carry out the decision. Firstly, the motivational aspect of participating in the decision will clearly enhance its implementation. Secondly, there may well be factors which the implementer understands better than the single person who could supposedly have decided alone. More indirectly, if the lowest echelons of the workforce each become trained, through participation in group decision making, in an understanding of the companies' objectives and work practices, then
55
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
each will be better able to solve work-related problems in general. Further they will also individually become a safe recipient for delegated authority which is exemplified in the celebrated right of Japanese car workers to halt the production line. From the individual's point of view, there is the added incentive that through belonging to a group, each can participate in achievements well beyond his/her individual potential. Less idealistically, the group makes provision for an environment where the individual's self-perceived level of responsibility and authority is enahanced, in an environment where accountability is shared: thus providing a perfect motivator through enhanced self-esteem coupled with two stresses. Group Development How does a group develop? This is the next question to be answered. As a matter of fact, it is common to view the development of a group as having four stages: Forming Storming Norming Performing Forming is the stage when the group first comes together. Everybody is very polite and very dull. Conflict is seldom voiced directly, mainly personal and definitely destructive. Since the grouping is new, the individuals will be guarded in their own opinions and generally reserved. This is particularly so in terms of the more nervous and/or subordinate members who may never recover. The group tends to defer to a large extent who emerge as leaders.(pool fools). Now can you flashback on what happened to you when you joined a particular group (i.e. may be social or religious group)? How did you relate with other members of this group? How did they relate to you also? These are meant for you to think over. Storming is the next stage, when all Hell breaks loose and the leaders are lynched. Factions form, personalities clash, no one concedes a single point without first fighting tooth and nail. Most importantly, very little communication occurs since no one is listening and some are still unwillingly to talk openly. True, this battle ground may seem a little extreme for the groups to which you belong. The next stage is Norming. At this stage the sub-groups begin to recognise the merits of working together and the in-fighting subsides. At this stage, since a new spirit of co-operation is evident, every member
56
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
begins to feel secure in expressing their own view points and these are discussed openly with the whole group. The most significant improvement is that people start to listen to each other. Work methods become established and recognized by the group as a whole. And finally; performing this is the culmination, when the group has settled on a system which allows free and frank exchange of views and a high degree of support by the group for each other and its own decisions. In terms of performance, the group starts at a level slightly below the sum of the individual's levels and then drops abruptly to its nadir until it climbs during norming to a new level of performing which is (hopefully) well above the start. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 i. ii. iii. Distinguish a group from a random collection of individuals. Explain the stages of group development. Why is group formed? Explain why you formed the group you belong to.
3.1.1 Informal and Formal Groups
'Formal’ or official groups are groups forming a pair of the organizational structure, established by management to see to the smooth running of the organization. For example, in a banking industry, looking at a particular ban, there may be marketing team, personnel team, finance team, etc. In each of these teams, there is the expectation of achievement of a specific goal in order to allow the entire bank to keep on moving effectively. Informal groups or unofficial groups are those groups which are established by the employees themselves, for their own purposes rather than to fulfill organizational ends. Informal or unofficial groups have their purposes, which are generally to meet the social and security needs of the employees, for your information, it is good to note that the purposes of these unofficial groups may fit in fairly well with organizational objectives, but more than likely will be opposed to them. Burns and Stalker (1961) make the interesting point that in 'mechanistic' (hierarchical) , loyalty is to the concerned, and obedience is to superior. In this kind of organization, there is every possibility of open conflict between the behaviour of people in an unofficial group as compared with their behaviour as members of official groupings.
57
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.1.2 Primary and Secondary Group
Primary Group This is relatively small, simple group of people. People in a primary group are in face-to-face relationship, for example, a family group or a village group. The group usually has some form of performance and it's small number of people interact relatively intimately, intensely and frequently. This kind of interaction could be likened to one in which an individual often has his earlier form of education and training according to the local culture and values. In this kind of group, the relationship is voluntary and personalised, and everyone is interested in everyone else as persons, having his or her own value. The interaction that exists in primary groups could occur within a relatively defined territory like a village or a ward within a town. Unlike the primary group, in secondary schools, there is less frequency and intensity of contact between members of the group. It is necessary to note here that all the members of the group do not often know themselves, not all the members live in close proximity, for example, a city or corporation. Although, secondary groups may also have face-toface relationship but contact between individuals in the group are very ephemeral and impersonal. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 2 i. ii. iii. Differentiate between informal group and formal group. Differentiate between primary group and secondary group. Explain why informal group is inevitable in any work organization.
3.1.3 "In-Group" and "Out-Group"
The changes that occur within a group are important in the changing relationship between groups. These changes may form good base for a psychological analysis of group dynamics. Group dynamics has to do with the interactions between groups and the changes in such interactions. Group dynamics involves in-group/out-group relationship. An in-group is characterised by a 'we-feeling'. A person has loyalty to this group and makes sacrifices to retain his membership and to maintain the continuity and strength of the group. Members cherish one-another's comradeship. An in-group carries some element of sympathy amongst members and a sense of attachment to one another. There is often a feeling that what the group has is the best. Members of other groups are out-group members.
58
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
An out-group thus refers to intergroup relations. It is a relationship of "we and they". Such inter-group relations could be friendly or conflictual. In any case, the separateness of the membership and of their identity is maintained. An analysis of in-group/out-group relations is essential in understanding a society and the processes of control. Such an analysis must take account of the luring nature of some groups and of the relative cohesion and intensity of interaction in one group but absent from other. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 3 In your own words, describe what is meant by in-group/out-group relationships.
3.1.4 Group Cohesiveness
The cohesiveness of any group is the extent to which the group members develop strong ties to each other and to the group as a whole ('team spirit'). It is also a measure of the ability of the group to attract new members. A very cohesive group is one that demonstrates strong bonds of loyalty within its membership and strict adherence to the established norms of the group. A number of factors have been identified to encourage group cohesiveness' and these include: similarity of work physical proximity system of work task structure group size (especially small size) external threats prospect of rewards leadership style of manager common social features (age, sex, etc.) It should be noted here that where a high level of cohesiveness has been achieved in a group, external forces will playa significantly reduced role in bringing about change in the group. Change in such a situation can only be realised if key members of the group agree to adopt the new ways. In a less cohesive group, there is possibility for a change from without.
59
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 4 i. ii. What do you understand by group cohesiveness? In the group you belong, are you highly cohesiveness or lowly cohesive? Describe what makes you that.
3.1.5 Group Effectiveness
In looking at the effectiveness of a group, there are two major criteria for measuring success: How effectively were group tasks accomplished? What was the level of individual satisfaction with membership of the group? The first question tends to look on effectiveness from the point of view of organizational goals, the second considers personal goals. seek success in terms of tasks accomplished, targets achieved, solutions rendered and other benefits. Individuals seek personal satisfaction from membership of the group, opportunities to perform a role and to gain status within the group. However, it is important to note that both organizational and individual goals can be achieved, but where conflict exists, then it is the role of a leader in charge to minimize the negative consequences of this conflict. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 5 i. ii. What do you understand by Group effectiveness? How to do you measure effectiveness in your own group?
3.1.6 Team Process
According to Adair (1986), a team is more than just a group with a common aim. It is a "group in which the contributions of individuals are seen as complementary. Collaboration (i.e. working together) is the keynote of a team activity. Adair suggests that the test of a good (i.e. effective) team is: 'whether... its members can work as a team while they are apart, contributing to a sequence of activities rather than to a common task, which requires their presence in one place and at one time'. The most important factor in team is its effectiveness. Woodcock (1965) identified this and as a result he describes the characteristics of effective team work. These characteristics include:
60
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
support and trust clear objectives and agreed goals openness and confrontation sound procedures cooperation and conflict appropriate leadership, etc. Above all, Adair (1986) emphasises the importance of careful selection of team members. He noted that the professional competence of team member should not be more emphasised, but the ability to work as a team member, and the possession of 'desirable personal attributes' such as willingness to listen, flexibility of outlook, and the capacity to give and accept trust. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 6 What do you mean by Team?
4.0
CONCLUSION
Groups are like relationships -you have to work at them. In the workplace, they constitute an important unit of activity but one whose support needs are only recently becoming understood. By making the group itself responsible for its own support, the responsibility becomes an acceleration for the group process. What is vital, is that these needs are recognized and explicitly dealt with by the group. Time and resources must be allocated to this by the group and by Management, and the group process must be planned, monitored and reviewed. , Just like any other managed process.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, efforts has been made to define group, the processes of group development, and bringing out differences between informal and formal groups, primary and secondary groups, and in-group and outgroup'. We have also been able to describe team processes, group effectiveness and group cohesiveness. You now know that group is different from a random collection of individuals, and that in a group, three conditions are expected to be met: interaction among members, psychological awareness of one another and perception of themselves to be a group.
61
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
6.0
1. b. 2 b.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
a. What do you understand by the term, "Group"? Differentiate between Informal and Formal Group. a. What do you understand by group cohesiveness? State the factors that encourage group cohesiveness.
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Adair, J. (1973). Action-Centered Leadership. McGraw-Hill. Adair, J. (1986). Effective Team building. Gower. Cole, E.A. (1997). Personnel Management: Theory and Practice. London: Letts Educational, Aldine Place, (4th ed.). Schein, E.H. (1965). Organisational Psychology. Prentice Hall. Woodcock, M. 1979. Team Development Manual. Gower.
62
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
UNIT 3
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
SOCIAL DIFFERENTIATION
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 Meaning of Social Differentiation 3.2 Distribution of Members of a Society to Available Positions Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment Reference/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Human societies are known to differ from animal societies in at least one important respect: even the simplest human society appears to be more internally differentiated from the most complex animal society. Some of these differences are of biological variations: some are male while others are female; some people are taller than others, etc. Apart from this, people in society are also differentiated by any acquired social differences; people differ from one another in their interests, in their attitudes and beliefs, and in their habits. As a matter of fact, these known individual differences determine the social positions or roles, such as being a Doctor, Pharmacists, Mechanical Engineer, Sociologist, Physicist, Chemists, etc.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: describe what is meant by social differentiation; and describe how members of a group or society are distributed to available positions.
3.0 3.1
MAIN CONTENT Definition of Social Differentiation
Social differentiation can be expressed as meaning the divisions of every human society into distinctive social roles and functions, based upon both inherited and acquired differences. Social differentiation is easily noticed in every human society .It is very important for every society because its operations and existence enhance
63
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
the continued survival of the society. In human societies, the coordination of individual efforts to maintain the society is usually achieved through what is termed as cultural specialisation.
3.2
Distribution of Members Positions
of a Society to Available
Human societies distribute their members in the available social positions and induce them to perform the duties of these positions. Therefore, one of the ways of doing this is by ranking. Ranking is one of the ways in which human societies distribute their members in the available social positions. This means that positions available are valued differently such that positions are ranked in order of importance. Therefore, the individuals that fill the position of great importance to the society and who perform functions requiring exceptional skills and abilities usually receive greater reward and priviledges which may include prestige, money, etc., while those individuals that perform the less important tasks are made to receive lesser rewards and privileges. This kind of activities is necessary in order to allow the society to function effectively. Another way is stratification which happens to be a special type of social differentiation. Societies elaborate the ranking process further by arranging certain social positions in a graded hierarchy of socially superior or inferior ranks. As a matter of fact, when a society displays a graded series of ranks, we say that it is stratified. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Explain the two (2) major ways societies distribute its members to positions.
4.0
CONCLUSION
Social stratification is a persistent social fact in the modem societies today. Functionalists (a school of thought in sociology) hold that social stratification is an inevitable and necessary element-of-modern societies.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to describe what is meant by social differentiation and how human society into distinctive social roles and functions, based usually upon both inherited and acquired differences. Ranking is one of the ways in which human societies distribute their members in the available social positions. Another way is stratification which happens to be a special type of social differentiation.
64
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
6.0
1. 2.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
What do you understand by Social differentiation? Explain how human societies distribute their members to available positions.
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Gelles, R..J. and Levine, A. (1996). Sociology: An Introduction. (6th ed.) McGraw Hill.
65
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
UNIT 4
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
RELIGION
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 Definition of Religion 3.2 Elements of Religion 3.3 Religion and Society: Three Views 3.4 The Nature of Religious 3.5 Types of Religious Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment References/Further Readings.
Nearly all social scientists would agree what the role religion plays in society has changed. In traditional societies, religion was seen as an authority in all areas of social life; few activities remained unaffected farmers prayed or make offerings to their gods or ancestors before planting crops. Priests or Shamans were responsible for: curing. Conflicts within and between families or villages were acted out in religious rituals; disputes were settled through religious trials. Formal education was in the hands of the clergy. Now, in modem industrial societies, religion is one of many, specialized institutions. Farmers go to agricultural experts and the weather bureau for advice on crops; the sick put their lives in the hands of physicians; conflicts are settled in courts run by legal experts; and so on. With this, religion has been stripped of many of its former functions and must compete with other institutions for authority.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, each student is expected to know: the definition of religion; the elements of religion; the relationship between religion and societies; the nature of religious ; and the type of religious .
66
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.0 3.1
MAIN CONTENT Definition of Religion
Religion is defined as a set of beliefs, symbols, and practices (for example, rituals), which is based on the idea of the sacred, and which unites believers into a socio-religious community. The sacred is contrasted with the profane because it involves feelings of awe. Sociologists have defined religion by reference to the sacred rather than to a belief in a god or gods, because it makes social comparison possible.
3.2
Elements of Religion
The religious frame work is composed of four basic elements: beliefs, rituals, subjective experiences, and community. Beliefs Religious beliefs affirm the existence of a divine or supernatural order, define its character and purposes, and explain the role humans play in that order. It is essential for you to know that a belief is a conviction that cannot be proved or disproved by ordinary means. Religious beliefs therefore organise an individual's perception of the world and serve as a guide for behaviour. For example, animist religions hold that the world is inhabited by spirits with motives and emotions like our own. Although believers do not worship these spirits as gods, they do attempt to influence their behaviour through magic. This animist belief in spirits explains the occurrence of illness or accidents and prescribes a course of action. Similarly, the Christian belief in original sin, Christ and his miracles, and eternal salvation or damnation shapes perceptions and establishes a code of conduct. Rituals Religious rituals are formal, stylised enactment of religious beliefs -processions, chants, prayers, sacraments, and the like. Religious rituals differ from other activities in that believers attach a symbolic meaning to them. Religious symbols are concrete embodiments of values, idea, judgments, longings and beliefs. Subjective Experience The subjective experiences of religion grow out of beliefs and rituals. Beliefs direct people to interpret certain inner states and group experiences as "religious". Rituals may be used to invoke or recall
67
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
communication with the supernatural. Religious experiences range from the quiet sense of peace that comes from the belief the one's life in the hands of a divine power to the intense mystical experiences that inspire terror and awe. Community Belongings to a community of believers is a central part of religious experience. Shared beliefs, rituals, and subjective experiences heighten group identification. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 State and explain the elements of religion.
3.3
Religion and Society: Three Views
Three nineteenth and twentieth-century thinkers have provided contrasting views of the relationship between society and religion. In the work of Durkheim, he emphasised the function of religion as a celebration of the society order. In the work of Karl Marx on the other hand, he saw religion as an instrument of oppression used by a ruling class to cover up economic exploitation of the masses. The third think, Max Weber, saw religion as an agent of social change. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Describe the relationship between religion and society going by the three views of Emile Durkheim, Karl Marx and Max Weber.
3.4
The Nature of Religious
Religions are not only to be regarded as sets of beliefs and practices, but also social . Sociologists recognize four distinct types of religious organization which include the established church, the sect, the denomination, and the cult. It should be noted that "church" in this context does not refer specifically to a Christian organisation but refer any established religion. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3 What is your understanding of the nature of religious?
68
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.5
Types of Religious
This can be considered in four distinct types, namely established church, sect, denomination and cult. Established Church Established church refers to a religious organisation that claims unique legitimacy and has a positive relationship to society. An established church is the official religion of its society. It endorses existing political and economic institutions and is, in turn, endorsed by the state. The Catholic Church in medieval Europe and the Anglican Church in Elizabethan England are familiar examples. In Japan, the Shinto religion dates from before the fifth century. Its emphasis on the worship of natural phenomena and its belief in Kami, kindly supernatural beings who looked out for people, led to its being made the national religion, reaching its peak in the years just before world war II. Sect A Sect is a religious organisation that asserts its unique legitimacy but stands apart from society. A sect usually claims to have a monopoly over the route to salvation. Where an established church is seen as entering into society in order to influence it, a sect views society as "too sinful" to influence except from without. Usually, a sect dissociates itself from existing political and economic institutions, and its members may withdraw from "worldly" affairs thereby creating a separate community for its members. Denomination Generally speaking, denominations are less exclusive than sects, more tolerant of diversity of religious belief more "worldly", less demanding of their members, more formal in liturgy, and more demanding in professional requirements for religious functionaries. You have to note here that a denomination is usually a religious organisation that has a positive relationship to society. A denomination is also known to accept the legitimacy of other religions. Most of the major religious groups in Nigeria today include Methodists. Anglican, Catholics, Pentecostal, Baptists, etc. All these are seen as denominations.
69
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
Cult A cult is a religious organisation that accepts the legitimacy of other religious but has a negative relationship to society. Like a sect, a cult holds that there is "something wrong" with the way most people in society live. Where sects are often "at war" with society, cults tend to focus on the individuals. They are often more concerned with getting the individual in tune with the supernatural, and with individual peace of mind than with social change. Cults are known to be more tolerant of other religions. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4 Explain the four types of denomination.
4.0
CONCLUSION
Nearly all social scientists would agree that the role of religion plays in society has changed. In traditional societies, religion was seen as an authority in all areas of social life; few activities remained unaffected. During the traditional period, farmers prayed or made offerings to their gods or ancestors before planting crops. Conflicts within and between families or villages were usually acted out in religious rituals. Today, in modem societies, religion has been one of the many specialised institutions. Farmers go to agricultural experts and the weather Bureau for advice on crops; the sick put their lives in the hands of physicians; conflicts are settled in courts run by legal experts; and so on. With this therefore, religion has been stripped of many of its former functions for authority.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to define religion, stating its elements, describing the relationship between society and religion. In the unit also, we have been able to describe the nature of religious and types of religious organisations. Religion has been described as any set of institutionalised beliefs and practices that deal with the ultimate meaning of life. In religion, certain elements are recognised, these are beliefs, rituals, subjective experience and community. Religious organisations have been categorised into: established church; sect; denomination, and cult. Therefore, religions are not only to be regarded as sets of beliefs and practices, but also social organisations.
70
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
6.0
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
What do you understand by the concept "religion" State and explain the elements of religion. 2. State and explain the four (4) types of religion.
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Gelles, R.J & Levine, A. (1996). Sociology: An Introduction. (6th ed.) McGraw Hill. Giddens, A. (1993). Sociology: An Introduction. Polity Press in Association with Blackwell Publishers. (2nd ed.)
71
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
UNIT 5
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
SOCIAL INTERACTIONS
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 Meaning of Social Interactions 3.2 The Role of Cultural Scripts and Ethnomethodology on Social Interactions 3.3 Social Identities in Social Interactions 3.4 Making Social Interactions Positive (A Case Study of Children) Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
A conversation, a game of cards, a dinner party, making love -what do these activities have in common? They cannot be accomplished by only one person. All are examples of social interactions, in which one person's action depends on the actions of the other, and vice versa. Social interaction is the result of mutual influence, not simply parallel or simultaneous activity. Social interactions range from the most superficial contacts -strangers passing in the street or attending the same concert -to deep, long lasting, complex relationship, such as those between husband and wife or parent and child.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: describe social interactions; understand the role of cultural script and ethnomethodology on social interactions; understand the influence of social identities in social interactions; and describe how social interactions can be made positive.
72
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.0 3.1
MAIN CONTENT Meaning of Social Interactions
Social interaction is defined as the "interactions and relationships' that exists between/or among people in everyday life. For example, when you are seated in a bus or train, you glance at the person next to you; take '-- note of that person's sex, age, and even clothing, and based on this you adjust your behaviour accordingly. If she is a young lady and you are a young man (unmarried), you might initiate a conversation with a comment on the weather, a remark about something the other person is reading or carrying. The young lady in the next seat may respond to an overture with a nod and then open her book, signaling that she is not interested in talking. If on the other hand, she continues the conversation, then the two of your would probably talk about your jobs or why you are both travelling to Lagos. With this, you would not discuss your sex lives, and you would probably avoid getting into deep political or religious debate. On this, your interactions are further limited by the physical layout of the luxurious bus and by the other people on the bus. All these are what we pass through in our daily lives and therefore, we cannot avoid them. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 What do you understand by social interactions?
3.2
The Role of Cultural Scripts and Ethnomethodology on Social Interactions
The most important studies of every day social behaviour come from symbolic interactions. Symbolic interactionists stress the role of language and other symbols (such as fashion) in the social construction of identity and in the structure of relationships. It is a thing of interest to note that social expectations set the stage for interaction but do not dictate behaviour. Individuals do not perform their roles automatically the drama-turgical approach (i.e. analogy between the real life and the stage), on the stage, each person interprets a role in his or her own way. Some learn their parts well, while others continually bungle their lines. In some situations, there are strict rules governing interactions, and participants are expected to follow the script closely. Other situations are more improvisational, with participants making up the "story" as they go along. In many cases, we are so accustomed to our culture's script that we take expected role behaviour for granted. This now takes us to the issue of ethnomethodology which is coined to mean countless unspoken, often
73
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
unconscious rules people use to maintain order and predictability in everyday social interaction.
3.3
Social Identities in Social Interactions
A social identity is "our sense of who and what we are. As our personal identity is based on our individual biography and idiosyncrasies; our social identity derives from the positions we occupy in society, as student, daughter, friend, poet, vegetarian, and the like. It includes roles to which we aspire as well as the positions we currently occupy. Our social identity depends in large degree on our perception of how others see us. Our private identity may include thoughts and experiences we never divulge to anyone; our social identity requires public validation. This is particularly true when we are taking on a new role or leaving an old one: entering college, starting a new job, becoming a parent, or becoming single again after divorce. In addition, each of us has various situational identities that become dominant in certain settings. A woman may be a professor in class, at faculty meeting, and at professional conferences; when she gets home, however, her identity as "Mummy" comes first. Social identities are not simply day-dreams (or nightmares). They are a major source of plans for action (helping us to decide whether to do this or that); they provide the criteria for evaluating our actual performances making us feel good or bad in our daily lives (helping us interpret the situations, events and people we encounter). SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 What do you understand by social identities?
3.4
Making Social Interactions Positive (A Case Study of Children)
Social interactions are the everyday give and take situations that occur. A social interaction may include saying "Hello" or asking an appropriate question such as "May I play with you?" Social interactions also include the activities that help children make friends. Social skills are the tools that are necessary in order to have positive social interactions. When one child hits another child, they are having a social interaction, but it is not a positive interaction. You may need to help structure these interactions so they are positive rather than negative. One way that a child care provider might structure interactions is to build games and activities into daily routines that will encourage children to work and play together. If a child yells out loud or grabs a toy from his peer, the caregiver might model a more appropriate way to say, "I want my way" or "I want that
74
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
toy." What may start out as a negative interaction can be turned into positive one. While games and songs are often used to teach positive social skills, modelling appropriate social skills is still important. Turn-taking is a very vital social skill because it helps children interact with each other in a positive manner. It is also a functional skill that a child will use throughout his/her lift} time. When a child is first learning to take turns, he/she needs to learn about reciprocity. The provider can model this: rather than frequently telling the children to take turns, she can show them how to do things during games and activities designed to demonstrate reciprocity. It is also important to help children feel good about themselves. Children who have positive self-esteem are usually less aggressive and more tolerant of others. One way to help children develop good selfesteem is to consistently give them messages that they are valued as part of the class. These messages can be verbal, such as "you work so hard" or "you chose such lovely colours for your picture", but body language also conveys messages. Even when it is necessary to correct a child, do so at his/her eye level. A touch on the shoulder or a nod of the head also lets a child know you like what he/she is doing.
4.0
CONCLUSION
Daily social life takes place as a series of encounters with others in varying contexts and locations. Most of us meet and talk to a variety of others in the course of the average day. Social interaction involves numerous forms of non-verbal communication of the exchange of information and meaning through facial expressions, gestures or movements of the body. Non-verbal communication is sometimes referred to as 'body language', but this is misleading, because we characteristically use such non-verbal cues to eliminate, amplify or expand on what is being said in words.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to describe what is meant by social interactions, the role of cultural scripts and ethnomethodology on social interactions, relationship between social identities and social interactions. In this unit also, we have been able to describe social interactions which can be made positive using the children's interactions as a case study.
75
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
However, social interactions are purely inevitable and efforts should be made to allow it to work effectively.
6.0
1. b. 2. b.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
a. What do you understand by social interactions? Describe the role of cultural scripts and ethnomethodology on social interactions. a. What do you understand by social identities in social interactions? How can social interactions be made positive using the interactions among children as a case study?
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Gelles, R.J & Levine, A. (1996). Sociology: An Introduction. (6th ed.) McGraw Hill. Giddens. A. (1993). Sociology: An Introduction. Polity Press in association with Blackwell Publishers. (2nd ed.).
76
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
MODULE 4
Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Social Stratification Social Mobility Collective Behaviour Public Opinion and Propaganda Social Change
UNIT 1
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 Definition of Social Stratification 3.2 Stratification Dimension 3.3 Bases on which People are Stratified Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Stratification is a very general term referring to a hierarchy of inequality. Traditionally, the term has been applied mostly to societal rather than to other types of social systems. There has been disagreement among analysis in the stratification sense, there is general agreement that it involves "economic", prestige, and power differences or some combination of them.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: define and describe fully what is meant by social stratification; describe the stratification dimension; and describe the bases on which people are stratified.
3.0
MAIN CONTENT
77
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.1
Definition of Social Stratification
Social stratification is defined as the unequal distribution of attributes, qualities, or possessions among members of a society that at usually regarded within that society as desirable and valuable.
3.2
Stratification Dimension
Now, that you have been exposed to what is meant by stratification, then there is need to discuss the pattern of stratification within a society. In reality, social scientists make use of three dimensions, namely: (i) Class (ii) Status (iii) Power Class: This refers to the relative amount of money, wealth and other economic goods that a person or social group possesses. . This refers to the relative degree of prestige and priviledge that a person or social group can successfully claim from other members of the society. This refers to the ability of ensuring compliance among members of a group.
Status:
Power:
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Explain the three dimensions of stratification that social scientists use.
3.3
Basis on which People are Stratified
Practically, some factors have been considered important for stratification to work effectively. These factors include: i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) vii) Power (e.g. political, military or economic power) Income (amount, type of and sources) Authority. Ethnic status, religion, and race Education, learning and wisdom. Ownership of property, Occupation or skill, and achievement in it, etc.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Describe the basis on which people are stratified.
78
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
4.0
CONCLUSION
Social stratification is a persistent social fact in the modem societies today. For example, functionalists hold that social stratification is an inevitable and necessary element of modem societies. In this unit, effort has been made to define social stratification, describing the stratification dimension and bases on which people are being stratified. Social stratification has been seen as the division of a society into layers (or strata) whose occupants have unequal access to social opportunities and rewards. In a stratified society, social inequality is institutionalised; that is, it is part of the social structure and is passed from one generation to another.
6.0
1. 2 b.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
What do you understand by social stratification? a. Describe what you understand by stratification dimension. Describe what you understand by bases on which people are stratified.
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Gelles, R.J. & Levine, A. (1996). Sociology: An Introduction. (6th ed.) McGraw Hill. Giddens, A. (1993). Sociology: An Introduction. Polity Press in Association with Blackwell Publishers. (2nd ed.).
79
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
UNIT 2
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
SOCIAL MOBILITY
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 Definitions of Social Mobility 3.2 Types of Social Mobility 3.2.1 Individual Mobility 3.2.2 Group Mobility 3.2.3 Career Mobility 3.2.4 Generational Mobility 3.2.5 Vertical Mobility 3.2.6 Horizontal Mobility Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment References/Further Readings.
1.0
INTRODUCTION
The study of social mobility has a long sociological pedigree, extending back to the mid-nineteenth-century writings of Karl Marx and John Stuart Mill, with major contributions in the early twentieth century from Vilfredo Pareto (who proposed a theory of the 'circulation of elites) and Pitirim Sorokin. The now vast literature on the subject is inextricably entangled with wide discussions of (among other things) education, gender, culture, power, statistical techniques, and the role of theory in social research. It is possible, indeed, to trace many of the classic debates in modern sociology back to the early arguments about mobility. For example, in social mobility (1927), Sorokin wrote that 'channels of vertical circulation exists in any stratified society, and are as necessary as channels for blood circulation in the body'. Sorokin was particularly interested in the role of educational institutions in allocating people to the various occupational positions. Anticipating the radical critiques of the new sociology of education of the 1970s, he argued that schools function primarily as a testing, selecting, and distributing agency; in other words, they merely certify children for particular positions in the labour market, rather than promoting each individual's .abilities or encouraging the development of talent. Confronted by this potentially vast field of interest, it is useful for heuristic purposes to view the modern literature on social mobility as a
80
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
dispute between two divergent research programme which have set the terms of discussion for this subject since 1945 and continue to dominate the field even today. On the one hand, there are those investigators who view mobility in the context of a social hierarchy, within which individuals can be ranked according to income, educational attainment, or socio-economic prestige. On the other, there are those who set in within the context of a class structure, embracing social locations defined by relationships prevailing within labour-markets and production units. During the 1950s and 1960s, the former hierarchy perspective was dominant, culminating in the so-called status-attainment tradition of mobility studies emanating principally from the United States. This was increasingly challenged, during the 1970s and 1980s, by researchers schooled within or influenced by the European tradition of class analysis. The status-attainment programme sees the principal interest of mobility studies as being an attempt to specify those attributes which are characteristic of individuals who end up in the more desirable rather than the less desirable jobs. Characteristically, these studies investigate the extent to which the present occupational status of individuals is associated with the status of their family of origin, rather than individual achievements such as educational attainment. One virtue of this approach, as compared to earlier cross- tabulations of father's occupation by son's occupation, was that it disentangled at least some of the processes that linked the generations. For example, researchers explored the effects of father's education on son's occupational attainment, and showed that these were distinct from the effect of father's occupation. Most studies maintained that son's education was the crucial link between family background and occupational success, arguing that as much as half of the association between the two was mediated via education, with children from more privileged family backgrounds being higher educational achievers than their poorer peers. Later, researchers extend the field of interest to include data on income, with most concluding that the impact of family background on earnings is substantial, but operates entirely indirectly through educational and occupational attainment.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: understand fully the concept of social mobility; and describe the types of social mobility.
81
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.0 3.1
MAIN CONTENT Definitions of Social Mobility
The movement -usually of individuals but sometimes of whole groups -between different positions within the system of social statification in any society, is referred to as social mobility. It is conventional to distinguish upward and downward mobility (that is, movement up or down a hierarchy of privilege), and inter-generational from intra generational or career mobility (the former referring to mobility between a family of origin and one's own class or status position, the latter to the mobility experienced during an individual career, such as respondent's first job compared to his or her present job. In a nutshell, social mobility is further referred to as the movement up or down within the stratification system.
3.2
Types of Social Mobility
In sociology, the following types of social mobility have been identified: individual mobility group mobility .career mobility generational mobility vertical mobility horizontal mobility
3.2.1 Individual Mobility
This refers to the movement of individuals from one social class to another. In this case, an individual may move easily as a result of his/her educational attainment or economic strength from one social position to another. This is a common type of mobility which takes its measurement by comparing an individual's present position to the social class into which he was born and grew up. Most people from poor family backgrounds but who later became known in the society just as a result of their economic wealth or educational opportunities could be said to be an example of individual mobility.
3.2.2 Group Mobility
This has to do with the movement of a group of individuals from one social status to another, usually from a lower one to a higher one. The group upward movement may reflect hard work on the part of the group members or luck.
82
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.2.3 Career Mobility
This entails the changes in the social status of an individual. These changes could be largely due to education, mother dominance, number of siblings, etc. The changes being mentioned here are what an individual experiences in his life time i.e. his or her achievements.
3.2.4 Generational Mobility
This relates to any change in status that occurs between a child and a parent. There is every possibility for a child to rise above the status into which he or she was born; so when this happens, then it is referred to as generational mobility.
3.2.5 Vertical Mobility
This refers to movement either upward or downwards across various strata. For example, in, one's place of work, one could be promoted (i.e. upward mobility). On the other hand, another individual in another place of work could be demoted (i.e. downward mobility) due to certain offence he or she has committed in the organisation.
3.2.6 Horizontal Mobility
This refers to movement on the same status. For example, a bank manager in Ibadan can be taken to Lagos branch of the bank to be the new bank Manager. This is obviously horizontal mobility because the affected individual still maintains the status. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 i. ii. What do you understand by social mobility? State the various types of social mobility.
4.0
CONCLUSION
It should interest you that social mobility in Nigeria has not been fully stable and established. This is so because ascriptive criteria still influence the pattern of mobility. So much people today have actually grown upward in their different status, partly due to their educational attainment. This now shows that educational attainment partly influences or determines social mobility in the country.
83
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to define social mobility. Efforts have also been made to describe some of the major types of social mobility. We have been able to state that social mobility is usually the movement of individuals but sometimes of whole groups between different positions within the social statification in any society. Some of the known types of social mobility include: horizontal mobility, vertical mobility, generational mobility, etc.
6.0
1. 2.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
What do you understand by social mobility. State and explain five (5) types of social mobility.
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Agbonlahor, F.I. and Olutayo, A.O., et at. (1995). Issues and Perspectives in Sociology. Nigeria: Sam Bookman Educational and Communication Services.
84
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
UNIT 3
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOUR
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 What is Collective Behaviour 3.2 Forms of Collective Behaviour 3.3 Collective Behaviour as a Breakdown in Social Order Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment Reference/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Why would "ordinary people" engage in looting and vandalism? Why do crowds become violent? Some Sociologists have argued that the answers lie in crowd psychology. Gustava LeBon, who has been called the 'grandfather of collective behaviour theory, strongly, supported a contagion theory of crowd behaviour. LeBon was greatly influenced by the current events of his time. France, in his day, (the second half of the nineteenth century) was not unlike the United States in recent decades. Everything seemed to be changing. Demonstrations that bordered on riots were almost weekly events. LeBon was also influenced by some of his contemporaries: Charles Darwin; who had traced the origins of humanity back to the animal kingdom, and the Sigmund Freud, who was exploring the unconscious levels of the mind.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: understand the meaning of collective behaviour; describe forms of collective behaviour; and describe collective behaviour as a breakdown in social order.
3.0 3.1
MAIN CONTENT What is Collective Behaviour?
Collective behaviour is seen as a potentially wide-ranging field of study which deals with the ways on which collective behaviours emerge as responses to problematic circumstances and situations. At one extreme, this can mean the study of coordinated and organised social movements;
85
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
at the other, it refers to the seemingly spontaneous eruption of common behavioural patterns, as for example, in episodes of mass hysteria. Between these are responses to natural disaster, riots, lynchings, crazes, fads, fashions, rumours, looms panics and even rebellions or revolutions. In crowds, according to LeBon, people cease to act as individuals. People of different ages, sexes, educational levels, and occupations chant the same slogans, to the same things. If one person runs, everybody runs. The crowd develops a mind of its own. Participants become highly suggestible: they will believe almost anything. Specifically, collective behaviour has to do with the noninstitutionalised group behaviour that takes place without clear-cut direction from the normative system of culture. Usually, collective behaviour is unplanned and its effects unforeseen. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 What is your understanding of collective behaviour?
3.2
Forms of Collective Behaviour
The six main forms of collective behaviour include: panics crowds fashions rumours social movements .public opinion Panic This is one of the forms of collective behaviour which ensues when people, being faced with danger such as fire outbreak, tend to loose their capacity to cooperate and hence their chances of escape are reduced. It is usually seen as the most transitory and rarest form of mass action. Crowds This is the next form of collective behaviour which tends to be more structured than panics and usually being guided by social norms. The presence of the influence of social norms on crowds makes possible members of a crowd to be easily persuaded to work toward a common goal. Public opinion
86
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
This refers to the aggregate views of the people on a particular public issue or government policy at a given period. It is a form of collective behaviour in which a relatively large number of people put their views on a particular public issue together. Social Movement This refers to the (more or less) organised effort of a large number of people to produce some social change. Examples of this are the women's movement (e.g. women empowerment campaign team in Nigeria), environmental movement (e.g. movement to ban nuclear weapons), etc. On the- surface, social movements resemble collective behaviour. Although they are non-violent, protest demonstrations may seem as spontaneous, unstructured, and emotional as a riot. Fashions Fashion is seen as a great though brief enthusiasm among a relatively large number of people for a particular innovation. Fashions tend to be ephemeral (i.e. short-lived) since their novelty wears off quickly. Ideally, every aspect of human life (e.g. clothes, architecture, philosophy, hair-styles) is usually influenced by fashions. Rumours This refers to an unverified story that is spread from one person to another. It is the distortions made on a story that is supposed to be relayed on to another person. Going deeper, rumours promote panics, mobs or even riots. Practically, rumours are found in every society and are even part of interpersonal communication.
3.3
Collective Behaviour as a Breakdown in Social order
Often, the media reports episodes of "collective madness". For no apparent reason, large numbers of people usually stop exercising critical judgement and self-control. As a matter of fact, upon closest inspection, such breakdowns may in fact, have some rather long-standing reasons, whether one accepts them as justifying outburst of violent group behaviour or not. Based on this, when the contagious elements in collective madness are fear or anxiety, rather than anger and frustration, the result is called mass hysteria. On the other hand, when the contagion involves wild enthusiasm about some person, object, or activity, the result is called a craze. Based on the views of functionalists, they see mass hysterias and crazes as collective responses to a breakdown in social order. They occur when large numbers of people are troubled but
87
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
are not sure why or what to do to alleviate the problem. As a result, they become irrational in the sense that they are not aware of the real reason for their distress and their behaviour is not aimed at the actual source of the problem. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Express your views on collective behaviour as a breakdown in social order.
4.0
CONCLUSION
It should be noted, however, that not all crowds are violent. Some crowds gather to express a common emotion such as joy, excitement, or grief. These are referred to as expressive crowds. Also, a crowd that gathers at a rock concert or at a religious revival is an example of expressive crowd. Therefore, expressive crowds differ from crowds that are violent in that they are more of a means of collectively expressing an emotion and are not intended to lead to violence or political action.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, efforts have been made to describe what is meant by collective behaviour, forms of collective behaviour, and collective behaviour as a breakdown in social order. It has been argued that far from being irrational, behaviour in crowds is determined by rational calculation. People in crowds usually weigh the possible benefits of participation against the costs and join a riot only if they believe it will "payoff'. Actually the benefits may be tangible (stolen goods) or intangible (the satisfaction of expressing frustration).
6.0
1. 2.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
What is your understanding of collective behaviour. State and explain at least four (4) forms of collective behaviour. Describe your understanding of collective behaviour as a breakdown in social order.
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Gelles, R. J., & Levine, A. (1996). Sociology: An Introduction. (6th ed.) McGraw Hill.
88
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
UNIT 4
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
PUBLIC OPINION AND PROPAGANDA
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 Definition of Public Opinion and Propaganda 3.2 Portion of Public Opinion 3.3 Importance of Public Opinion 3.4 Measurements of Public Opinion Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Among Sociologists, there are two different ways of viewing mass departures from social expectations and normative behaviour. The first, especially common among functionalists, interprets collective behaviour as a symptom that something has "gone haywire" in the social system (i.e. usual methods of social control are not working, and people are behaving irrationally). The second, called collective-action theory sees collective behaviour as the result of rational decision on the part of collectivities.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to describe: What is meant by public opinion: factors involved in the formation of public opinion; importance of public opinion; and measurement of public opinion.
3.0 3.1
MAIN CONTENT Definition of Public Opinion and Propaganda
Public opinion can be defined as the aggregate views of the people on a particular public issue or government policy at a given period. You should note here that whenever a public is identified, there tends to be opinion formation.
89
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.2
Formation on Public Opinion
Public opinion can be formed in various ways. These include: Through the Mass Media: This is to say that people can express their views through the radio, newspaper and the television. Symposia and Lecturers: This indicates that public opinion can be formed at meeting in which ideas on matters of public importance are expressed and discussed. Pressure Groups and Political Parties: This indicates that pressure groups and political parties help in the formation of public opinion. Through this means, people's views and opinions are easily shaped. Bureau of Information: A bureau of information is a government's agency which is meant to inform the public on the activities of government. This now shows that government can assist in the formation of public opinion through the establishment of a bureau of information. This would make the government to easily know people's opinions on government policies. Elections: Elections are another strategy of forming public opinion. This is made possible through the education of members of the public by political parties on important public issues. This usually occurs during campaigns or through advertisements. SELF- ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 1 How do public opinion form?
3.3
Importance of Public Opinion
Below are the importances of public opinion: Measuring the popularity of the government: This shows that through public opinion, the government will be able to measure the popularities of its policies. Formulation of government policies is made easy: Through public opinion, government is able to formulate policies. This means that the government is able to know that the views of the people are on any public issue and it is able to take that into consideration while formulating its policies.
90
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
A means of decision-making: This shows that people are made to participate in the decision making process through their opinion on certain issues. A means of checking the excesses of government: Public opinion can be helpful in ensuring for accountability. For example, through public opinion, the government can be made accountable for its actions. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Describe why you think public opinion is important and necessary. .
3.4
Measurement of Public Opinion
Public opinion can be measured with the following: Through referendum: A referendum is a direct vote through which all the people in a society declare their position on any particular issue. It is a technique of measuring the acceptability or non-acceptability of any government proposal. Through elections: It is a fact to note that government can easily know a lot through the conduct of an election. As a matter of fact, the result of an election could help us to know how popular or unpopular a government and its policies are. Through opinion polls: Opinion polls are another way of measuring public opinion. Opinion polls are methods by which a cross-section of the public are interviewed on a given issue, with a view of identifying and measuring their position on it. Through meeting the people: People can be met directly in order to know their opinion on any particular issue. People can be located in their various communities or neighbourhoods. The above-listed techniques of measuring public opinion have been used by the government (Federal, State and Local governments), private bodies and other bodies as ways of knowing what is on people's mind. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3 Describe the techniques of measuring public opinion.
91
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
4.0
CONCLUSION
Public opinion has been identified as the collection of ideas and attitudes usually shared by the members of a particular public. It should be of interest to note here that public opinion helps in maintaining social control particularly over the leaders and the population in general. Not only this, public opinion can possibly serve as a unifying element in society. For example, Nigerian society which is purely heterogeneous (i.e. being made up of different kinds of people such as Hausa, Ibo, Tiv, Yoruba, etc.) is to some extent unified on certain issues, particularly in times of great crisis, which, however, demands a collective effort.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to give a definition of public opinion; how public opinion is formed; importance of public opinion, and measurement of public opinion. Public opinion has been expressed as the aggregate views of the people on a particular public issue or government policy at a given period. Public opinion is said to come up through mass media, symposia and lectures, pressure groups and political parties, bureau of information, and through elections. Public opinion has been described as being important in that it helps in formulation of government policies, it helps to measure the popularity of the government, participation in decision-making and lastly, it is a strategy of checking the excesses of government. Effort has also been made to describe how public opinion is measured. Measurement of public opinion can come through opinion polls, elections, referendum and meeting the people directly.
6.0
1 b. 2 b.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
a. Define public opinion. How do public opinion form? a. Explain the importance of public opinion Describe how public opinion can be measured.
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Agbonlahor, F.I, Olutayo, A.O., et al. (1995). Issues and Perspectives in Sociology. Nigeria: Sam Bookman Educational and Communication Services.
92
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
UNIT 5
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
SOCIAL CHANGE
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 Definition of Social Change 3.2 Sources of Social Change 3.3 Resistance to Social Change Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignments References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
One of the central problems of sociology is change, most especially social change. In the middle of the nineteenth century, the first attempts at sociological analysis were prompted by the need to explain two great waves of change that were sweeping across Europe; namely, industrialisation, and the expansion of democracy and human rights in the wake of the American and French Revolutions. Auguste Comte, in his theory of social dynamics, proposed that societies progressed through a series of predictable stages based on the development of human knowledge. The general tendency of nineteenth-century theories of social change was towards historicism and utopianism. This century, theories of social change have proliferated and become more complex, without ever wholly transcending these formulations. In the modern world, we are aware that society is never static, and that social, political and cultural changes occur constantly. Change can be initiated by governments, through legislative or executive action (for example, legislating for equal pay or declaring a war), by citizens organised in social movements (for example, trade unionism, feminism); by diffusion from one culture to another (as in military conquest, migration, colonialism) or by the intended or unintended consequences of technology. Some of the most dramatic social changes in modern times have been initiated by such interventions as the motor car, antibiotics, television, and computers. Change can also come through the impact of environmental factors such as drought, famine, and interventional shifts in economic or political change.
93
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: define social change; describe sources of change; and describe resistance to change.
3.1
Definition of Social Change
Wilmot (1985: 174) sees social change as "the alteration in the sources or organization of society or its component parts overtime." This alteration, he says, may be in terms of four variables, viz: size, complexity, direction and functions. In terms of size, a society can, through deliberate policies, bring about a change in itself. A practical example is the creation of local government areas from already existing ones by government. Once size changes, functions, direction and complexity will invariably change. MacGee etal (1977: 589) refer to social change as the transformation in patterns of social organisation or activity. The emphasis in this definition is on the changes which the transformation process introduced into the older order of society. Therefore, social change can be seen as an overhaul of the socio-political, economic and other structures of society. It is either gradual and imperceptible or sudden.
3.2
Sources of Social Change
Social change can be as a result of the following: Discovering Parsons (1951) defined discovery as an addition to knowledge. "Discovery refers to such matters as the discovery of new astral bodies, new elements and new treatment for disease (Parsons, 1951: 94). Education Education, as it is, involves the process of transmitting ideas, knowledge and values to individuals in order to bring about a change in their behaviour. The knowledge and skills gained from education are usually being applied which therefore brings about changes of all sorts. This is another source of social change. Invention has to do with combining existing elements of culture so that some thing new could be produced. Invention as a source of social change is of two types:
94
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
material inventions and social inventions. Material inventions have to do with the idea and materials available to the inventor. Social inventions relate to things such as alphabet, constitutional governments, etc. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Explain the sources of social change.
3.3
Resistance to Change
Several factors have been identified mostly by sociologists as making people to resist change. Some have argued in favour of economic costs of the change; some have also argued in favour of the early imperfections in new inventions. Change can be resisted due to some other factors which include the threats constituted by the change; strong opposition particularly from concerned groups, the difficulty in adapting to new things developed, etc. All these could make people to resist change of any sort. . SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 What do you understand by resistance to change?
4.0
CONCLUSION
It is a fact to note that change is inevitable and that social change is continuous in all societies though some changes are more notable than others. The issue of great concern now is that any time change is introduced; it should be taken as something very vital and progressive. This does not mean that people must not assess the change; in actual fact there is need for real assessment of any social change.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have dealt with definitions of social change and we have also discussed the sources of social change, and resistance to change. Social change has been identified as the transformation or modification process that brings about an influence on the old methods of doing things which have been identified as old-fashioned.
95
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
6.0
1. 2. 3.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
What do you understand by the term "Social change"? Explain carefully the sources of social change with examples. Describe the factors involved in resistance to change
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Agbonlahor, F.I, Olutayo, A.O. et al. (1995). Issues and Perspectives in Sociology. Nigeria: Sam Bookman Educational and Communication Services. Giddens, A. (1993). Sociology: An Introduction. Polity Press in Association with Blackwell Publishers. (2nd ed.):
96
SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
COURSE CODE: CSS 111
COURSE TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY
CSS 111
COURSE GUIDE
COURSE GUIDE CSS 111 INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY
Course Developer/Writer Solomon Ojo University of Ibadan Dr. (Mrs.) I. Udofot National Open University of Nigeria
Course Co-ordinator
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA ii CSS 111
COURSE GUIDE
National Open University of Nigeria Headquarters 14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way Victoria Island Lagos Abuja office No. 5 Dar es Salaam Street, Off Aminu Kanu Crescent Wuse II, Abuja Nigeria e-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.ng URL: www.nou.edu.ng Published by: National Open University of Nigeria 2008 First Printed 2004 ISBN: 978-058-348-3 All Rights Reserved
iii
CSS 111
COURSE GUIDE
CONTENTS
Introduction ………………………………………………… What You Will Learn in This Course ……………………… Course Aims ………………………………………………... Course Objectives…………………………………………… Working Through This Course………………………………. Course Materials ……………………………………………. Study Units ………………………………………………….. Textbooks and References…………………………………... Assignment File …………………………………………….. Assessment ………………………………………………….. Course Marking Scheme ……………………………………. Course Overview ……………………………………………. How to Get the Most from This Course ……………………. Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials …………………………….
PAGES
1 1 1 2 2 3 3- 4 4 4 4- 5 5- 6 6- 7 7- 9 9 - 10
iv
Introduction
GSl15: Introduction to Sociology is a one year, twenty credit, foundation level course. It will be available to all students to take towards the core module of their BSc. and BSc. (Hons.) in Co-operative Management. This course is suitable for any foundation student in the school of Business and Administration. The course will consist of twenty units, which involves Definition of Sociology (consisting of its origin, its scope, its uses and its methods, etc.), leadership, social change, conformity, power, marriage and family. This material has been developed for Nigerian students. There are compulsory prerequisites for this course. This Course Guide tells you briefly what the course is about, what you are expected to know in each unit, what course materials you will be using and how you can work your way through these materials. It also emphasises the need for tutor-marked assignments. Detailed information on tutor-marked assignments is found in the separate file, which will be sent to you later. There are periodic tutorial classes that are linked to the course.
What You Will Learn in This Course
The overall aim ofGSl15: Introduction to Sociology is to introduce the students to the basic concept in Sociology, Social issues in Sociology and general introduction of Sociology. During this course, you will learn about the definition of Sociology, its origins, its scopes, uses and methods. The course will also expose you to some practical social issues in our society in particular and the world in general. These social issues include family and marriage; power and authority, socialisation and leadership. Your understanding in this course will prepare you fully for other social sciences, and hence you will be grounded in Social Sciences. Specifically, this course will make you to have a better understanding of your main programme, Co-operative Management.
Course Aims
The aim of the course can be summarised as follows: this course aims to give you an understanding of basic concepts in Sociology, Social issues in Sociology and general introduction of Sociology.
CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
Course Objectives
To achieve the aims set above, there are set overall objectives. In addition, each unit also has specific objectives. The unit objectives are always included at the beginning of a unit; you should read them before you start working through the unit. You may want to refer to them during your study of the unit to check on your progress. You should always look at the unit objectives after completing a unit. In this way, definitely, you can be sure that you have done what was required of you by the unit. Stated below are the wider objectives of this course as a whole. Definitely, by meeting these objectives, you should therefore know that you have achieved the aims of the course as a whole. On successful completion of the course, you should be able to: Know the definition of sociology, its scope, its origin, its methods and its uses. Know the meanings of family and marriage, their activities and relationships. Know the concepts of socialisation, conformity and deviance. know the concepts of leadership, power and authority, and their relationships. Know the concepts of group, social organisation and social interactions. Know the concepts of social stratification, social differentiation and social mobility. know the processes and importance of collective behaviour, public opinion and social change.
Working through This Course
To complete this course, you are required to read the study units, read recommended books and read other materials provided by the National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN). Each unit contains some selfassessment exercises, and at points in the course, you are required to submit assignments for assessment purposes. At the end of this course is a final examination. Stated below are all the components of the course and what you have to do.
ii
CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
Course Materials
Major components of the course are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Course Guide Study Units Textbooks Assignment File Presentation
In addition, you must obtain the text materials. They are provided by the N0UN; so therefore, obtain your copy. You may also be required to purchase your own copy from the bookshops. You may contact your tutor if you have problems in obtaining the text materials.
Study Units
There are twenty study units in this course, as follows: Module 1 Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Module 2 Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Module 3 Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Social Organisations Group Social Differentiation Religion Social Interactions Conformity Deviance Power Authority Leadership Definition of Sociology Family Marriage Society and Culture Socialisation
iii
CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
Module 4 Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Social Stratification Social Mobility Collective Behaviour Public Opinion and Propaganda Social Change
Each unit contains a number of self-tests. In general, these self-tests question you on the materials you have just covered or require you to apply it in some ways and, thereby, help you to gauge your progress and to reinforce your understanding of the material. Together with tutormarked assignments, these exercises will assist you in achieving the stated learning objectives of the individual units and of the course.
Textbooks and References
You are required to purchase these textbooks stated below. They are compulsory for you: Gelles, R. J & Levine, A. (1996). Sociology: An Introduction. (6th ed.) McGraw Hill Giddens, A. (1993). Sociology: An introduction. Polity Press in Association with Blackwell Publishers, (2nd ed.)
Assignment File
The Assignment file will be posted to you in due course. In this file, you will find all the details of the work you must submit to your tutor for marking. The marks you obtain for these assignments will count towards the final mark you obtain for this course. Further information on assignment will be found in the Assignment File, itself and later in this Course Guide in the section on assessment. There are more than thirty Assignments for this course. Each unit is loaded with a minimum of two Assignments. In any way, there are many Assignments for this course and they cover every unit.
Assessment
There are two aspects to the assessment of the course. First are the tutormarked assignments; second, there is a written examination. In tackling these assignments, you are expected to apply information, knowledge and experience gathered during the course. The assignments
iv
CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
must be submitted to your tutor for formal assessment in accordance with the deadlines stated in the Assignment File. The work you submit to your tutor for assessment will count for 50% of your total course mark. At the end of the course, you will need to sit for a final written examination of three hours' duration. This examination will also count for 50% of your total course mark. There are twenty tutor-marked assignments in this course. You only need to submit all the assignments. The best five (i.e. the highest five of the twenty marks) will be counted. Each assignment counts 20 marks but on the average when the five assignments are put together, then each assignment will now count 10% towards your total course mark. This indicates that the total marks for the best five (5) assignments which would have been 100 marks will now be 50% of your total course mark. Assignment questions for the units in this course are contained in the Assignment File. You will be able to complete your assignments from the information and materials contained in your set books, reading and study units. However, it is desirable in all degree level-education to demonstrate that you have read and researched more widely than the required minimum. Using other references will give you a broader viewpoint and may provide a deeper understanding of the subject. When each assignment is completed, send it, together with a TMA (tutor-marked assignment) form, to your tutor. Make sure that each assignment reaches your tutor on or before the deadline given in the, Assignment File. If, for any reason, you cannot complete your work on time, contact your tutor before the assignment is due to discuss the possibility of an extension. Extensions will not be granted after the due' date unless there are exceptional circumstances. The final examination for GS 115 will be of three hours' duration and have a value of 50% of the total course grade. The examination will consists of questions which reflect the practice exercises and tutormarked problems you have previously encountered. All areas of the course will be assessed. Use the time between finishing the last unit and sitting the examination to revise the entire course. You might find it useful to review your tutormarked assignments and comment on them before the examination. The final examination covers information from all parts of the course.
v
CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
Course Marking Scheme
The following table lays out how the actual course marking is broken down: Table 1: Course marking scheme Assessment Marks Assignment 1-20
Final examination Total
20 assignments, best five marks of twenty count @ 10% each (on the averages) = 50% of course marks 50% of overall course marks 100% of course marks
Course Overview
This table brings together the units, the number of weeks you should take to complete them, and the assignments that follow them. Table 2: Course Organiser Unit Title of Work Course Guide Module 1 1 2 3 4 5 Definition of Sociology Family Marriage Society and Culture Socialization Module 2 1 2 3 4 5 Conformity Deviance Power Authority Leadership Module 3 1 2 3 Social Organizations Group Social Differentiation 4 4 3 Assignment 1l Assignment 12 Assignment 13 Assignment 14 3 6 3 3 3 Assignment 6 Assignment 7 Assignment 8 Assignment 8 Assignment 10 Weeks Activity 1 Assessment (end of unit)
3 3 3 3 4
Assignment 1 Assignment 2 Assignment 3 Assignment 4 Assignment 5
vi
CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
4 5
Religion Social Interaction Module 4
3 3
Assignment 15
1 2 3 4 5
Social Stratification Social Mobility Collective Behaviour Public Opinion Social Change Revision Total
4 3 4 3 4 2
Assignment 16 Assignment 17 Assignment 18 Assignment 19 Assignment 20
How to Get the Most from This Course
In distance learning, the study units replace the university lecture. This is one of the great advantages of distance learning; you can read and work through specially designed study materials at your own pace, and at a time and place that suit you best. Think of it as reading the lecture instead of listening to a lecturer. .In the same way that a lecturer might set you some reading to do, the study units tell you when to read, your text materials or set books. You are provided exercises to do at appropriate points, just as a lecturer might give you an in-class exercise. Each of the study units follows a common format. The first item is an introduction to the subject matter of the unit and how a particular unit is integrated with the other units and the course as a whole. Next to this is a set of learning objectives. These objectives let you know what you should be able to do by the time you have completed the unit. These learning objectives are meant to guide your study. The moment a unit is finished, you must go back and check whether you have achieved the objectives. If this is made a habit, then you will significantly improve your chances of passing the course. The main body of the unit guides you through the required reading from other sources. This will usually be either from your set books or from a Reading Section. The following is a practical strategy for working through the course. If you run into any trouble, telephone your tutor or post the question on the web GS OLE's discussing board. Remember that your tutor's job is to help you. When you need help, don't hesitate to call and ask your tutor to provide it.
vii
CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
1. 2.
Read this Course Guide thoroughly Organize a Study Schedule. Refer to the 'Course Overview' for more details. Note the time you are expected to spend on each unit and how the assignments relate to the units. Important information, e.g. details of your tutorials, and the date of the first day of the Semester is available from the WebGS OLE. You need to gather together all this information in one place, such as your diary or a wall calendar. Whatever method you choose to use, you should decide on and write in your own dates for each unit. Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything you can to stick to it. The major reason that students fail is that they get behind with their course work. If you get into difficulties with your schedule, please let your tutor know before it is too late for help. Turn to Unit 1 and read the introduction and the objectives for the unit. Assemble the study materials. Information about what you need for a unit is given in the 'overview' at the beginning of each unit. You will almost always need both the study unit you are working on and one of your set books on your desk at the same time. Work through the unit. The content of the unit itself has been arranged to provide a sequence for you to follow. As you work through the unit you will be instructed to read from your set books. Keep an eye on the WebGS OLE. Up-to-date course information will be continuously posted there. Well before the relevant due dates (about 4 weeks before due dates), access the Assignment File on the WebGS OLE and down-load your next required Assignment. Keep in mind that you will learn a lot by doing the assignment carefully. They have been designed to help you meet the objectives of the course and, therefore, will help you pass the examination. Submit all assignments not later than the due date. Review the objectives for each study unit to confirm that you have achieved them. If you feel unsure about any of the objectives, review the study materials or consult your tutor. When you are condifent that you have achieved a unit's objectives, you can then start on the next unit. Proceed unit by
3.
4. 5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
viii
1CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
unit through the course and try to pace your study so that you keep yourself on schedule. 11. When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for marking, do not wait for its return before' starting on the next unit. Keep to your schedule. When the assignment is returned, pay particular .attention to your tutor's comments, both on the tutor-marked assignment form and also written on the assignment. Consult your tutor as soon as possible if you have any questions or problems. After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare yourself for the final examination. Check that you have achieved the unit objectives (listed at the beginning of each unit) and the course objectives (listed in this Course Guide).
12.
Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials
There are 40 hours of tutorials (twenty 2-hour sessions) provided in support of this course. You will be notified of the dates, times and location of these tutorials, together with the name and phone number of your tutor, as soon as you are allocated a tutorial group. Your tutor will mark and comment on your assignments, keep a close watch on your progress and on any difficulties you might encounter and provide assistance to you during the course. You must mail your tutormarked assignments to your tutor well before the due date (at least two working days are required). They will be marked by your tutor and returned to you as soon as possible. Do not hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone, e-mail, or discussion board. If you need help the following might be circumstances in which you would find help necessary. Contact your tutor if you do not understand any part of the study units or the assigned readings. you have difficulty within the exercises. you have a question or problem with an assignment, with your tutor's comments on an assignment or with the grading of an assignment. You should try your best to attend the tutorials. This is the only chance to have face to face contact with your tutor and ask questions which are answered instantly. You can raise any problem encountered in the course of your study. To gain the maximum benefit from course
ix
CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
tutorials, prepare a question list before attending them. You will learn a lot from participating in discussion actively.
x
1CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
Course Code Course Title Course Developer/Writer
CSS 101 Introduction to Sociology Solomon Ojo University of Ibadan Dr. (Mrs.) I. Udofot National Open University of Nigeria
Course Co-ordinator
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
xi
CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
National Open University of Nigeria Headquarters 14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way Victoria Island Lagos Abuja office No. 5 Dar es Salaam Street, Off Aminu Kanu Crescent Wuse II, Abuja Nigeria e-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.ng URL: www.nou.edu.ng Published by: National Open University of Nigeria 2008 First Printed 2004 ISBN: 978-058-348-3 All Rights Reserved
xii
CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
CONTENTS
PAGES
Module 1 ……………………………………………………… 1 Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Definition of Sociology ………………………. Family ………………………………………… Marriage …………………………………….... Society and Culture ………………………..… Socialisation………………………………….. 1- 7 8 - 12 13 - 15 16 - 21 22 - 25
Module 2 ……………………………………………………… 25 Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Conformity …………………………………… Deviance ……………………………………... Power …………………………………………. Authority ……………………………………... Leadership ……………………………………. 25 - 29 30 - 37 38 - 41 42 - 44 45 - 49
Module 3 ……………………………………………………… 50 Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Social Organization ………………………….. Group ………………………………………… Social Differentiation ………………………… Religion ………………………………………. Social Interaction …………………………...... 50- 53 54 - 65 66 - 63 64 - 71 72 - 76
Module 4 ……………………………………………………… 77 Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Social Stratification ………………………….. Social Mobility ……………………………..... Collective Behaviour ………………………… Public Opinion and Propaganda ……………... Social Change…………………………………. 77 - 79 80 - 84 85 - 88 89 - 92 93 - 96
xiii
CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
MODULE 1
Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Definition of Sociology Family Marriage Society and Culture Socialisation
UNIT 1
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
DEFINITION OF SOCIOLOGY
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 Definition of Sociology 3.2 Origin of Sociology 3.3 Scope of Sociology 3.4 Methods of Sociology 3.5 Practical Significance of Sociology 3.6 Social Issues in Sociology Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
You will bear with me that the world today is characterised by high levels of worry, concern and anxiety, for the future and yet full of promises that the future holds. In reality, the world nowadays is known to be characterised by tensions, social divisions, day by day conflicts, international terrorism, assassinations, including the destructive operations of modem technology on the existing natural environment. Despite all these concerns, the people still have the assurance and possibilities of controlling their destiny and ensuring that their lives are shaped for the better, which might have been unachievable to the earlier generations. Why this obvious difference? In what directions will change take in the future? These questions and more are the major focus of Sociology. It is in the interest of Sociology to ensure playing a significant role in these modem times (i.e. understanding why people change from a particular way to another). This is what actually makes the field of Sociology to be much concerned with people's actions over time.
1
CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
2.0
OBJECTIVES
It is hoped that by the end of this unit, you should be able to: define extensively what Sociology is; explain the origins of Sociology; explain the scope of Sociology; express the methods used by Sociologist in their study of human. Behaviour; understand the practical significance of Sociology; and describe social issues that are of interest to Sociology.
3.0 3.1
MAIN CONTENT Definition of Sociology
Sociology is like every other social science such as Psychology, Economics, Geography, Political Science, etc., but its approach, assumptions and methods are to some extent different from others. Sociology is the systematic study of the groups and societies in which people live, how social structures and cultures are created and maintained or changed, and how they affect our behaviour. As we noted earlier on, Sociology is part of the family of social sciences that includes psychology, anthropology, geography, political science and parts of history. All Social Sciences are concerned with human behaviour. Although they share the same basic subject matter, each Social Science focuses on a different aspect of behaviour, for example, psychologist are most interested in the internal sources of behaviour; sociologist in the external sources of behaviour. Psychologists study the workings of the nervous system and the effects of neurotransmitters, hormones, or stress on individual. Sociologists look at the workings of society and the effects that social class, gender roles, age, new technologies, changing attitude towards reckless behaviour, or political revolutions have on people. Psychologists focus on personality -on the behaviour and attitudes that are characteristics of person regardless of the situations. Sociologist focus on roles -on the behaviour and attitudes that are characteristic of people in a given social position or situation regardless of their individual personalities. Anthropology shares Sociology's interest in the impact of social structure and culture on behaviour; but anthropologists usually study non-western societies, preliterate societies, local communities, or small groups. Sociologist, too, study communities and small groups, but they also examine modem industrial societies and large-scale .
2
CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
Economists and political scientists single out particular kinds of social activity; sociologists look at the nature of social action itself and at the manner in which different kinds of activities fit together to create the larger pattern of society. Sociologists are primarily interested in areas where social structure and culture intersect. One of these is social institutions. Social institutions are established patterns of action and thought that organize important social activities -the family, education, religion, the political and economic systems. These institutions provide ready-made answers to the recurring problems of life; how to make community decisions (the political system), how to produce and distribute goods and services (the economic system), how to arrange house-holds and provide child-care (the family), and so on. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Define sociology and relate it to other social sciences.
3.2
Origin of Sociology
Considering the origins of sociology, one would then have to look at the contributions made by some founding fathers. The contributions of Max Weber, and August Compe shall be considered. Max Weber (1864-1920) Max Weber was one of the founding fathers of Sociology whose work has been a great influence on the study of Sociology. In his own contribution, sociology is a science of social action. He made a clear distinction between action and social action. To him, action has to do with all human behaviour in so far as the actor attaches a subjective meaning to it; but for that of social action, the actor does not only and usually attach a subjective meaning, the action itself must also be seen to take account of the behaviour of others (1968: 1,4). Emily Durkheirn (18S8 - 19l7) This is one of the early Sociologists. Emily Durkheim dealt with two types of social solidarity. By 'Solidarity', Durkheim meant the moral beliefs and ideas which formed the 'common-sense' underlying social life. Mechanical solidarity (characteristic of pre-industrial societies) was said to be based on agreement and identity between people; organic solidarity derived from agreement to tolerate a range of differences,
3
CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
conflict being moderated through a variety of institutional arrangements, such as courts, political parties, etc. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Describe the contributions of Max Weber and Emily Durkheim to Sociology.
3.3
Scope of Sociology
The scope of study of sociology is extremely wide beginning from studying and understanding interactions among individuals up to the scientific analysis of global social processes such as globalisation and information technology; globalisation and sustainable economic development.
3.4
Methods of Sociology
In understanding human behaviour, Sociologists use methods which are mainly scientific in discovering facts about human beings. The major scientific tools usually being used in sociological research are: Survey Archival research Participant observation Surveys The survey is a method of systematically collecting data from people about their behaviour, attitudes and beliefs. Subjects for surveys are carefully selected to represent the group of people about whom the investigator intends to draw conclusions. The subjects in a survey can be interviewed in persons, as they were or on the telephone; or they might complete a self-administered paper -and -pencil or computerised questionnaire. Whatever the mode of data collection, the questions in a survey are carefully constructed to yield the precise information that the investigator is seeking. Usually, surveys require respondents to choose between response alternatives that are supplied by the researchers. Archival Research The questions and results of some comprehensive national surveys are published so that other researchers, not involved in the study can conduct their own analyses of the data. Results published in this manner are said to be archived, and research using these results are called archival research. Archival research in actual fact, uses existing records,
4
CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
gathered originally for some other purpose, as data. An archival study might examine census figures; birth records; scores on tests administered in schools, clinics or businesses; criminal records; or personal documents such as diaries or letters. Participant Observation The term "participant observer" was coined by Eduard Linteman (1924), a university of Chicago Sociologist, to refer to individuals who belong to a group and report on that group to investigators. Today, the term still is used, but now it refers to a researcher who interacts with group members for the purpose of studying them. The extent of participants observers' involvement with their subjects varies from study to study, as do the means they use to gain entry into their subjects worlds. Researchers may spend extended periods of time with the people they study, sharing many life experiences with them, or the data may be gathered over a relatively short time by means of one or a few intensive interviews. Some investigators have gained access to groups deceptively, by passing themselves off as regular group members. Others identify themselves as researchers from the outset, hoping that those they plan to study will grant them access to information usually reserved for insiders. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3 Explain the methods of Sociology.
3.5
Practical Significance of Sociology
The practical significance of Sociology is stated below: It provides more adequate and clearer understanding of social situations. It gives practical implications in terms of assessing the results of policy initiatives. It makes possible the promotion of cultural awareness on the different groups in society. It promotes deep self-understanding, etc. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4 State the practical significance of Sociology.
5
CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.6
Social Issues in Sociology
There are many social issues that are of great interest to Sociology. Some of these social issues do result into problems, and they are stated below: Rape Armed Robbery .Assassination AIDS/HIV Terrorism Prostitution War Conflicts Area boys’ syndrome, etc.
40
CONCLUSION
It is essential to note that Sociology developed as a result of attempts to understand the far-reaching changes that took place in human societies which followed the growth of industries and large cities. You should now know that the distinctive feature of Sociology is its focus on how Society influences human behaviour and vice-versa. Some Sociologists study human behaviour of a more general behaviour (why do fishing communities worship gods of the sea?), crime (why do some young people steal from shops?), and family problems (are all modem societies associated with the breakdown of the pattern of a large families?). Others are interested in human behaviour of a more specific nature such as the response of audiences at pop song concerts, or queuing for buses or the shopping behaviour of people of a particular income group.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have dealt with the definition of Sociology, its origins, scope, uses, methods and some of the social issues Sociologists are interested in.
6.0
1.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
What do you understand by the term of "Sociology" and what is the relationship to other social sciences? (a) (b) (c) Describe the scope of Sociology. Explain the methods of Sociology. Describe the practical significance of Sociology.
2.
6
CSS 111 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Gelles, R. J. and Levine, A. (1996). Sociology: An Introduction (6th ed.) McGraw-Hill.
7
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
UNIT 2
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
FAMILY
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 Definition of Family 3.2 Types of Family 3.2.1 Nuclear Family 3.2.2 Extended Family 3.2.3 Polygamous Family 3.2.4 Monogamous Family 3.3 Activities in Family 3.4 Functions of Family Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment Reference/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Many Sociologists have regarded the family as the cornerstone of society. It forms the basic unit of social organisation and it is difficult to imagine how human society could function without it. Although the composition of the family varies -for example, in many societies two or more wives are regarded as the ideal arrangement -such differences can be seen as variations on a basic theme. In general, therefore, the family has been seen as a universal social institution, an inevitable part of human society. On balance, it has been regarded as a good thing, both for the individual and society as a whole. For some time, it has been thought natural and normal for households to be based around families.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: describe what is family; describe the types of family; understand the activities with family; and describe the functions of family.
8
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.0 3.1
MAIN CONTENT Definition of Family
In a study entitled social structure, George Peter Murdock examined the institution of the family in a wide range of societies. Murdock (1949) took a sample of250 societies ranging from/small hunting and gathering bands to large -scale industrial societies. He claimed that some form of family existed in every society and concluded, on the evidence of this sample, that the family is universal. Murdock (1949) defines the family as follows: The family is a social group characterised by common residence, economic co-operation and reproduction. It includes adults of both sexes, at least two of whom maintain a socially approved sexual relationship, and one or more children, own or adopted, of the sexually cohabiting adults. Thus the family lives together, pools its resources and works together, and produces offspring. At least, two of the adult members conduct a sexual relationship according to the norms of their particular society. Such norms vary from society to society. For example, among the Banaro of New Guinea, the husband does not have sexual relations with his wife until she has born a child by a friend of his father. The parentchild relationship, therefore, is not necessarily a biological one. Its importance is primarily social, children being recognised as members of a particular family whether or not the adult spouses have biologically produced them.
3.2
Types of Family
3.2.1 Nuclear Family
The concept of family refers to different levels of social organisation in different cultures. For example, in Euro-American societies, a family consists of a man, his wife, and children. This type of family is called the nuclear family. It is also known as the Elementary family. There is also the conjugal family or the family of procreation where one is a father or mother, or husband or wife. In these societies (i.e. EuroAmerican societies) the father’s or mother’s natal family (sometimes referred to as family of orientation) that is, the family where a man or woman was born, is regarded as a different family. The nuclear family appears to be as a result of industrialization and modem development. In Nigeria, today, this type of family is now a common practice.
9
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.2.2 Extended Family
This is a type of family that have been in existence for a number of years for now. An extended family consists of two or more nuclear families. For example, a man's family (conjugal family) is joined to his father's family through him to form one extended family. Hence, a man and his wife and children together with his father and mother and their other children (if any) form one extended family.
3.2.3 Polygamous Family
This is a type of family practice where a man is married to more than one wife. In this type of family, a man may be married to two, three, four or even more than that. This is a type of practice that has been in existence for a very long time and it is still seen among us today, particularly among the rich people, kings, etc.
3.2.4 Monogamous Family
This type of family is referred to as one man one wife, that is, a man is said to have only one wife as a legal wife and no other one. These days in Nigeria, monogamous family practice is a common sight everywhere. Majority of men prefer to be involved in this than polygamous family. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 i. ii. iii. Differentiate between nuclear and extended family. What do you understand by conjugal family? Explain the terms 'Monogamous family' and 'Polygamous family'.
3.3
Activities in Family
Every member of a family has some functions to perform in maintaining the unit. The father is seen as the leader who directs the affairs of the unit, but usually takes vital decisions after consultation with the wife and children. It is the role of the father to ensure that the family is protected from danger, the father ensures that the physical well-being of his family is assured and maintained. The physical well-being has to do with food, clothes and shelter. He is not only the provider of all these, he also ensures that he provides and maintains moral and philosophical training of the children. Apart from the father, the mother also is involved in some vital activities. It is the woman who performs the role of a house-wife and sexual consort and bears and suckles children. She sees to the daily feeding of the family members.
10
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
In this line, the children are made to observe the division of labour within the family and of the mutual role dependence and they also contribute whatever they can in order to see to the daily maintenance of the family. As seen from above, the activities in the family has been to regard men as superior to his wife. This can easily be observed in many African societies where a man expects respects and obedience from his wife and children. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Explain the activities in a family.
3.4
Functions of the Family
George Peter Murdock gives the universal functions of the family as stated below: 1. Functions for Society
From his analysis of 250 societies, Murdock argues that the family performs four basic functions in all societies, which he terms the sexual, reproductive, economic and educational. They are essential for social life since without the sexual and reproductive functions there would be no members of society, without the economic function (for example, the provision and preparation of food), life would cease, and without education (a term Murdock uses for socialisation) there would be no culture. Human society without culture could not function. Clearly, the family does not perform these functions exclusively. However, it makes important contributions to them all and no other institution has yet been devised to match its efficiency in this respect. 2. Functions for Individuals and Society
The family's functions for society are inseparable from its functions for its individual members. It serves both at one and the same time and in much the same way. The sexual function provides a good example of this. Husband and wife have the right of sexual access to each other and in most societies there are rules forbidden or limiting sexual activities outside marriage. This provides sexual gratification for the spouses. It also strengthens the family since the powerful and often binding emotions which accompany sexual activities limit husband and wife.
11
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
The sexual function also helps to stabilize society. The rules which largely contain sexual activity within the family preventing the probable disruptive effects on the social order that would result if the sex drive were allowed "free play". The family thus provides both control and expression of sexual drives and in doing so perform important functions not only for its individual members, but also for the family as an institution and for society as a whole.
4.0
CONCLUSION
There are shared assumptions that relationship between family members is prototype for all other social relations, that the family unit is the fundamental building block for all societies, and that the family is society's shock-absorber of social change. One cannot, for instance, expect a person to do more for a stranger or an acquaintance than what he/she would do for a family member.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to deal with the word 'family' in detail. We have dealt with the definition of family, the types of family, activities in the family and functions of the family. The concept of family has been expressed to mean a social group characterised by common residence, economic co-operation and reproduction. Family has been said to perform different and important functions which include economic functions, educational functions, reproductive functions, sexual function, socialisation functions, etc.
6.0
1. 2.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
What do you understand by the term "family"? Explain activities in family. Explain the functions of family.
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Murdock, G.P. (1949). Social Structure, Macmillan: New York.
12
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
UNIT 3
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
MARRIAGE
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 Meaning of Marriage 3.2 Types of Marriage Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment Reference/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
In all societies, arrangements exist for the social recognition of who may legitimately mate with whom, which we call marriage. While the social recognition of mating itself may be of some importance, its importance is probably outweighed in most societies by that of legitimating the children that may result that is, giving them social recognition, an identity, a name, membership of a socially recognised group and some indication of who must assume the obligation to support them and their mother. Marriage is probably best regarded as an anticipatory provision for the needs of the mother-child unity, which we regard as the basic unit of the kingship system. While all societies have a system of marriage (and make a social distinction between legitimate and illegitimate children) there are wide variations in different marriage systems. The more important variables concern the number of mates each marriage partner may have; the locality of the marriage; the arrangements that exist for the transfer of wealth at the marriage; and the terms, if any, on which a marriage may be dissolved.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: describe what is actually meant by marriage; and describe the types of marriage.
3.0
MAIN CONTENT
13
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.1
Meaning of Marriage
Marriage is traditionally conceived to be legally recognised relationship, between an adult mate and female, that carries certain rights and obligations. However, in contemporary societies, marriage is sometimes interpreted more liberally, and the phrase 'living as married' indicates that for many purposes it makes no sense to exclude cohabitation. It should be noted, however, that even this more liberal definition usually excludes homosexual couples. Although cohabitation is increasingly accepted, and is now the normal prelude to marriage. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Describe your understanding of marriage.
3.2
Types of Marriage
There are two basic types of marriage, so far as numbers are concerned: Monogamy and Polygamy. Monogamous norms restrict the individual to one spouse at a time. Polygamous norms permit plural marriage and take the form either of polygamy (one husband and two or more wives) or of polyandry (one wife and two or more husbands). There is a fourth type of marriage, usually called "group marriage" in which there are both plural wives and husbands in the marital unit. The last form is rare, and in all known cases the marital rights of one pair in the group take precedence over others. Monogamy is permitted in all societies, although polygamy is the preferred form in most societies. These different kinds of marital arrangements frequently may be interpreted in terms of conditions outside the marriage structure itself. Polygamy is often associated with a shortage of men, although this is not necessarily the case; multiple wives are sometimes a form of conspicuous consumption -a sign of affluence. Because of warfare and the more hazardous occupational pursuits of males, primitive societies often have a predominance of females. This, however, does not place the male in the enviable position that some of you (males) students might assume. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Describe the major types of marriage.
4.0
CONCLUSION
In most societies, marriages are arranged by older relatives, with an eye to expanding their network of kin. The most important criteria in mate
14
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
selection are economic security and family background, not mutual attraction. Research suggests that in arranged marriages, the couples' romantic attachment to one another grows over the years, whereas couples who married for love report that their attraction to one another dropped precipitously after the first two to five years of marriage.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to give the meaning of marriage and types of marriage. Marriage is seen as a legally recognised relationship between an adult male and female, that carries certain rights and obligations. The two major types of marriage are monogamy and polygamy. Monogamy norms restrict the individual to one spouse at a time. Polygamous norms permit plural marriage and take the form either of polygyny (one husband and two or more wives) or of polyandry (one wife and two or more husbands).
6.0
1. 2.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMEBT
What do you understand by the term "Marriage"? State and explain two major types of marriage.
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Giddens. A, (1993). Sociology: An introduction. Polity Press in Association with Blackwell Publishers. (2nd ed.).
15
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
UNIT 4
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
SOCIETY AND CULTURE
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 What is Society? 3.2 Definition of Culture 3.3 Society and Human Behaviour 3.4 Elements of Culture 3.5 Importance of Culture Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Since the influence of society on human behaviour is the central interest of sociologists, it is important to know how sociologists see the relationships between individuals and society as a whole. This kind of concern is like the situation when, for example, a young person commits suicide and some people conclude that "it is the fault of society". In other words, this individual's behaviour was influenced by society. But what exactly is society. Furthermore, the concept of culture together with that of society, is one of the most widely used notions in sociology. When we use the term culture in ordinary daily conversation, we often think of culture as equivalent to the 'higher things of the mind' -art, literature, music and painting. As sociologists use it, the concept includes such activities, but also far more. Culture has been seen as the ways of life of the members of a society, or of groups within a society. It concludes how they dress, their pattern of work, etc.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
This unit is expected to expose you to the: definitions of culture and society; relationship between society and human behaviour; elements of culture; and importance of culture.
16
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.0 3.1
MAIN CONTENT What is Society?
It may be tempting to think that a society is simply a collection of individual person. Much of the time, we 1ike to think of ourselves as individuals who are different to everyone else, and that we are not affected by what other people say or do. However, this does not seem to reflect what people and societies are really alike. How much of the time are you totally alone, doing exactly what you want without any influence from others? Most of the time what we do is influenced directly or indirectly by the various kinds of groupings with whom we interact. For example, much of what we do reflect the fact that we are involved in social relationship! with other members of our family. As children we were influenced by what we learned from our parents grandparents, brothers, sisters and so on. Then, throughout life our feelings and behaviour are often shape (by what other members of our family are doing. For many of us, much of our behaviour is also shaped by the fact that we go out to work. The organisation we work for sets the context for our behaviour. It requires u: to do certain things: It provides us with sets of colleagues and acquaintances with whom we may spend par of our non-working hours. Also our behaviour is affected by other kinds of groupings. We may be members of sports clubs, or work for a charity. We are also affected by being part of National Open University of Nigeria. As you read this you may be an individual: but you bring to your studies what you learned at school; you may be tired as a result of what your employers asked you to do; you are connected to other students and tutors in the Open University of Nigeria; and you may be planning to get through this work quickly so that you can spend some time with your children. The point of all this is to emphasise that what we do as individuals is best seen in the context of our membership of what sociologists call social institutions or social units. A social unit mayor may not have a clear organisation. It can be an organised institution with clear rules and buildings, e.g., a business firm; 0 it could be something without any formal organisation, e.g., the expatriate community in Nigeria. These unit can have different purposes, e.g. making money or providing all the kinds of physical and emotional SUPPOI that good families provide. Sometimes, a social unit can itself be part of other units, or may have sub-division within It. For instance, refugee camp, there are subdivisions: the Liberian refugees, the Sierra-Leone refugee and other refugees from war-tom countries in Africa. There are further sub-
17
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
divisions within this refuge camp: the male and female groups; the Christian, Muslim, traditionalist; the young and the old, etc. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Write down some of the various kinds of social units that you are involved in?
3.2
Definition of Culture
Culture refers to shared, consensual and learned pattern of behaviour. Suppose that A and B are sitting together and B is telling a story about the origin of the people that A and B consider themselves to be. This story is one that is known by all of B's generation. What is told to A by B is culture. Suppose also that B has thought about this story and has some different ideas about the elements of the story but B has never told this to anyone else. So long as B keeps this to herself, it is not a part of the culture of the people of A and B. Therefore, culture is said to be shared and learned. The consensual element means simply that many share it and agree to its meaning and importance. Culture is the embodiment of the people, it is also of the things they share and do together. Language, family structure, how and when they plant, how they live out their lives, how they die, what they hold to be sacred. In fact, virtually everything the people hold in common is a part of their culture. Tools, paths, techniques, for using tools, these are also part of the culture. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 i. ii. What do you understand by culture? Describe the culture of your place.
3.3
Society and Human Behaviour
We have been able to explore what was meant by society, and saw that in one sense society is made up of its constituent parts, but what we now explore is the effect which society as a whole has on those parts: how society influences the behaviour of social units and individual people. We have discussed how each social unit and each person has functions to perform and roles to play. But how can the functions and roles be accomplished? As an example, let's consider the social unit known as Federal Road Safety. How does it as a social unit achieves its role of promoting and facilitating smooth traffic system in the country. At the outset, the government set up working parties to decide on what sort of organisation should be established to deal with general issues of traffic
18
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
system in the country, what this organisation should or should not do, and what power and resources it needed. Eventually, after much discussion within the Federal Government of Nigeria the ordinance setting up the Federal Road Safety was enacted in more than twelve years ago. The ordinance sets up rules and regulations concerning the purposes, powers, resources, duties and the operation of th~ corporation. These rules and regulations, because they are imposed by an ordinance, possess legal power. The Federal Road Safety Corps (FRSC), a social unit, has to observe the rules contained in the ordinance when it performs the functions of ensuring smooth traffic system. But we have seen that it is the people who work or live in social units that perform tasks on behalf of these units. The staff of the corporation has to observe the terms of the ordinance when they work. Working -a kind of human behaviour -is thus shaped by the rules operating within its social unit. In the ordinance, the terms and conditions of appointment of the Chief Executive of the corporation are stated. These terms and condition state the role of the Chief Executive and how this role should be carried out. So, the working behaviour of the Chief Executive is not only governed by the rules of the corporation as a whole, but also by the rules governing this particular post. Likewise, there are other documents specifying the roles and rules of other posts in the corporation. People taking up the posts will work according to the roles and rules of the corporation in general and of the posts in particular. Can you identify the roles and the rules of the units in which you work? Can you identify the roles and rules specific to your position in the organisation concerned?
3.4
Elements of Culture
Culture is made up of different elements, and these elements include: norms, values, beliefs, technology, etc, Norms Rules that govern behaviour, expectations we hold for how to behave in a given situation. These rules that govern our behaviour can be quite informal (rules about how we dress, stand when talking to others, how we address one another) to formalised laws.. Beliefs These are often associated with religion. They refer to those things that we hold to be true. Beliefs and values blend together. Our national ideologies are also beliefs. Many contemporary Americans believe that people were not created, but evolved from other forms of life over a
19
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
very, very long period of time. If you are a fundamental Christian perhaps you believe the world was created in 7 days and that it was created by God. Both of these are belief systems (involving certain assumptions about what is and how things have come to be), that shape the lives of the true believers. They shape their lives by supporting their notions of what is important, what is real and how we are to belief at all times. True, most of us do not think of this all of the time, but there are times when we are reminded of our beliefs and their importance and then act accordingly. It is also the case that for most that these beliefs remain in the background, but do shape our day to day behaviour. Technology These are the material good of the culture. In what we are doing, the computers are the technology. Technology is often more than the tools, since it involves the techniques as well as the tools themselves. The programming languages that make all of the things we do on the computers work are techniques, the wires that link us together are tools, but how we link those wires for what purposes are techniques. Consider that 'gun-powder' was known to the Chinese for centuries (a tool), but that it was only used to make noises al festivals. It took the Europeans to change these tools with a different set of techniques into a weapon 01 destruction.
3.5
Importance of Culture
The following are the importance of culture: sets behaviour standards for a given setting defines the structure of relationships defines importance of setting, relationship, things (VALVES) defines who we are and what we hold to be true (BELIEFS)
4.0
CONCLUSION
The concept of culture, together with that of society, is one of the most widely used notions in sociology Culture consists of the values the members of a given group hold, the norms they follow, and the material goods they create. Values are abstract ideals, whole norms are definite principles or rules which people are expected to observe. Norms represent the 'dos' and don't's of social life. Culture refers to the ways of life of the members of a society, or of groups within a society. It is said to include how they dress, their marriage customs and family life, their patterns of work, religious ceremonies and leisure pursuits. It also covers the goods they create and
20
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
which become meaningful for them -bows and arrows, computers, books, dwellings.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have dealt with what is meant by society, definition of culture, relationship between society and human behaviour and importance of culture. Culture has been referred to as shared, consensual and learned pattern of behaviour. Society has been seen as human relationships which may be organised or dis; direct or indirect; or even co-operative or unco-operative.
6.0
1. 2. b.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
What do you understand by the terms "Culture" and "Society"? a. Explain the elements of culture Describe the importance of culture.
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Gelles, R..J. & Levine, A. (1996). Sociology: An Introduction. (6th ed.) McGraw Hill. Giddens, A. (1993). Sociology: An Introduction. Polity Press in Association with Blackwell Publishers, (2nd ed.).
21
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
UNIT 5
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
SOCIALIZATION
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 What is Socialization? 3.2 Agents of Socialization Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
For the beginner, there may be a tendency to confuse socialization with other processes of change. It is essential, therefore, to emphasize that there is a difference between them. Two aspects of socialization distinguish it from those other processes of change. Firstly, socialization refers only to the changes in behaviour and attitude having their origins in interactions with other persons. Secondly, socialization includes only those which occur through learning. Other changes, such as those resulting from physical growth, are not part of the socialization process. Other illustrations of socialization include learning the folksways and customs of one's society and regional groups and the religious beliefs and moral values of one's society and family.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: describe in detail what is referred to as socialization; and describe the agents of socialization.
3.0 3.1
MAIN CONTENT What is Socialization?
Socialization into society involves being socialised into various subgroups within the society (e.g. the family, school, peer group association, work place, etc). Being looked at from the perspective of the individual being socialised, the function of socialization is to secure entrance into and acceptance by his society and its sub- groups. But as a matter of life, looking at it from the societal perspective, socialization is the process by which different individuals are prepared to play many
22
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
different and varied roles and interact in such a way that the interrelated individuals and groups can functions as a whole -as a society. This is not to imply that those undergoing socialisation experiences consciously tell themselves that they are doing what they are doing for the reason enumerated. Whatever the intended immediate results may be, the overall result is to make those involved sufficiently alike so that they can function as interacting members of a group, and sufficiently different so that the various behaviour pattern's needed to maintain the society are produced. By definition, socialisation is an interactional process in which an individual's behaviour and attitude are modified to conform with the members' expectation of the groups to which he or she belongs. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 What is your understanding of Socialisation?
3.2
Agents of Socialization
The following are agents of socialisation: Family Peer and own preferences Television and Mass Media Schools Family This is one of the agents of socialization. Parents are the most important socializing agents for the child at the very early stages of his development. Parents and the child's siblings form the only significant group on whom the child depends physically and psychologically. In reality, parents and siblings of the child under socialization are usually referred to as significant others, on whom the child can observe, imitate and identify with. In actual fact, the value, attitudes, the norms, folks ways and beliefs of a society are learned by the child from his interaction with his parents and siblings. Peer and Own Preferences This is another important agent of socialization for a child. As the child matures, he begins to interact with his friends (i.e. friends in the neighbourhood, church/mosque and other important places). The child begins to learn new things which he might not have learnt from his
23
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
parents and siblings. A lot of things (good or bad) are learned from these interactions. Can you remember what your peer group taught you while you were maturing from childhood to adulthood? Just have a flashback, you will definitely remember what you were taught by your peer group members. Television and Mass Media It is a fact that television and other mass media such as radio, print advertisement, films, etc. do go a long way to socialize children. As a matter of fact, the increasing industrialization and ubanisation have greatly influenced the impact of television and mass media on child's socialization; for example, in Nigeria today, newspaper, magazines and other printed materials have increased tremendously just as radio and television have. These have become important media through which certain types of socialization take place. Schools As the child grows older and mature, then the family role alone becomes inadequate for the socialisation of the individual. Therefore, it becomes more and more necessary for professionally trained personnel (such as teachers) to be involved in the socialisation process of the individuals. The role of schools in the socialisation process is now becoming more and more prominent and recognised. .As you can observe these days in Nigeria, children are sent to school much earlier, particularly with the introduction of day care centres where children, even six weeks old are sent while their mothers are at work. Not only this, nowadays in Nigeria, there are improved educational opportunities opened to individuals for adequate training. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Explain the agents of socialisation.
4.0
CONCLUSION
You can now bear with me that socialisation is inevitable in our daily lives. There is no how an individual will not pass through these stages of socialisation in one way or the other. We want to assure that the symbols and their associated definitions which are normally included in the culture of the group or society usually form the major part of what is learned in the process of socialisation. Through socialisation, the individual learns language(s) and other communication symbols. Such an individual learns how to interpret or label objects, other people with whom he interacts with, himself, and the situation.
24
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
It is good to conclude that throughout an individual's life, the individual continues to learn to take on behaviour appropriate to the expectations associated with whatever new positions he occupies (e.g. as an infant, a toddler, a boy, a youth, an adolescent, an adult, a middle-age man or an adult, a student or a worker, etc.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to describe fully what is meant by socialisation. Efforts have also been made to explain the agents of socialisation. Now, better understanding of the concept of socialisation and its agents should have been developed. Therefore, you should now know that socialisation is a life-long process and an uneven process with many advisors (e.g. parents.. schools, media, etc).
6.0
1. 2.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
What do you understand by the term "Socialisation"? What are the agents of Socialisation?
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Gelles, R.J & Levine, A. (1996). Sociology: An Introduction. (6th ed.) McGraw, Hill. Giddens. A. (1993). Sociology: An Introduction. Polity Press in association with Blackwell Publishers. (2nd ed.).
25
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
MODULE 2
Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Conformity Deviance Power Authority Leadership
UNIT 1
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
CONFORMITY
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 What is Conformity? 3.2 Why do people Conform? 3.3 When do people Conform? Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment Refernces/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Conformity is usually generated by a group's spoken or unspoken norms. Conformity occurs as a result of real or imagined, though unspoken, group pressure. When everyone around you stands up to applaud a performance you thought was mediocre or average, you may conform by standing as well. No one tells you to do this. Therefore, we can say the group's behaviour simply creates a silent but influential pressure on its members.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: describe what is meant by conformity; describe the reasons why people conform; and describe when people conform.
26
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.0 3.1
MAIN CONTENT What is Conformity?
Conformity is defined as behaviour which follows the established norms of a group or society. People do not always conform to social norms because they accept the values that underlie them. They may behave in the approved ways simply because it is expedient to do so, or because of sanctions. No society can be divided up in a simple way between those who deviate from norms and those who conform to them. Most of us on some occasions transgress generally accepted rules of behaviour.
3.2
Why do People Conform?
Research suggests three influential factors. First, people are motivated to be correct and norms provide information about what is right and wrong. Second, people are motivated to be liked by other members of the group. Finally, norms guide the dispensations of social reinforcement and punishment. With this, you should note that from childhood on, people in many cultures learn that going along with group norms is good and earns rewards. People also learn that breaking a norm may bring punishments ranging from scoldings for small violations to imprisonment for non-conformity with norms that have been translated into laws. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 What factors influence people's level of conformity?
3.3
When do People Conform?
The following are factors that influence conformity: Ambiguity of the Situation: This is one of the factors that encourage conformity. As the physical reality of a situation becomes less clear, people rely more and more on others' opinions, and conformity to a group norm becomes more likely. Unanimity and Size of the Majority: In actual fact, people experience great pressure to conform as long as the majority is unanimous. Conformity also depends on the size of the group. The larger the group, the more conformity members experience. Personal Characteristics: This is another factor that influences when people conform. In nearly any situation, some people will conform than others. One major determinant of conformity is
27
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
familiarity with the task; social status is another. Research suggests that people who are unfamiliar with a situation or have relatively low status in a group are the ones most likely to conform. Attraction to a group also influences conformity. People are more likely to conform when they like the members of a group than where is no title or no attraction. It should be noted here that attraction may increase conformity because people tend to trust the judgment of those they like or because they want the approval of people to whom they are attracted. Another personal characteristic that may shape conformity is the degree to which people are concerned with being liked or with being correct. People who are preoccupied with being liked are likely to conform particularly when they are also attracted to the others in the group. In contrast, people who are preoccupied with being right are likely to conform, no matter how much or how little they are attracted to others in the group. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Explain when people conform, citing examples peculiar to yourself?
4.0
CONCLUSION
Conformity has been identified to mean a change in behaviour or beliefs to match those of others in a group. It is a kind of social influence. In cases of ambiguity, people slowly develop a group norm an4 then adhere to it. Conformity occurs because people want to be right, because they want to be liked by others, and because conformity to group norms is usually reinformed.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have dealt with the definition of conformity, the factors influencing why people conform, and lastly the factors influencing when people conform. Conformity is expressed as behaviour which follows the established norms of a group or society. People do not always conform to social norms because they accept the values that underlie them. People tend to conform because in most cases, they are usually motivated to be correct and as a matter of fact, norms provide information about what is right and wrong. People are also motivated to be liked by other members of the group, and for that they tend to conform. People tend to conform usually when there is ambiguity of situation, familiarity with the task, etc.
28
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
6.0
1. 2 b.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
What do you understand by "Conformity"? a. Why do you think people conform? When do you think people conform?
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Giddens, A. (1993). Sociology: An Introduction. Polity Press in Association with Blackwell Publishers. (2nd ed.).
29
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
UNIT 2
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
DEVIANCE
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 Definition of Deviance 3.2 Perspectives on Deviance 3.2.1 Biological, Individual, Psychological 3.2.2 Social Perspective 3.2.3 Labelling Perspective 3.2.4 Social Control Perspective Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Deviance is seen as non-conformity to a given norm, or set of norms, which are accepted by a significant number of people in community or society. Most of us on some occasions transgress generally accepted rules and behaviour. I must say here that many people have at some point committed minor acts such as theft, like taking something from a work -such as office note-paper -putting them to private use. For some groups, an act is not deviant -If I use marijuana, that is not deviant in the Jazz playing groups to which I might belong, if I drink and I get drunk most of the time, that is not deviant among transient and fellow alcoholics. You should note here that what is defined as deviant is done by those with the power to make the definitions stick. The 'establishment', lawmakers, opinion leaders, heads of departments, leaders in groups and so forth.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: define deviance; have a different look about deviance; and have a clear understanding of perspectives on deviance.
30
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.0 3.1
MAIN CONTENT Definition of Deviance
Deviance is defined thus: (a) (b) behaviour that violates important norms of the group (or society); the behaviour must occur frequently, e.g., if I show up at work once a year or only once drunk, chances are no one will call that deviant, but if I show up in that condition everyday, then it is deviant; the rule violated must be important e.g., If I wear jeans to class all of the time, that will not be enough to label me serious deviant, eccentric perhaps, but not deviant. However, if I persist in propositioning students in the class in an examination period for favours of various kinds, that rule is considered important and I am likely to be labelled as deviant for this activity. It is also likely to cost me my position at the University (Open University of Nigeria) the seriousness of the deviance: The deviance is considered serious if the rule being violated is important. Important rules are those that often govern acts and activities that are seen as threatening to the group. You have to keep in mind that this kind of thing is relative (what is considered as serious and threatening to the group depends entirely on the group in question). Think of examples where acts arouse a great response, but you do not see them as being that serious. Then consider the response from the group and how that response relates to the integrity of the group. Often you will find something very important to the group being threatened. Abortion, for example, threatens the sanctity of life for some group, for others it threatens the integrity of the family by permitting women to engage in sexual activity outside the bounds of matrimony. Since life and the family are seen as very, very important by these groups, abortion is seen as a threat to the group, and therefore, must be abolished so the sanctity of the group may be maintained.
(c)
(d)
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 From your own understanding, what is deviance?
31
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.2
Perspectives on Deviance
In this section, the perspectives on deviance will be examined. Four (4) major perspectives on deviance will be explained for your understanding:
3.2.1 Biological, Individual, Psychological
(a) Lombroso's discussion two things are of importance here. First, this is an early attempt to explain "criminal behaviour's through physical characteristics. I would think that Lombroso was motivated by a sincere desire to be able to identify criminal behaviour and once identified to eliminate it. Second, the manner in which this was shown to be in-correct. This is very important since we draw conclusions of the kind made by Lombroso even today (that is we assume that because two things occur together in one kind of group, they must therefore be linked). Genetic Based Violence, e.g., XYZ chromosomal difference. Personal Space and Violent Behaviour: Personal space is the area around us that we consider to be an extension of our body or selves. The size of this bubble is culturally defined. Americans and Northern Europeans like a distance of 18" to 2", Mediterranean and Arabic people tolerate a much small space, often on the order of 15" or less. They like to be able to feel the breadth and to smell the other person. There is some suggestion that the size of the personal bubble each of us carries with us is related to violent behaviour, researchers have noted that violent prisoners often have a need for a larger personal bubble than most of us, they react violently when that bubble is unexpectedly violated. The violent behaviour in this case is attributed to the size of personal space, an individual social psychological characteristic. Alcoholism: This is seen to be partially, perhaps entirely genetically based. Personality Based Theories of Deviance: This relates to weak self-esteem, inability to control temper, rage. Another relates to too much self-control, holds in, then explosion.
(b) (i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
32
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.2.2 Social Perspective
(a) Differential Association
Differential association defines the cause of deviant or delinquent behaviour in the pattern of associations that we have. We are deviant or delinquent because we associate with people who are deviant or delinquent. Your parents (or you as a parent) are aware of this potential whenever you make a point of the kinds of children your children play with or go out with. Note that much of our prison system is based in part on this set of ideas that one learns from association with criminals. The key point is that the young person becomes deviant through association with others, learning from them. Some researchers suggest that children become involved in deviant acts because others reject them, not that they associate with delinquents. (b) Subcultural
The deviant groups exist within the community, youths are attracted to them. As a matter of fact, this is not a full deviance theory since it does not address how such subcultures come into existence in the first place. It is useful in general discussion of delinquency and deviance when people are drawn into such groups or 'subcultures'. (c) Deviant Attachments
This comes close to helping to explain how deviance comes about, but suffers from the same flaw of the above, it does not address the issue of how the groups to which they become attached came into existence in the first place. Gangs come to have a prominent place in the discussion as they are often seen as meeting needs that some young people have and are not being met in the home. The gang forms to provide this kind of support, identity and attachment. Once formed, the bonds can be quite strong.
3.2.3 Labelling Perspective
Labelling occurs in response to the commission of deviant acts and is influential in how those acts and the actors are seen by others. Labelling occurs in a series of steps, outlined below: (a) The first time we commit a deviant act that is primary deviance.
33
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
(b)
If we are identified with the deviant act, then others may come to expect us to commit further acts of this kind (even if we did not do so in the first place). When we do respond to this expectation with a deviant act. the act we commit is called secondary deviance. That is, the act is a response to be called a deviant, even if we were not to that point. For example, suppose that a boy or a girl samples a drug. The parents, school authorities find out and are constantly watching the kid. The kid does not want to use drugs again, but everyone seems to believe that they are junkies, no one believes they are clean. Finally, the kid says to hell with it, if they think I am then I may as well go ahead and do it. THIS IS SECONDARY DEVIANCE. Labelling is the process of labelling someone as deviant, criminal, or whatever the acts that follow from the secondary deviance. Note that this is a social process involving both the deviant and the group or persons doing the labelling.
(c)
(d)
(e)
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Consider why you conform to the rules of the society.
3.2.4 Social Control Perspective
Rather than ask why people are deviant, we turn the question around and ask why do people conform? As we, look about us, we find that most people conform to the rules most of the time. Few of us are 'deviant' or criminal. If we did not conform there would have to be a policeman to watch each and everyone of us, everyone would be a policeman watching everyone else. In such circumstances, there is a low level of trust and the sense of community disappears. There are better ways of maintaining order and conformity. Efficient control is maintained when each of us is our own policeman. There are a number of social factors that contribute to this conformity and social control. Most notable among these are the internal controls of conscience and our attachments to groups. Direct and indirect external controls also exist. (1) Conscience -your own internal policeman: Each of us has been carefully taught by our parents and by others to understand and to obey the rules. We have been instilled with a conscience that makes us feel guilty whenever we violate the rules. For example, I grew up in a rural area and was taught that it was wasteful to drop picked fruits and vegetables. I still wince whenever a piece
34
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
of fruit gets away from me and drops to the ground or into the mud. This is a form of conscience. It is this internal 'policeman' that keeps us from driving through a red light very early in the morning when there is no traffic warden anywhere to be seen. Notice that kind of control is very, very efficient, it is always with us and means that we always conform to the norms, rules and expectations of our community. (2) Attachments -the 'baggage' we pick up, e.g. jobs, wives, kids, friends and so: These attachments provide us with a lot to lose. These are a variation on the attachments discussed above (those often related to the links that provide us with emotional support and worth). The 'attachments' in this sense are more the accumulated wealth and position we have in the community. One way to assess the kind of attachment is to look at a small businessman, who provides a service to the community in contrast to a similar individual who earns his living from a large corporation. The businessman has many, many links and connections to the community that are necessary for his survival and continued well-being. The corporate employee has no link to the local community (other than friends and perhaps family). The result is that the employee may not worry about cheating people in the community or actually stealing from them. He could move easily within the corporation and be gone. In this same thread note that as we grow older, we collect things that link us to the community and that make it more difficult to cheat, lie and steal in the community because we have so much more to lose. The young person who is just starting out has little in the way of things or reputation to risk, so can try many different kinds of things, including those that are illegal or deviant. Note that most deviance occurs among those in their late teens and twenties, people with few attachments. In the effort to keep young people in school, the emphasis is on extracurricular activities, where you develop attachments to people in the activities and to the school. The more of these activities, and the more the attachments, the less likely the students is to drop out. Direct, External Controls These are the forces that can be brought to bear upon us. The state monopolises the legitimate use of force to control the population. Such force works so long as it is seen as being legitimate and not excessive. However, as soon as groups begin to see the application of force as illegal or excessive, then the effectiveness of these controls is greatly lessened and armed
(3)
(a)
35
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
conflict will break out. Several examples of the use of excessive or perceived illegal force come to mind. (b) Indirect, External Controls It is a fact to note that rewards and punishments are associated with work. People are often held under control by the threat of the loses of a job or loss of pay in that job. These become very powerful deterrents to those who might otherwise consider challenging authority. Consider your own position in the university as a student. If you want a degree, you must play by the rules, whether you like them or not. Those indirect, external controls become increasingly effective as we mature and gain more position within the society. Such controls often rest upon our fear of loss of income, position, or other material objects that we have accumulated.
4.0
CONCLUSION
Deviance is seen to be relative, that is what is considered to be deviant or criminal behaviour depends upon what groups are in power and what they consider to be deviant. Furthermore, there are differences among groups as to what is considered to be deviant behaviour. Jazz musicians have rarely considered the use of marijuana deviant, businesses almost always consider such as deviant. There are many explanations for deviant behaviour, some based in the individual and her/his psychology. Most explanations place the source of deviant behaviour in the realm of the social, in the structure of the society. These same explanations also note that most of us do not deviate seriously, but rather conform most of the time. Conformity is attributed to social control, both formal and informal and direct and indirect.
50
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have dealt with the definition of deviance and perspectives of deviance. Deviance has been defined as behaviour that violates important norms of the group (or society); the behaviour must occur frequently, and the rule violated must be important and serious.
6.0
1. 2.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
Explain the concept "Deviance" State and explain the perspective on deviance.
36
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Gelles, R..J. & Levine, A.. (1996). Sociology: An Introduction. (6th ed.) McGraw Hill. Giddens, A. (1993). Sociology: An Introduction. Polity Press in association with Blackwell Publishers. (2nd ed.).
37
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
UNIT 3
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0
POWER
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives 3.1 Definition of Power 3.2 Roles of Power Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment References/Further Readings
Exercising influence over others depends on factors, which are valued by the others, knowledge and rank, for example. The degree of value of such factors depends on circumstances. For example: A personnel manager whose role is seen by line colleagues as essentially a servicing (servile) function, and whose positional power is rather weak, may find his or her situation transformed by the on-set of a mass of employ merit legislation to which the firm must respond. Overnight, almost, the personnel role has become that custodian of the company's approach to the new laws, with the responsibility for ensuring consistency of behaviour throughout all functions.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: describe what power; and explain the forms of power.
3.0 3.1
MAIN CONTENT Definition of Power
Power has been seen as the ability to ensure compliance despite resistance from the individual involved. It is the ability to compel or influence others to do what they would otherwise not do. A person who has power can impose his will on others. He can do this by the use of threat of punishment if they disobey him. Power is exercised in all human relationship. For example, teachers have power over their students. Also, parents have power over their children.
38
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
Power is a key aspect of any managerial post, and springs from a variety of sources. Legge (1973) describes power as "(the) capability of exercising influence over the attitudes and/or behaviour of other individuals or group". This is a useful definition since it emphasises the capability of exercising influence. In other words, power does not necessarily rely either on formal authority, i.e. power granted by the organisation to a particular ' position-holder. Power is more of matter of what a person does, or is potentially capable of doing, to influence others. Thus, a trade union representative who successfully persuades a group of work mates to stop work has exercised power, regardless of whether he had any authority to do so under his union's rule.
3.2
Roles of Power
An understanding of role is vital to the effective performance of any job, because it enables the job-holder to assess his or her power position. A role may be defined as: 'the set of expectations held by the individuals concerned and those about them concerning how a job or task is to be performed.' A role needs to be distinguished from a position, or job, which is primarily a statement of duties an individual has been allocated. The job description is merely the script, but the role is the way the script is acted out. The various forms of power that are available to managers have been described by Handy (1985) as follows: Physical Power – this is the capability of using physical force to achieve influence. An unlikely source of power for a manager, but a lockout is one .such manifestation. Resource Power - 'the possession of valued resources', as Handy puts it. Examples include control over salary and promotion prospects. This form of power is less available to managers in large bureaucracies, where such issues are dealt with in accordance with centrally-directed procedures. Position Power – this is the power of office or position, as described by Weber. It refers to the rights written into the particular position (to allocate work, assess performance, etc.). Position power relies closely on resource power. However, it does give access to what Handy calls 'invisible assets', i.e. information, rights of access to key groups, and the right to organise work.
39
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
Expert Power – this arises from the possession of acknowledged expertise. This is power which, in effect to a position by those over whom it is to be used. Expert’s power only exists if other people recognise it and value it. Personal Power – this is the power of personality (charisma). Like expert power, it is only effective when it is recognised by those concerned. Negative Power – this is the power to stop things happening, for example. Even lowly members of an organisation may have this form of power. It finds expression in the filtering or distorting of information. It tends to surface at times of low morale. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE Describe the forms of power known to you.
4.0
CONCLUSION
The possession of power, however achieved, is one thing. The use of power is another. As Legge puts it: '.. .he (the manager) also needs sufficient political sensitivity to know how to relate the resources available to him to interests that are salient to those he wishes to influence'. This political sensitivity represents the subjective dimension of power and on this the perception of one's role is crucial. In this unit, we have dealt with the concept of power, and relationship between roles and power. Power has been described, as stated by Legge (1978) as the capability of exercising influence over the attitudes and/or behaviour of other individuals or groups. For your information, you should note that power is exercised when potential power wielders, motivated to achieve certain goals of their own, marshal in their power base resources (physical power, resource power, position power, expert power, personal power and negative power) that enable them to influence the behaviour of respondents by activating motives of respondents relevant to those resources and to these goals. This is done in order to realise the purpose of the power wielders, whether or not those are also the goals of the respondents.
40
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
6.0
1. 2.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
What do you understand by the term "Power" Describe the forms of power known to you.
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Handy, C. (1993). Understanding (4th ed.), Penguin. Legge, K. 1978. Power, Innovation and Problem-solving in Personnel Management. McGraw-Hill.
41
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
UNIT 4
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
AUTHORITY
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 Defining Authority 3.2 Types of Authority Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Power is seen as the ability to control what other people do, even when they resist. In its raw form, power is the use of intimidation or physical coercion to force someone else to do one's bidding. All societies distinguish between the legitimate and the illegitimate use of power. For example in Nigeria today, most people consider it legitimate for the government to require that citizens pay income taxes but it is illegitimate for a politician to demand or accept a bribe. Now coming to authority, sociologist uses the term authority to refer to the legitimate use of power. Authority depends on agreement that certain uses of power are valid and justified. Whereas power depends only on might, authority depends on cultural idea of what is right.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: define and describe authority in detail; differentiate authority from power; and describe types of authority.
3.0 3.1
MAIN CONTENT Definition of Authority
Authority has been identified as meaning legitimate use of power. It is depended on agreement that certain uses of power are valid and justified. This means further that not only by those who make decisions and issue commands can determine the validity and justifiability of authority, but also by those who are subject to those orders.
42
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
One of the central functions of political institutions is to legitimized the ways in which power is exercised in a society. Nigerians, from example, usually assume that democracy -rule by the people -is the only legitimate form of government. But in different times and places, other political systems have enjoyed widespread popular support and voluntary allegiance.
3.2
Types of Authority
Max Weber (1946), identified three main sources of political legitimacy: traditional, charismatic, and rational-legal authority. Traditional authority is based on customs handed down through the generations. It is the sacred right of a king or queen, an emperor or tribal chief, to command his or her subject. In many cases, traditional authority is inherited. Although custom may impose some limits, traditional leaders are free to make unilateral decisions. A modern example of traditional leadership, although outside politics, is the Pope, whom many Roman Catholics recognise as the supreme authority on issues of morality. Charismatic authority is based on special personal qualities. Charismatic leaders have no traditional or legal claim to power; indeed, they often oppose prevailing custom and existing laws. Their authority derives from their followers' belief that they have exceptional insight and ability or, perhaps, supernatural powers. Mahatma Gandhi, who used non-violent resistance to oppose British rule and lead India to independence, is an example of a charismatic leader. Another example is the Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. Who viewed Gandhi as a model. Although King never held public office, he was considered the spokesperson for African Americans and he inspired collective action, against violent opposition, in the civil rights movement. The third type of authority is Rational- Legal authority. In actual fact, rational-legal authority is derived from a formal system of rules or laws that specify who has the right to make which decisions and under what conditions. Authority is vested in the position or office, not in the person, who temporarily occupies that position, and the office-holder's authority is clearly defined and limited. For example, the President of Federal Republic of Nigeria does not have the authority to tell Nigerian coaples to limit their families to two children; our constitution protects individual liberty and our culture holds family matters as private.
4.0
CONCLUSION
Traditional, charismatic, and rational-legal authority are "ideal types", or abstractions of key characteristics. In practise, political systems depend
43
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
on varying combinations of all tree. Charisma plays a role in who gets elected as President of the United States; once elected, the president has both rational -legal authority and traditional authority that accompanies this position. Above all, it should be noted that authority is the right and duty to make decisions and the power to enforce them. It is power that is based on agreement by a majority of people in a society or group.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to explain in detail what is meant by authority, the difference between authority' and power, and types of authority. Authority has been described as legitimate use of power. Authority depends on agreement that certain use of power is valid and justified -not only by those who make decisions and issue commands but also by those who are subject to those orders. Three types of authority have been identified and these are: traditional authority, charismatic authority and rational-legal authority. Traditional authority is an authority which derives from customs and traditions of a particular society. The authority of traditional rulers, for example, Obas, Obis and Emirs, is traditional. Charismatic authority is an authority which is based on the person's unique personal qualities which enables him to mobilise and lead people. Legal-rational authority is a type of authority which confers on the person the legal right to exercise that authority, for example, the authority of the president of Nigeria is legal -rational.
6.0
1 b. 2.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
a. What do you understand by "Authority"? What is the difference between power and authority? State and describe the three types of authority.
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Gelles, R..J. and Levine, A. (1996). Sociology: An Introduction. (6th ed.) McGraw Hill.
44
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
UNIT 5
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
LEADERSHIP
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 Definition of Leadership 3.2 Leadership Theories 3.3 Leaders versus Managers Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Leadership is a vital element in the social relationships of groups at work. Groups need leaders and leaders need followers. The academic and management literature on leadership focuses almost exclusively on the individual traits, styles and behaviour that characterise the leaders. Some recent research in leadership has advanced beyond these more simplistic individual level models by calling attention to such things as "meaning -making" and "influence" and to the importance of understanding "followers". We are left wondering about the contexts in which creative, inclusive, inspiring individuals make sense of their work together. We think of leadership as a dynamic process in which people come together to pursue changes, and in doing so collectively develop a shared vision of what the world (or some part or corner of it) should be like, making sense of their experience and shaping their decisions and actions. The role of articulating the vision of the group may be taken on by one individual or by several. It may be rotated or shared. The emergence of leadership is therefore, always a collective process of meaning-making.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, you should be able to: define or describe leadership;. describe the major leadership theories; and differentiate leaders from managers.
45
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.0 3.1
MAIN CONTENT Definition of Leadership
Leadership is a concept that many people have written about but few have defined. However, a working definition is suggested as follows by Cole (1997): "Leadership is a dynamic process at work in a group whereby one individual over a particular period of time, and in a particular organisational context, influences the other group members to commit themselves freely to the achievement of group tasks or goals" This working definition encompasses several important features of leadership: 1) Leadership is a dynamic process, influenced by the changing requirements of the tasks, the group itself and the individual members. The implication of this is that there is no "one bestway' of leaders and leaders need to be able to exercise a range of behaviour to maintain their role effectively. Leadership is not necessarily confined to one person, but may be shared between members. Usually, an appointed leader (e.g. manager) is nominally in charge of a group, but he or she may not always be the leader in practice. The leader's principal role is to influence the group towards the achievement of group goals. Leadership is exercised in, and influenced by, the particular set of circumstances which form the organizational context.
2)
3) 4)
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 What is leadership?
3.2
Leadership Theories
Leadership itself, has been accompanied throughout time, by numerous theories, all claiming to answer the question: Are Leaders born or made? Those who accept the verdict, that leaders are born and not made, maintain: "... that there are certain in-born qualities such as initiatives, courage, intelligence and humour, which altogether predestine a man to be a leader... the essential, pattern is given at birth" (Adler, 1991, p.4).
46
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
Two leadership theories which concentrate on this point, are the greatman/greatwoman and the trait theories. The “'greatman/woman” theory involves its followers believing that major events, both nationally and internationally, are influenced by those persons in power. The trait theory expand further on this conjecture, by concentrating on the personal characteristics of the leader. The theory, which until the mid-1940sformed the basis for most leaders, the list of which grew in length over the years, to include all manner of physical, personality and cognitive factors. including height, intelligence and communication skills. However, few traits emerged to conclusively differentiate leaders from non-leaders. The traits an individual has may increase the probability that a person will become a leader though whether such leadership is guaranteed, is uncertain. Nevertheless, it can be seen to be true that some people are more likely than others to assume leadership positions. However, this theory still did not answer, why one member of a group emerged as the leader, rather than another, or why one particular leader proved to be better in some situations than another. The emergence of a related theory, the interactionist approach, attempted to explain the existing anormalies. The interactionist theory, proposed that both the characteristics of the individual, and the situation in which the group found itself, accounted for whom would become the leader. Resulting from this theory, was the view that leaders are both born and made, due to the leader requiring certain abilities and skill, but as the situation and the needs of the group changed, so too the person acceptable as leader changed. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Describe the two theories explaining the concept of leadership.
3.3
Leaders versus Managers
Most people view leadership as being associated with the role of a manager. However, there are some, who suggest that leaders and managers are not equal positions. It has been said, that leading and managing involve separate and distinct behaviours and activities. Leaders and managers, these sources continue, vary in their orientation towards goals, conceptions about work, inter-personal style and selfperceptions. Leadership has been described as being one aspect of what a manager does; but certainly not all of it. Managers, they assert, fulfill four
47
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
functions, namely: planning, organising, controlling and leading. Thus leading aspect of management, involves influencing subordinates towards the achievement of organisational goals. It is necessary here to point out that a manager may not necessarily be a group's leader. While a manager of a group performs activities of a planning, organising and controlling nature, the real leader may be one of his/her sub-ordinate. In essence, managers, we can summarise, can in certain situations, be leaders, however, leadership is only one aspect of their function. Some people have the capacity to become excellent managers, but not strong leaders, others have great leadership potentials but for a number of reasons, have great difficulty becoming strong managers. Both leading and managing are desired aspects in a group situation, i.e. in a group situation, both shall be present, in order for the group to become an efficient and effective body. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3 What is the relationship between managing and leading?
4.0
CONCLUSION
Academic research on leadership- mostly done in applied psychology and management - has shifted its focus overtime from defining leadership as a trait or a behaviour, to defining it as a relationship, and in some cases as an activity. But most accounts of leadership still tend to emphasize traits, styles and contingency theories in an effort to formulate what makes X rather than Y a "good leader". Even in the more recent accounts, where leadership is linked to influence -how to most effectively mobilise others -or to transformational actions that recognise the value of culture, the heroic view of leadership tends to remain unchallenged.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to define leadership and we have also discussed the major theories of leadership in addition with comparing leaders and managers. While the term leadership is seen as a process of influence between a leader and his followers to attain group, organizational and societal goals, a leader is defined as "someone who occupies a position in a group, influences others in accordance with the role expectation of the position and co-ordinates and direct the groups in maintaining itself and reaching its goals.
48
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
6.0
1. 2.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
What do you understand by the term "Leadership"? State ten (10) good characteristics of a leader. Differentiate between trait theories and interactionist theory of leadership.
7.0
Adler,
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
R.B. & Rodman, G. (1991). Understanding Human Communication. Holt Rhinehart and Winston, Forth Worth: Texas.
Cole, E.A. (1997). Personnel Management: Theory and Practice. London: Letts Educational: Aldirie Place, (4th ed.).
49
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
MODULE 3
Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Social Organisation Group Social Differentiation Religion Social Interaction
UNIT 1
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
SOCIAL ORGANISATIONS
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 Meaning of Social 3.2 Levels of Social 3.3 The Roles of Individuals in Social Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Social organization is an important area of study by the social scientists. You should bear with me that all societies are , some simple, others complex. It is a thing of interest to note that social organization gives the basis for maintaining order in a society and for predicting its behaviour as well as those of its members. You should note that it is usually being emphasised that the units in social organization could be individuals, institutions or . A social organization can be organization or . The form which a social organization takes has to do with its complexing and its defined or vagues, simple or multiple, but changing functions.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, each student is expected to have better understanding of: what is meant by social organization; levels of social ; and the roles of individuals in social organization.
50
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.0 3.1
MAIN CONTENT Meaning of Social
Social organization has been considered by social scientists as indicating an organization in which individuals and relationships are ordered with reference to the goals of the society concerned. Social organization is said to have two aspects which include, first, the form of structure which relates to the fact that all the individuals and institutions that compose a society are given sizes and positions which functions in an interrelated pattern. Secondly, social organization has been seen as a process. This has to do with the order of the social organization i.e. how the components of the society are ordered. As a matter of fact, social organization is said to be dynamic. Usually, there is growth, and adaptation in the structure as well as in the functions of any social organization. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Describe what is meant by social organization.
3.2
Levels of Social
There are three levels of social, namely: inter-personal level, group level and the total level of the society. The inter-personal level usually occurs between persons, it is the most elementary form of social organization. Examples of interpersonal level of relationship include a teacher and his/ her students, a father and his children, a pastor and his followers; a leader and his followers, etc. You should note that to study adequately social organization in any society, there is need for adequate knowledge of inter-personal relations. The group level of social organization relates to a large number of people whose interests vary. When group relations are adequately studied, then people's attention to major areas of social conflict can be easily directed. Apart from this, it should be noted that social scientists particularly Sociologists, Social psychologists, etc. are usually interested on group behaviour. The third and highest level of social organization, total level of the society, is made up of both interpersonal and inter-group relations. The inter-play between various groups is part of the organization at the societal level. You should bear in mind that it is at this level that various personal, institutional and group roles are related to one another.
51
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Describe the levels of social.
3.3
The Roles of Individuals in Social
Different individuals or institutions are not equally talented or equipped to function or perform adequately effectively. Social organization, however, recognizes and utilizes these inequalities amongst the components of any given society. This means that social organization signified some notions of division of1abour, of social differentiation and of differences in thecapabilities of individuals. Obviously, the individual differences can be the result of physiological or hereditary elements or environmental factors. On this note, social organization recognizes the importance of division of labour. People and institutions are arranged into different positions and roles which they hold in the service of the whole unit. Through this, the best in everybody is being utilized. As a matter of fact, every individual is given the opportunity to contribute his or her skill or ability in the activity in which he or she has been considered capable and fit for. Therefore, it is now interesting to note that social organization is an organization of roles. Every individual is a role player in any given society. Bodies such as school, church, mosque, military, police, etc are role players in any given society. For example, within government, there are role players in the executive arm of government, legislative arm of government and judiciary arm of government. In addition, in our secondary school system, the role players include the principal, a number of vice- principals, Heads of Department, School Counsellors, some student representatives, etc. A major point you should be aware of is that the various roles are not played just haphazardly. On this note, it is, therefore, the concern of social organization in ensuring that roles are ordered and also that positions are duly regulated. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3 Explain what you understand by the role of individuals in social organization.
4.0
CONCLUSION
Social organization has been regarded as an important area for maintaining orderliness and possible prediction of human behaviour in
52
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
any society. It emphasises the importance of division of labour which gives room for individuals to contribute their quotas to the functioning of a society based on their levels of skill and knowledge.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit; efforts has been made to define social organization and explain the levels of social organization. Efforts have also been made to describe the role of individual in social organization. Social organization has been described as an organization in which individuals and relationships are ordered with reference to the goals of the society. It is also being described that social organization is of three levels: interpersonal level, group level and the total level of the society. It was also said that in social organization, the best of everybody is utilised in that every individual is given the opportunity to contribute his or her talent or labour in any activities he is considered capable and fit for.
6.0
1 b. 2.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
a. What do you understand by the term Social organization? Describe the roles of individuals in Social organization. Describe the levels of social organization.
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Giddens, A. (1993). Sociology: An Introduction. Polity Press in Association with Blackwell Publishers. (2nd ed.).
53
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
UNIT 2
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
GROUPS
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 Definition of Group 3.1.1 Informal and Formal Group 3.1.2 Primary and Secondary Group 3.1.3 In-Group and Out-group 3.1.4 Group Cohesiveness 3.1.5 Group Effectiveness 3.1.6 Team Process Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
In the beginning, God made an individual- and then he made a pair. The pair formed a group, together they begat others and thus the group grew. Unfortunately, working in a group led to fiction, the group disintegrated in conflict and Cain settled in the land of Nod -there has been trouble with groups ever since. When people work in groups, there are two quite separate issues involved. The first is the task and the problems involved in getting the job done. Frequently, this is the only issue which the group considers. The second is the process of the group work itself: The mechanisms by which the group acts as a unit and not as a loose rabble. However, without due attention to this process, the value of the group can be diminished or even destroyed; yet with a little explicit management of the process, it can enhance the worth of the group to the many times the sum of the worth of its individuals. It is this synergy which makes group work attractive in corporate organisation despite the possible problems (and time spent) in group formation.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: define group, why a group, and process of group development; differentiate between informal and formal group; differentiate between primary and secondary group; differentiate between "in-group and out-group"; understand what is meant by group cohesiveness;
54
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
describe group effectiveness and factors encouraging it; and describe team processes.
3.0 3.1
MAIN CONTENT Definition of Group
A group of people working in the same room, or even on a common project, does not necessarily involve the group process. If the group is managed in a totally autocratic manner, there may be little opportunity for interaction relating to the work; if there is functioning within the group, the process may never evolve. On the other hand, the group process maybe utilised by normally distant individuals working on different projects. Schein (1965) defines a group as any number of people who (1) interact with one another, (2) are psychologically aware of one another, and (3) perceive themselves to a group. In his view, these three conditions need to be fulfilled if a group is to be distinguished from a random collection of individuals. Schein also assumed that groups share some common aim or purpose. Workgroups, for example, have a clear purpose, spelt out in the picture of the tasks assigned and the standards to be achieved. Why a Group? Groups are particularly good at combining talents and providing innovative solutions to possible unfamiliar problems. In cases where there is no well-established approach/procedure, the wider still and knowledge set of the group has a distinct advantage over that of the individual. In general, however, there is an over-riding advantage in a group-based work force which makes it attractive to Management: that it engenders a fuller utilisation of the work force. A group can be seen as self-managing unit. The range of skills provided by its members and the self- monitoring which each group performs makes it a reasonably safe recipient for delegated responsibility. Even if a problem could be decided by a single person, there are two main benefits involving the people who will carry out the decision. Firstly, the motivational aspect of participating in the decision will clearly enhance its implementation. Secondly, there may well be factors which the implementer understands better than the single person who could supposedly have decided alone. More indirectly, if the lowest echelons of the workforce each become trained, through participation in group decision making, in an understanding of the companies' objectives and work practices, then
55
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
each will be better able to solve work-related problems in general. Further they will also individually become a safe recipient for delegated authority which is exemplified in the celebrated right of Japanese car workers to halt the production line. From the individual's point of view, there is the added incentive that through belonging to a group, each can participate in achievements well beyond his/her individual potential. Less idealistically, the group makes provision for an environment where the individual's self-perceived level of responsibility and authority is enahanced, in an environment where accountability is shared: thus providing a perfect motivator through enhanced self-esteem coupled with two stresses. Group Development How does a group develop? This is the next question to be answered. As a matter of fact, it is common to view the development of a group as having four stages: Forming Storming Norming Performing Forming is the stage when the group first comes together. Everybody is very polite and very dull. Conflict is seldom voiced directly, mainly personal and definitely destructive. Since the grouping is new, the individuals will be guarded in their own opinions and generally reserved. This is particularly so in terms of the more nervous and/or subordinate members who may never recover. The group tends to defer to a large extent who emerge as leaders.(pool fools). Now can you flashback on what happened to you when you joined a particular group (i.e. may be social or religious group)? How did you relate with other members of this group? How did they relate to you also? These are meant for you to think over. Storming is the next stage, when all Hell breaks loose and the leaders are lynched. Factions form, personalities clash, no one concedes a single point without first fighting tooth and nail. Most importantly, very little communication occurs since no one is listening and some are still unwillingly to talk openly. True, this battle ground may seem a little extreme for the groups to which you belong. The next stage is Norming. At this stage the sub-groups begin to recognise the merits of working together and the in-fighting subsides. At this stage, since a new spirit of co-operation is evident, every member
56
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
begins to feel secure in expressing their own view points and these are discussed openly with the whole group. The most significant improvement is that people start to listen to each other. Work methods become established and recognized by the group as a whole. And finally; performing this is the culmination, when the group has settled on a system which allows free and frank exchange of views and a high degree of support by the group for each other and its own decisions. In terms of performance, the group starts at a level slightly below the sum of the individual's levels and then drops abruptly to its nadir until it climbs during norming to a new level of performing which is (hopefully) well above the start. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 i. ii. iii. Distinguish a group from a random collection of individuals. Explain the stages of group development. Why is group formed? Explain why you formed the group you belong to.
3.1.1 Informal and Formal Groups
'Formal’ or official groups are groups forming a pair of the organizational structure, established by management to see to the smooth running of the organization. For example, in a banking industry, looking at a particular ban, there may be marketing team, personnel team, finance team, etc. In each of these teams, there is the expectation of achievement of a specific goal in order to allow the entire bank to keep on moving effectively. Informal groups or unofficial groups are those groups which are established by the employees themselves, for their own purposes rather than to fulfill organizational ends. Informal or unofficial groups have their purposes, which are generally to meet the social and security needs of the employees, for your information, it is good to note that the purposes of these unofficial groups may fit in fairly well with organizational objectives, but more than likely will be opposed to them. Burns and Stalker (1961) make the interesting point that in 'mechanistic' (hierarchical) , loyalty is to the concerned, and obedience is to superior. In this kind of organization, there is every possibility of open conflict between the behaviour of people in an unofficial group as compared with their behaviour as members of official groupings.
57
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.1.2 Primary and Secondary Group
Primary Group This is relatively small, simple group of people. People in a primary group are in face-to-face relationship, for example, a family group or a village group. The group usually has some form of performance and it's small number of people interact relatively intimately, intensely and frequently. This kind of interaction could be likened to one in which an individual often has his earlier form of education and training according to the local culture and values. In this kind of group, the relationship is voluntary and personalised, and everyone is interested in everyone else as persons, having his or her own value. The interaction that exists in primary groups could occur within a relatively defined territory like a village or a ward within a town. Unlike the primary group, in secondary schools, there is less frequency and intensity of contact between members of the group. It is necessary to note here that all the members of the group do not often know themselves, not all the members live in close proximity, for example, a city or corporation. Although, secondary groups may also have face-toface relationship but contact between individuals in the group are very ephemeral and impersonal. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 2 i. ii. iii. Differentiate between informal group and formal group. Differentiate between primary group and secondary group. Explain why informal group is inevitable in any work organization.
3.1.3 "In-Group" and "Out-Group"
The changes that occur within a group are important in the changing relationship between groups. These changes may form good base for a psychological analysis of group dynamics. Group dynamics has to do with the interactions between groups and the changes in such interactions. Group dynamics involves in-group/out-group relationship. An in-group is characterised by a 'we-feeling'. A person has loyalty to this group and makes sacrifices to retain his membership and to maintain the continuity and strength of the group. Members cherish one-another's comradeship. An in-group carries some element of sympathy amongst members and a sense of attachment to one another. There is often a feeling that what the group has is the best. Members of other groups are out-group members.
58
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
An out-group thus refers to intergroup relations. It is a relationship of "we and they". Such inter-group relations could be friendly or conflictual. In any case, the separateness of the membership and of their identity is maintained. An analysis of in-group/out-group relations is essential in understanding a society and the processes of control. Such an analysis must take account of the luring nature of some groups and of the relative cohesion and intensity of interaction in one group but absent from other. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 3 In your own words, describe what is meant by in-group/out-group relationships.
3.1.4 Group Cohesiveness
The cohesiveness of any group is the extent to which the group members develop strong ties to each other and to the group as a whole ('team spirit'). It is also a measure of the ability of the group to attract new members. A very cohesive group is one that demonstrates strong bonds of loyalty within its membership and strict adherence to the established norms of the group. A number of factors have been identified to encourage group cohesiveness' and these include: similarity of work physical proximity system of work task structure group size (especially small size) external threats prospect of rewards leadership style of manager common social features (age, sex, etc.) It should be noted here that where a high level of cohesiveness has been achieved in a group, external forces will playa significantly reduced role in bringing about change in the group. Change in such a situation can only be realised if key members of the group agree to adopt the new ways. In a less cohesive group, there is possibility for a change from without.
59
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 4 i. ii. What do you understand by group cohesiveness? In the group you belong, are you highly cohesiveness or lowly cohesive? Describe what makes you that.
3.1.5 Group Effectiveness
In looking at the effectiveness of a group, there are two major criteria for measuring success: How effectively were group tasks accomplished? What was the level of individual satisfaction with membership of the group? The first question tends to look on effectiveness from the point of view of organizational goals, the second considers personal goals. seek success in terms of tasks accomplished, targets achieved, solutions rendered and other benefits. Individuals seek personal satisfaction from membership of the group, opportunities to perform a role and to gain status within the group. However, it is important to note that both organizational and individual goals can be achieved, but where conflict exists, then it is the role of a leader in charge to minimize the negative consequences of this conflict. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 5 i. ii. What do you understand by Group effectiveness? How to do you measure effectiveness in your own group?
3.1.6 Team Process
According to Adair (1986), a team is more than just a group with a common aim. It is a "group in which the contributions of individuals are seen as complementary. Collaboration (i.e. working together) is the keynote of a team activity. Adair suggests that the test of a good (i.e. effective) team is: 'whether... its members can work as a team while they are apart, contributing to a sequence of activities rather than to a common task, which requires their presence in one place and at one time'. The most important factor in team is its effectiveness. Woodcock (1965) identified this and as a result he describes the characteristics of effective team work. These characteristics include:
60
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
support and trust clear objectives and agreed goals openness and confrontation sound procedures cooperation and conflict appropriate leadership, etc. Above all, Adair (1986) emphasises the importance of careful selection of team members. He noted that the professional competence of team member should not be more emphasised, but the ability to work as a team member, and the possession of 'desirable personal attributes' such as willingness to listen, flexibility of outlook, and the capacity to give and accept trust. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 6 What do you mean by Team?
4.0
CONCLUSION
Groups are like relationships -you have to work at them. In the workplace, they constitute an important unit of activity but one whose support needs are only recently becoming understood. By making the group itself responsible for its own support, the responsibility becomes an acceleration for the group process. What is vital, is that these needs are recognized and explicitly dealt with by the group. Time and resources must be allocated to this by the group and by Management, and the group process must be planned, monitored and reviewed. , Just like any other managed process.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, efforts has been made to define group, the processes of group development, and bringing out differences between informal and formal groups, primary and secondary groups, and in-group and outgroup'. We have also been able to describe team processes, group effectiveness and group cohesiveness. You now know that group is different from a random collection of individuals, and that in a group, three conditions are expected to be met: interaction among members, psychological awareness of one another and perception of themselves to be a group.
61
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
6.0
1. b. 2 b.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
a. What do you understand by the term, "Group"? Differentiate between Informal and Formal Group. a. What do you understand by group cohesiveness? State the factors that encourage group cohesiveness.
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Adair, J. (1973). Action-Centered Leadership. McGraw-Hill. Adair, J. (1986). Effective Team building. Gower. Cole, E.A. (1997). Personnel Management: Theory and Practice. London: Letts Educational, Aldine Place, (4th ed.). Schein, E.H. (1965). Organisational Psychology. Prentice Hall. Woodcock, M. 1979. Team Development Manual. Gower.
62
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
UNIT 3
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
SOCIAL DIFFERENTIATION
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 Meaning of Social Differentiation 3.2 Distribution of Members of a Society to Available Positions Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment Reference/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Human societies are known to differ from animal societies in at least one important respect: even the simplest human society appears to be more internally differentiated from the most complex animal society. Some of these differences are of biological variations: some are male while others are female; some people are taller than others, etc. Apart from this, people in society are also differentiated by any acquired social differences; people differ from one another in their interests, in their attitudes and beliefs, and in their habits. As a matter of fact, these known individual differences determine the social positions or roles, such as being a Doctor, Pharmacists, Mechanical Engineer, Sociologist, Physicist, Chemists, etc.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: describe what is meant by social differentiation; and describe how members of a group or society are distributed to available positions.
3.0 3.1
MAIN CONTENT Definition of Social Differentiation
Social differentiation can be expressed as meaning the divisions of every human society into distinctive social roles and functions, based upon both inherited and acquired differences. Social differentiation is easily noticed in every human society .It is very important for every society because its operations and existence enhance
63
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
the continued survival of the society. In human societies, the coordination of individual efforts to maintain the society is usually achieved through what is termed as cultural specialisation.
3.2
Distribution of Members Positions
of a Society to Available
Human societies distribute their members in the available social positions and induce them to perform the duties of these positions. Therefore, one of the ways of doing this is by ranking. Ranking is one of the ways in which human societies distribute their members in the available social positions. This means that positions available are valued differently such that positions are ranked in order of importance. Therefore, the individuals that fill the position of great importance to the society and who perform functions requiring exceptional skills and abilities usually receive greater reward and priviledges which may include prestige, money, etc., while those individuals that perform the less important tasks are made to receive lesser rewards and privileges. This kind of activities is necessary in order to allow the society to function effectively. Another way is stratification which happens to be a special type of social differentiation. Societies elaborate the ranking process further by arranging certain social positions in a graded hierarchy of socially superior or inferior ranks. As a matter of fact, when a society displays a graded series of ranks, we say that it is stratified. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Explain the two (2) major ways societies distribute its members to positions.
4.0
CONCLUSION
Social stratification is a persistent social fact in the modem societies today. Functionalists (a school of thought in sociology) hold that social stratification is an inevitable and necessary element-of-modern societies.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to describe what is meant by social differentiation and how human society into distinctive social roles and functions, based usually upon both inherited and acquired differences. Ranking is one of the ways in which human societies distribute their members in the available social positions. Another way is stratification which happens to be a special type of social differentiation.
64
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
6.0
1. 2.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
What do you understand by Social differentiation? Explain how human societies distribute their members to available positions.
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Gelles, R..J. and Levine, A. (1996). Sociology: An Introduction. (6th ed.) McGraw Hill.
65
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
UNIT 4
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
RELIGION
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 Definition of Religion 3.2 Elements of Religion 3.3 Religion and Society: Three Views 3.4 The Nature of Religious 3.5 Types of Religious Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment References/Further Readings.
Nearly all social scientists would agree what the role religion plays in society has changed. In traditional societies, religion was seen as an authority in all areas of social life; few activities remained unaffected farmers prayed or make offerings to their gods or ancestors before planting crops. Priests or Shamans were responsible for: curing. Conflicts within and between families or villages were acted out in religious rituals; disputes were settled through religious trials. Formal education was in the hands of the clergy. Now, in modem industrial societies, religion is one of many, specialized institutions. Farmers go to agricultural experts and the weather bureau for advice on crops; the sick put their lives in the hands of physicians; conflicts are settled in courts run by legal experts; and so on. With this, religion has been stripped of many of its former functions and must compete with other institutions for authority.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, each student is expected to know: the definition of religion; the elements of religion; the relationship between religion and societies; the nature of religious ; and the type of religious .
66
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.0 3.1
MAIN CONTENT Definition of Religion
Religion is defined as a set of beliefs, symbols, and practices (for example, rituals), which is based on the idea of the sacred, and which unites believers into a socio-religious community. The sacred is contrasted with the profane because it involves feelings of awe. Sociologists have defined religion by reference to the sacred rather than to a belief in a god or gods, because it makes social comparison possible.
3.2
Elements of Religion
The religious frame work is composed of four basic elements: beliefs, rituals, subjective experiences, and community. Beliefs Religious beliefs affirm the existence of a divine or supernatural order, define its character and purposes, and explain the role humans play in that order. It is essential for you to know that a belief is a conviction that cannot be proved or disproved by ordinary means. Religious beliefs therefore organise an individual's perception of the world and serve as a guide for behaviour. For example, animist religions hold that the world is inhabited by spirits with motives and emotions like our own. Although believers do not worship these spirits as gods, they do attempt to influence their behaviour through magic. This animist belief in spirits explains the occurrence of illness or accidents and prescribes a course of action. Similarly, the Christian belief in original sin, Christ and his miracles, and eternal salvation or damnation shapes perceptions and establishes a code of conduct. Rituals Religious rituals are formal, stylised enactment of religious beliefs -processions, chants, prayers, sacraments, and the like. Religious rituals differ from other activities in that believers attach a symbolic meaning to them. Religious symbols are concrete embodiments of values, idea, judgments, longings and beliefs. Subjective Experience The subjective experiences of religion grow out of beliefs and rituals. Beliefs direct people to interpret certain inner states and group experiences as "religious". Rituals may be used to invoke or recall
67
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
communication with the supernatural. Religious experiences range from the quiet sense of peace that comes from the belief the one's life in the hands of a divine power to the intense mystical experiences that inspire terror and awe. Community Belongings to a community of believers is a central part of religious experience. Shared beliefs, rituals, and subjective experiences heighten group identification. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 State and explain the elements of religion.
3.3
Religion and Society: Three Views
Three nineteenth and twentieth-century thinkers have provided contrasting views of the relationship between society and religion. In the work of Durkheim, he emphasised the function of religion as a celebration of the society order. In the work of Karl Marx on the other hand, he saw religion as an instrument of oppression used by a ruling class to cover up economic exploitation of the masses. The third think, Max Weber, saw religion as an agent of social change. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Describe the relationship between religion and society going by the three views of Emile Durkheim, Karl Marx and Max Weber.
3.4
The Nature of Religious
Religions are not only to be regarded as sets of beliefs and practices, but also social . Sociologists recognize four distinct types of religious organization which include the established church, the sect, the denomination, and the cult. It should be noted that "church" in this context does not refer specifically to a Christian organisation but refer any established religion. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3 What is your understanding of the nature of religious?
68
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.5
Types of Religious
This can be considered in four distinct types, namely established church, sect, denomination and cult. Established Church Established church refers to a religious organisation that claims unique legitimacy and has a positive relationship to society. An established church is the official religion of its society. It endorses existing political and economic institutions and is, in turn, endorsed by the state. The Catholic Church in medieval Europe and the Anglican Church in Elizabethan England are familiar examples. In Japan, the Shinto religion dates from before the fifth century. Its emphasis on the worship of natural phenomena and its belief in Kami, kindly supernatural beings who looked out for people, led to its being made the national religion, reaching its peak in the years just before world war II. Sect A Sect is a religious organisation that asserts its unique legitimacy but stands apart from society. A sect usually claims to have a monopoly over the route to salvation. Where an established church is seen as entering into society in order to influence it, a sect views society as "too sinful" to influence except from without. Usually, a sect dissociates itself from existing political and economic institutions, and its members may withdraw from "worldly" affairs thereby creating a separate community for its members. Denomination Generally speaking, denominations are less exclusive than sects, more tolerant of diversity of religious belief more "worldly", less demanding of their members, more formal in liturgy, and more demanding in professional requirements for religious functionaries. You have to note here that a denomination is usually a religious organisation that has a positive relationship to society. A denomination is also known to accept the legitimacy of other religions. Most of the major religious groups in Nigeria today include Methodists. Anglican, Catholics, Pentecostal, Baptists, etc. All these are seen as denominations.
69
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
Cult A cult is a religious organisation that accepts the legitimacy of other religious but has a negative relationship to society. Like a sect, a cult holds that there is "something wrong" with the way most people in society live. Where sects are often "at war" with society, cults tend to focus on the individuals. They are often more concerned with getting the individual in tune with the supernatural, and with individual peace of mind than with social change. Cults are known to be more tolerant of other religions. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4 Explain the four types of denomination.
4.0
CONCLUSION
Nearly all social scientists would agree that the role of religion plays in society has changed. In traditional societies, religion was seen as an authority in all areas of social life; few activities remained unaffected. During the traditional period, farmers prayed or made offerings to their gods or ancestors before planting crops. Conflicts within and between families or villages were usually acted out in religious rituals. Today, in modem societies, religion has been one of the many specialised institutions. Farmers go to agricultural experts and the weather Bureau for advice on crops; the sick put their lives in the hands of physicians; conflicts are settled in courts run by legal experts; and so on. With this therefore, religion has been stripped of many of its former functions for authority.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to define religion, stating its elements, describing the relationship between society and religion. In the unit also, we have been able to describe the nature of religious and types of religious organisations. Religion has been described as any set of institutionalised beliefs and practices that deal with the ultimate meaning of life. In religion, certain elements are recognised, these are beliefs, rituals, subjective experience and community. Religious organisations have been categorised into: established church; sect; denomination, and cult. Therefore, religions are not only to be regarded as sets of beliefs and practices, but also social organisations.
70
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
6.0
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
What do you understand by the concept "religion" State and explain the elements of religion. 2. State and explain the four (4) types of religion.
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Gelles, R.J & Levine, A. (1996). Sociology: An Introduction. (6th ed.) McGraw Hill. Giddens, A. (1993). Sociology: An Introduction. Polity Press in Association with Blackwell Publishers. (2nd ed.)
71
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
UNIT 5
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
SOCIAL INTERACTIONS
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 Meaning of Social Interactions 3.2 The Role of Cultural Scripts and Ethnomethodology on Social Interactions 3.3 Social Identities in Social Interactions 3.4 Making Social Interactions Positive (A Case Study of Children) Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
A conversation, a game of cards, a dinner party, making love -what do these activities have in common? They cannot be accomplished by only one person. All are examples of social interactions, in which one person's action depends on the actions of the other, and vice versa. Social interaction is the result of mutual influence, not simply parallel or simultaneous activity. Social interactions range from the most superficial contacts -strangers passing in the street or attending the same concert -to deep, long lasting, complex relationship, such as those between husband and wife or parent and child.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: describe social interactions; understand the role of cultural script and ethnomethodology on social interactions; understand the influence of social identities in social interactions; and describe how social interactions can be made positive.
72
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.0 3.1
MAIN CONTENT Meaning of Social Interactions
Social interaction is defined as the "interactions and relationships' that exists between/or among people in everyday life. For example, when you are seated in a bus or train, you glance at the person next to you; take '-- note of that person's sex, age, and even clothing, and based on this you adjust your behaviour accordingly. If she is a young lady and you are a young man (unmarried), you might initiate a conversation with a comment on the weather, a remark about something the other person is reading or carrying. The young lady in the next seat may respond to an overture with a nod and then open her book, signaling that she is not interested in talking. If on the other hand, she continues the conversation, then the two of your would probably talk about your jobs or why you are both travelling to Lagos. With this, you would not discuss your sex lives, and you would probably avoid getting into deep political or religious debate. On this, your interactions are further limited by the physical layout of the luxurious bus and by the other people on the bus. All these are what we pass through in our daily lives and therefore, we cannot avoid them. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 What do you understand by social interactions?
3.2
The Role of Cultural Scripts and Ethnomethodology on Social Interactions
The most important studies of every day social behaviour come from symbolic interactions. Symbolic interactionists stress the role of language and other symbols (such as fashion) in the social construction of identity and in the structure of relationships. It is a thing of interest to note that social expectations set the stage for interaction but do not dictate behaviour. Individuals do not perform their roles automatically the drama-turgical approach (i.e. analogy between the real life and the stage), on the stage, each person interprets a role in his or her own way. Some learn their parts well, while others continually bungle their lines. In some situations, there are strict rules governing interactions, and participants are expected to follow the script closely. Other situations are more improvisational, with participants making up the "story" as they go along. In many cases, we are so accustomed to our culture's script that we take expected role behaviour for granted. This now takes us to the issue of ethnomethodology which is coined to mean countless unspoken, often
73
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
unconscious rules people use to maintain order and predictability in everyday social interaction.
3.3
Social Identities in Social Interactions
A social identity is "our sense of who and what we are. As our personal identity is based on our individual biography and idiosyncrasies; our social identity derives from the positions we occupy in society, as student, daughter, friend, poet, vegetarian, and the like. It includes roles to which we aspire as well as the positions we currently occupy. Our social identity depends in large degree on our perception of how others see us. Our private identity may include thoughts and experiences we never divulge to anyone; our social identity requires public validation. This is particularly true when we are taking on a new role or leaving an old one: entering college, starting a new job, becoming a parent, or becoming single again after divorce. In addition, each of us has various situational identities that become dominant in certain settings. A woman may be a professor in class, at faculty meeting, and at professional conferences; when she gets home, however, her identity as "Mummy" comes first. Social identities are not simply day-dreams (or nightmares). They are a major source of plans for action (helping us to decide whether to do this or that); they provide the criteria for evaluating our actual performances making us feel good or bad in our daily lives (helping us interpret the situations, events and people we encounter). SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 What do you understand by social identities?
3.4
Making Social Interactions Positive (A Case Study of Children)
Social interactions are the everyday give and take situations that occur. A social interaction may include saying "Hello" or asking an appropriate question such as "May I play with you?" Social interactions also include the activities that help children make friends. Social skills are the tools that are necessary in order to have positive social interactions. When one child hits another child, they are having a social interaction, but it is not a positive interaction. You may need to help structure these interactions so they are positive rather than negative. One way that a child care provider might structure interactions is to build games and activities into daily routines that will encourage children to work and play together. If a child yells out loud or grabs a toy from his peer, the caregiver might model a more appropriate way to say, "I want my way" or "I want that
74
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
toy." What may start out as a negative interaction can be turned into positive one. While games and songs are often used to teach positive social skills, modelling appropriate social skills is still important. Turn-taking is a very vital social skill because it helps children interact with each other in a positive manner. It is also a functional skill that a child will use throughout his/her lift} time. When a child is first learning to take turns, he/she needs to learn about reciprocity. The provider can model this: rather than frequently telling the children to take turns, she can show them how to do things during games and activities designed to demonstrate reciprocity. It is also important to help children feel good about themselves. Children who have positive self-esteem are usually less aggressive and more tolerant of others. One way to help children develop good selfesteem is to consistently give them messages that they are valued as part of the class. These messages can be verbal, such as "you work so hard" or "you chose such lovely colours for your picture", but body language also conveys messages. Even when it is necessary to correct a child, do so at his/her eye level. A touch on the shoulder or a nod of the head also lets a child know you like what he/she is doing.
4.0
CONCLUSION
Daily social life takes place as a series of encounters with others in varying contexts and locations. Most of us meet and talk to a variety of others in the course of the average day. Social interaction involves numerous forms of non-verbal communication of the exchange of information and meaning through facial expressions, gestures or movements of the body. Non-verbal communication is sometimes referred to as 'body language', but this is misleading, because we characteristically use such non-verbal cues to eliminate, amplify or expand on what is being said in words.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to describe what is meant by social interactions, the role of cultural scripts and ethnomethodology on social interactions, relationship between social identities and social interactions. In this unit also, we have been able to describe social interactions which can be made positive using the children's interactions as a case study.
75
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
However, social interactions are purely inevitable and efforts should be made to allow it to work effectively.
6.0
1. b. 2. b.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
a. What do you understand by social interactions? Describe the role of cultural scripts and ethnomethodology on social interactions. a. What do you understand by social identities in social interactions? How can social interactions be made positive using the interactions among children as a case study?
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Gelles, R.J & Levine, A. (1996). Sociology: An Introduction. (6th ed.) McGraw Hill. Giddens. A. (1993). Sociology: An Introduction. Polity Press in association with Blackwell Publishers. (2nd ed.).
76
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
MODULE 4
Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Social Stratification Social Mobility Collective Behaviour Public Opinion and Propaganda Social Change
UNIT 1
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 Definition of Social Stratification 3.2 Stratification Dimension 3.3 Bases on which People are Stratified Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Stratification is a very general term referring to a hierarchy of inequality. Traditionally, the term has been applied mostly to societal rather than to other types of social systems. There has been disagreement among analysis in the stratification sense, there is general agreement that it involves "economic", prestige, and power differences or some combination of them.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: define and describe fully what is meant by social stratification; describe the stratification dimension; and describe the bases on which people are stratified.
3.0
MAIN CONTENT
77
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.1
Definition of Social Stratification
Social stratification is defined as the unequal distribution of attributes, qualities, or possessions among members of a society that at usually regarded within that society as desirable and valuable.
3.2
Stratification Dimension
Now, that you have been exposed to what is meant by stratification, then there is need to discuss the pattern of stratification within a society. In reality, social scientists make use of three dimensions, namely: (i) Class (ii) Status (iii) Power Class: This refers to the relative amount of money, wealth and other economic goods that a person or social group possesses. . This refers to the relative degree of prestige and priviledge that a person or social group can successfully claim from other members of the society. This refers to the ability of ensuring compliance among members of a group.
Status:
Power:
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Explain the three dimensions of stratification that social scientists use.
3.3
Basis on which People are Stratified
Practically, some factors have been considered important for stratification to work effectively. These factors include: i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) vii) Power (e.g. political, military or economic power) Income (amount, type of and sources) Authority. Ethnic status, religion, and race Education, learning and wisdom. Ownership of property, Occupation or skill, and achievement in it, etc.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Describe the basis on which people are stratified.
78
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
4.0
CONCLUSION
Social stratification is a persistent social fact in the modem societies today. For example, functionalists hold that social stratification is an inevitable and necessary element of modem societies. In this unit, effort has been made to define social stratification, describing the stratification dimension and bases on which people are being stratified. Social stratification has been seen as the division of a society into layers (or strata) whose occupants have unequal access to social opportunities and rewards. In a stratified society, social inequality is institutionalised; that is, it is part of the social structure and is passed from one generation to another.
6.0
1. 2 b.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
What do you understand by social stratification? a. Describe what you understand by stratification dimension. Describe what you understand by bases on which people are stratified.
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Gelles, R.J. & Levine, A. (1996). Sociology: An Introduction. (6th ed.) McGraw Hill. Giddens, A. (1993). Sociology: An Introduction. Polity Press in Association with Blackwell Publishers. (2nd ed.).
79
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
UNIT 2
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
SOCIAL MOBILITY
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 Definitions of Social Mobility 3.2 Types of Social Mobility 3.2.1 Individual Mobility 3.2.2 Group Mobility 3.2.3 Career Mobility 3.2.4 Generational Mobility 3.2.5 Vertical Mobility 3.2.6 Horizontal Mobility Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment References/Further Readings.
1.0
INTRODUCTION
The study of social mobility has a long sociological pedigree, extending back to the mid-nineteenth-century writings of Karl Marx and John Stuart Mill, with major contributions in the early twentieth century from Vilfredo Pareto (who proposed a theory of the 'circulation of elites) and Pitirim Sorokin. The now vast literature on the subject is inextricably entangled with wide discussions of (among other things) education, gender, culture, power, statistical techniques, and the role of theory in social research. It is possible, indeed, to trace many of the classic debates in modern sociology back to the early arguments about mobility. For example, in social mobility (1927), Sorokin wrote that 'channels of vertical circulation exists in any stratified society, and are as necessary as channels for blood circulation in the body'. Sorokin was particularly interested in the role of educational institutions in allocating people to the various occupational positions. Anticipating the radical critiques of the new sociology of education of the 1970s, he argued that schools function primarily as a testing, selecting, and distributing agency; in other words, they merely certify children for particular positions in the labour market, rather than promoting each individual's .abilities or encouraging the development of talent. Confronted by this potentially vast field of interest, it is useful for heuristic purposes to view the modern literature on social mobility as a
80
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
dispute between two divergent research programme which have set the terms of discussion for this subject since 1945 and continue to dominate the field even today. On the one hand, there are those investigators who view mobility in the context of a social hierarchy, within which individuals can be ranked according to income, educational attainment, or socio-economic prestige. On the other, there are those who set in within the context of a class structure, embracing social locations defined by relationships prevailing within labour-markets and production units. During the 1950s and 1960s, the former hierarchy perspective was dominant, culminating in the so-called status-attainment tradition of mobility studies emanating principally from the United States. This was increasingly challenged, during the 1970s and 1980s, by researchers schooled within or influenced by the European tradition of class analysis. The status-attainment programme sees the principal interest of mobility studies as being an attempt to specify those attributes which are characteristic of individuals who end up in the more desirable rather than the less desirable jobs. Characteristically, these studies investigate the extent to which the present occupational status of individuals is associated with the status of their family of origin, rather than individual achievements such as educational attainment. One virtue of this approach, as compared to earlier cross- tabulations of father's occupation by son's occupation, was that it disentangled at least some of the processes that linked the generations. For example, researchers explored the effects of father's education on son's occupational attainment, and showed that these were distinct from the effect of father's occupation. Most studies maintained that son's education was the crucial link between family background and occupational success, arguing that as much as half of the association between the two was mediated via education, with children from more privileged family backgrounds being higher educational achievers than their poorer peers. Later, researchers extend the field of interest to include data on income, with most concluding that the impact of family background on earnings is substantial, but operates entirely indirectly through educational and occupational attainment.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: understand fully the concept of social mobility; and describe the types of social mobility.
81
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.0 3.1
MAIN CONTENT Definitions of Social Mobility
The movement -usually of individuals but sometimes of whole groups -between different positions within the system of social statification in any society, is referred to as social mobility. It is conventional to distinguish upward and downward mobility (that is, movement up or down a hierarchy of privilege), and inter-generational from intra generational or career mobility (the former referring to mobility between a family of origin and one's own class or status position, the latter to the mobility experienced during an individual career, such as respondent's first job compared to his or her present job. In a nutshell, social mobility is further referred to as the movement up or down within the stratification system.
3.2
Types of Social Mobility
In sociology, the following types of social mobility have been identified: individual mobility group mobility .career mobility generational mobility vertical mobility horizontal mobility
3.2.1 Individual Mobility
This refers to the movement of individuals from one social class to another. In this case, an individual may move easily as a result of his/her educational attainment or economic strength from one social position to another. This is a common type of mobility which takes its measurement by comparing an individual's present position to the social class into which he was born and grew up. Most people from poor family backgrounds but who later became known in the society just as a result of their economic wealth or educational opportunities could be said to be an example of individual mobility.
3.2.2 Group Mobility
This has to do with the movement of a group of individuals from one social status to another, usually from a lower one to a higher one. The group upward movement may reflect hard work on the part of the group members or luck.
82
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.2.3 Career Mobility
This entails the changes in the social status of an individual. These changes could be largely due to education, mother dominance, number of siblings, etc. The changes being mentioned here are what an individual experiences in his life time i.e. his or her achievements.
3.2.4 Generational Mobility
This relates to any change in status that occurs between a child and a parent. There is every possibility for a child to rise above the status into which he or she was born; so when this happens, then it is referred to as generational mobility.
3.2.5 Vertical Mobility
This refers to movement either upward or downwards across various strata. For example, in, one's place of work, one could be promoted (i.e. upward mobility). On the other hand, another individual in another place of work could be demoted (i.e. downward mobility) due to certain offence he or she has committed in the organisation.
3.2.6 Horizontal Mobility
This refers to movement on the same status. For example, a bank manager in Ibadan can be taken to Lagos branch of the bank to be the new bank Manager. This is obviously horizontal mobility because the affected individual still maintains the status. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 i. ii. What do you understand by social mobility? State the various types of social mobility.
4.0
CONCLUSION
It should interest you that social mobility in Nigeria has not been fully stable and established. This is so because ascriptive criteria still influence the pattern of mobility. So much people today have actually grown upward in their different status, partly due to their educational attainment. This now shows that educational attainment partly influences or determines social mobility in the country.
83
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to define social mobility. Efforts have also been made to describe some of the major types of social mobility. We have been able to state that social mobility is usually the movement of individuals but sometimes of whole groups between different positions within the social statification in any society. Some of the known types of social mobility include: horizontal mobility, vertical mobility, generational mobility, etc.
6.0
1. 2.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
What do you understand by social mobility. State and explain five (5) types of social mobility.
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Agbonlahor, F.I. and Olutayo, A.O., et at. (1995). Issues and Perspectives in Sociology. Nigeria: Sam Bookman Educational and Communication Services.
84
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
UNIT 3
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOUR
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 What is Collective Behaviour 3.2 Forms of Collective Behaviour 3.3 Collective Behaviour as a Breakdown in Social Order Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment Reference/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Why would "ordinary people" engage in looting and vandalism? Why do crowds become violent? Some Sociologists have argued that the answers lie in crowd psychology. Gustava LeBon, who has been called the 'grandfather of collective behaviour theory, strongly, supported a contagion theory of crowd behaviour. LeBon was greatly influenced by the current events of his time. France, in his day, (the second half of the nineteenth century) was not unlike the United States in recent decades. Everything seemed to be changing. Demonstrations that bordered on riots were almost weekly events. LeBon was also influenced by some of his contemporaries: Charles Darwin; who had traced the origins of humanity back to the animal kingdom, and the Sigmund Freud, who was exploring the unconscious levels of the mind.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: understand the meaning of collective behaviour; describe forms of collective behaviour; and describe collective behaviour as a breakdown in social order.
3.0 3.1
MAIN CONTENT What is Collective Behaviour?
Collective behaviour is seen as a potentially wide-ranging field of study which deals with the ways on which collective behaviours emerge as responses to problematic circumstances and situations. At one extreme, this can mean the study of coordinated and organised social movements;
85
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
at the other, it refers to the seemingly spontaneous eruption of common behavioural patterns, as for example, in episodes of mass hysteria. Between these are responses to natural disaster, riots, lynchings, crazes, fads, fashions, rumours, looms panics and even rebellions or revolutions. In crowds, according to LeBon, people cease to act as individuals. People of different ages, sexes, educational levels, and occupations chant the same slogans, to the same things. If one person runs, everybody runs. The crowd develops a mind of its own. Participants become highly suggestible: they will believe almost anything. Specifically, collective behaviour has to do with the noninstitutionalised group behaviour that takes place without clear-cut direction from the normative system of culture. Usually, collective behaviour is unplanned and its effects unforeseen. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 What is your understanding of collective behaviour?
3.2
Forms of Collective Behaviour
The six main forms of collective behaviour include: panics crowds fashions rumours social movements .public opinion Panic This is one of the forms of collective behaviour which ensues when people, being faced with danger such as fire outbreak, tend to loose their capacity to cooperate and hence their chances of escape are reduced. It is usually seen as the most transitory and rarest form of mass action. Crowds This is the next form of collective behaviour which tends to be more structured than panics and usually being guided by social norms. The presence of the influence of social norms on crowds makes possible members of a crowd to be easily persuaded to work toward a common goal. Public opinion
86
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
This refers to the aggregate views of the people on a particular public issue or government policy at a given period. It is a form of collective behaviour in which a relatively large number of people put their views on a particular public issue together. Social Movement This refers to the (more or less) organised effort of a large number of people to produce some social change. Examples of this are the women's movement (e.g. women empowerment campaign team in Nigeria), environmental movement (e.g. movement to ban nuclear weapons), etc. On the- surface, social movements resemble collective behaviour. Although they are non-violent, protest demonstrations may seem as spontaneous, unstructured, and emotional as a riot. Fashions Fashion is seen as a great though brief enthusiasm among a relatively large number of people for a particular innovation. Fashions tend to be ephemeral (i.e. short-lived) since their novelty wears off quickly. Ideally, every aspect of human life (e.g. clothes, architecture, philosophy, hair-styles) is usually influenced by fashions. Rumours This refers to an unverified story that is spread from one person to another. It is the distortions made on a story that is supposed to be relayed on to another person. Going deeper, rumours promote panics, mobs or even riots. Practically, rumours are found in every society and are even part of interpersonal communication.
3.3
Collective Behaviour as a Breakdown in Social order
Often, the media reports episodes of "collective madness". For no apparent reason, large numbers of people usually stop exercising critical judgement and self-control. As a matter of fact, upon closest inspection, such breakdowns may in fact, have some rather long-standing reasons, whether one accepts them as justifying outburst of violent group behaviour or not. Based on this, when the contagious elements in collective madness are fear or anxiety, rather than anger and frustration, the result is called mass hysteria. On the other hand, when the contagion involves wild enthusiasm about some person, object, or activity, the result is called a craze. Based on the views of functionalists, they see mass hysterias and crazes as collective responses to a breakdown in social order. They occur when large numbers of people are troubled but
87
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
are not sure why or what to do to alleviate the problem. As a result, they become irrational in the sense that they are not aware of the real reason for their distress and their behaviour is not aimed at the actual source of the problem. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Express your views on collective behaviour as a breakdown in social order.
4.0
CONCLUSION
It should be noted, however, that not all crowds are violent. Some crowds gather to express a common emotion such as joy, excitement, or grief. These are referred to as expressive crowds. Also, a crowd that gathers at a rock concert or at a religious revival is an example of expressive crowd. Therefore, expressive crowds differ from crowds that are violent in that they are more of a means of collectively expressing an emotion and are not intended to lead to violence or political action.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, efforts have been made to describe what is meant by collective behaviour, forms of collective behaviour, and collective behaviour as a breakdown in social order. It has been argued that far from being irrational, behaviour in crowds is determined by rational calculation. People in crowds usually weigh the possible benefits of participation against the costs and join a riot only if they believe it will "payoff'. Actually the benefits may be tangible (stolen goods) or intangible (the satisfaction of expressing frustration).
6.0
1. 2.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
What is your understanding of collective behaviour. State and explain at least four (4) forms of collective behaviour. Describe your understanding of collective behaviour as a breakdown in social order.
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Gelles, R. J., & Levine, A. (1996). Sociology: An Introduction. (6th ed.) McGraw Hill.
88
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
UNIT 4
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
PUBLIC OPINION AND PROPAGANDA
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 Definition of Public Opinion and Propaganda 3.2 Portion of Public Opinion 3.3 Importance of Public Opinion 3.4 Measurements of Public Opinion Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Among Sociologists, there are two different ways of viewing mass departures from social expectations and normative behaviour. The first, especially common among functionalists, interprets collective behaviour as a symptom that something has "gone haywire" in the social system (i.e. usual methods of social control are not working, and people are behaving irrationally). The second, called collective-action theory sees collective behaviour as the result of rational decision on the part of collectivities.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to describe: What is meant by public opinion: factors involved in the formation of public opinion; importance of public opinion; and measurement of public opinion.
3.0 3.1
MAIN CONTENT Definition of Public Opinion and Propaganda
Public opinion can be defined as the aggregate views of the people on a particular public issue or government policy at a given period. You should note here that whenever a public is identified, there tends to be opinion formation.
89
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
3.2
Formation on Public Opinion
Public opinion can be formed in various ways. These include: Through the Mass Media: This is to say that people can express their views through the radio, newspaper and the television. Symposia and Lecturers: This indicates that public opinion can be formed at meeting in which ideas on matters of public importance are expressed and discussed. Pressure Groups and Political Parties: This indicates that pressure groups and political parties help in the formation of public opinion. Through this means, people's views and opinions are easily shaped. Bureau of Information: A bureau of information is a government's agency which is meant to inform the public on the activities of government. This now shows that government can assist in the formation of public opinion through the establishment of a bureau of information. This would make the government to easily know people's opinions on government policies. Elections: Elections are another strategy of forming public opinion. This is made possible through the education of members of the public by political parties on important public issues. This usually occurs during campaigns or through advertisements. SELF- ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 1 How do public opinion form?
3.3
Importance of Public Opinion
Below are the importances of public opinion: Measuring the popularity of the government: This shows that through public opinion, the government will be able to measure the popularities of its policies. Formulation of government policies is made easy: Through public opinion, government is able to formulate policies. This means that the government is able to know that the views of the people are on any public issue and it is able to take that into consideration while formulating its policies.
90
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
A means of decision-making: This shows that people are made to participate in the decision making process through their opinion on certain issues. A means of checking the excesses of government: Public opinion can be helpful in ensuring for accountability. For example, through public opinion, the government can be made accountable for its actions. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Describe why you think public opinion is important and necessary. .
3.4
Measurement of Public Opinion
Public opinion can be measured with the following: Through referendum: A referendum is a direct vote through which all the people in a society declare their position on any particular issue. It is a technique of measuring the acceptability or non-acceptability of any government proposal. Through elections: It is a fact to note that government can easily know a lot through the conduct of an election. As a matter of fact, the result of an election could help us to know how popular or unpopular a government and its policies are. Through opinion polls: Opinion polls are another way of measuring public opinion. Opinion polls are methods by which a cross-section of the public are interviewed on a given issue, with a view of identifying and measuring their position on it. Through meeting the people: People can be met directly in order to know their opinion on any particular issue. People can be located in their various communities or neighbourhoods. The above-listed techniques of measuring public opinion have been used by the government (Federal, State and Local governments), private bodies and other bodies as ways of knowing what is on people's mind. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3 Describe the techniques of measuring public opinion.
91
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
4.0
CONCLUSION
Public opinion has been identified as the collection of ideas and attitudes usually shared by the members of a particular public. It should be of interest to note here that public opinion helps in maintaining social control particularly over the leaders and the population in general. Not only this, public opinion can possibly serve as a unifying element in society. For example, Nigerian society which is purely heterogeneous (i.e. being made up of different kinds of people such as Hausa, Ibo, Tiv, Yoruba, etc.) is to some extent unified on certain issues, particularly in times of great crisis, which, however, demands a collective effort.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to give a definition of public opinion; how public opinion is formed; importance of public opinion, and measurement of public opinion. Public opinion has been expressed as the aggregate views of the people on a particular public issue or government policy at a given period. Public opinion is said to come up through mass media, symposia and lectures, pressure groups and political parties, bureau of information, and through elections. Public opinion has been described as being important in that it helps in formulation of government policies, it helps to measure the popularity of the government, participation in decision-making and lastly, it is a strategy of checking the excesses of government. Effort has also been made to describe how public opinion is measured. Measurement of public opinion can come through opinion polls, elections, referendum and meeting the people directly.
6.0
1 b. 2 b.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
a. Define public opinion. How do public opinion form? a. Explain the importance of public opinion Describe how public opinion can be measured.
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Agbonlahor, F.I, Olutayo, A.O., et al. (1995). Issues and Perspectives in Sociology. Nigeria: Sam Bookman Educational and Communication Services.
92
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
UNIT 5
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
SOCIAL CHANGE
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 Definition of Social Change 3.2 Sources of Social Change 3.3 Resistance to Social Change Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignments References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
One of the central problems of sociology is change, most especially social change. In the middle of the nineteenth century, the first attempts at sociological analysis were prompted by the need to explain two great waves of change that were sweeping across Europe; namely, industrialisation, and the expansion of democracy and human rights in the wake of the American and French Revolutions. Auguste Comte, in his theory of social dynamics, proposed that societies progressed through a series of predictable stages based on the development of human knowledge. The general tendency of nineteenth-century theories of social change was towards historicism and utopianism. This century, theories of social change have proliferated and become more complex, without ever wholly transcending these formulations. In the modern world, we are aware that society is never static, and that social, political and cultural changes occur constantly. Change can be initiated by governments, through legislative or executive action (for example, legislating for equal pay or declaring a war), by citizens organised in social movements (for example, trade unionism, feminism); by diffusion from one culture to another (as in military conquest, migration, colonialism) or by the intended or unintended consequences of technology. Some of the most dramatic social changes in modern times have been initiated by such interventions as the motor car, antibiotics, television, and computers. Change can also come through the impact of environmental factors such as drought, famine, and interventional shifts in economic or political change.
93
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: define social change; describe sources of change; and describe resistance to change.
3.1
Definition of Social Change
Wilmot (1985: 174) sees social change as "the alteration in the sources or organization of society or its component parts overtime." This alteration, he says, may be in terms of four variables, viz: size, complexity, direction and functions. In terms of size, a society can, through deliberate policies, bring about a change in itself. A practical example is the creation of local government areas from already existing ones by government. Once size changes, functions, direction and complexity will invariably change. MacGee etal (1977: 589) refer to social change as the transformation in patterns of social organisation or activity. The emphasis in this definition is on the changes which the transformation process introduced into the older order of society. Therefore, social change can be seen as an overhaul of the socio-political, economic and other structures of society. It is either gradual and imperceptible or sudden.
3.2
Sources of Social Change
Social change can be as a result of the following: Discovering Parsons (1951) defined discovery as an addition to knowledge. "Discovery refers to such matters as the discovery of new astral bodies, new elements and new treatment for disease (Parsons, 1951: 94). Education Education, as it is, involves the process of transmitting ideas, knowledge and values to individuals in order to bring about a change in their behaviour. The knowledge and skills gained from education are usually being applied which therefore brings about changes of all sorts. This is another source of social change. Invention has to do with combining existing elements of culture so that some thing new could be produced. Invention as a source of social change is of two types:
94
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
material inventions and social inventions. Material inventions have to do with the idea and materials available to the inventor. Social inventions relate to things such as alphabet, constitutional governments, etc. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Explain the sources of social change.
3.3
Resistance to Change
Several factors have been identified mostly by sociologists as making people to resist change. Some have argued in favour of economic costs of the change; some have also argued in favour of the early imperfections in new inventions. Change can be resisted due to some other factors which include the threats constituted by the change; strong opposition particularly from concerned groups, the difficulty in adapting to new things developed, etc. All these could make people to resist change of any sort. . SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 What do you understand by resistance to change?
4.0
CONCLUSION
It is a fact to note that change is inevitable and that social change is continuous in all societies though some changes are more notable than others. The issue of great concern now is that any time change is introduced; it should be taken as something very vital and progressive. This does not mean that people must not assess the change; in actual fact there is need for real assessment of any social change.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have dealt with definitions of social change and we have also discussed the sources of social change, and resistance to change. Social change has been identified as the transformation or modification process that brings about an influence on the old methods of doing things which have been identified as old-fashioned.
95
CSS 101 SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO
6.0
1. 2. 3.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
What do you understand by the term "Social change"? Explain carefully the sources of social change with examples. Describe the factors involved in resistance to change
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Agbonlahor, F.I, Olutayo, A.O. et al. (1995). Issues and Perspectives in Sociology. Nigeria: Sam Bookman Educational and Communication Services. Giddens, A. (1993). Sociology: An Introduction. Polity Press in Association with Blackwell Publishers. (2nd ed.):
96
You May Also Find These Documents Helpful
-
1 1-2 2-3 3 4 4-5 5-6 7-8 8 9 9-10 10-11 11 12 12-13 13 14 14-15 15-16 16-17 17…
- 5433 Words
- 22 Pages
Powerful Essays -
Course-Materials: This is a read-only forum, which means you can read messages here but cannot send any. This is where I will post the course syllabus and materials.…
- 457 Words
- 2 Pages
Satisfactory Essays -
10 9 6 2 5 3 9 1 6 3 10 4 7 6 3 5 6 2 6 5 3 7 2…
- 623 Words
- 5 Pages
Satisfactory Essays -
The article starts off by focusing on the Nigerian education system and the problems they are facing. The people in this area are split into three groups, the first group are concerned with the education system itself, the second group are worried about the teaching methods, and the third group still blame it on the inability for the students to comprehend what they have learned.…
- 1346 Words
- 6 Pages
Powerful Essays -
Sociology studies the way society is organized. It also studies how human beings interact in the context of their social situations. The course introduces this intellectual discipline as a way of analyzing the complex, multi-cultural world in which we live. Over the course of the semester we will:…
- 738 Words
- 3 Pages
Good Essays -
References: Ministry of Higher Education, 2010. Higher Education. [Online] Available at: [Accessed at 3 July 2012]…
- 3643 Words
- 15 Pages
Powerful Essays -
ADOPTION OF VALUE ANALYSIS IN MANUFACTURING PROCESS DESIGN AND SCHEDULING- ACRITICALL REVIEW OF THE KENYAN CASE.…
- 4011 Words
- 17 Pages
Best Essays -
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF NIGERIA CERTIFICATE IN EDUCATION (N.C.E)…
- 7207 Words
- 29 Pages
Satisfactory Essays -
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT OF THE AWARD OF POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA IN BAYERO UNIVERSITY KANO.…
- 4635 Words
- 19 Pages
Satisfactory Essays -
The maiden edition of the National Theatre and Film Critics Roundtable held on the 21st…
- 649 Words
- 3 Pages
Good Essays -
Auditing is the independent examination of the financial statement of organization with a view to expressing an opinion as to whether these statements give a true and fair view and comply with the relevant statutes. This opinion is expressed in the form of a report. To be able to carryout a meaningful examination of the affairs of an organization as appear in its records. Since most records of organizations are a summary of the transactions for a specified period, the auditor also goes behind these validity of the recorded transaction by performing various tests to ascertain their validity. This has a great impact on the profitability, accountability and performance of the firm in Nigeria.…
- 2494 Words
- 10 Pages
Powerful Essays -
Introduction.............................................................................. 1 What you will learn in this Course............................................ 1 Course Aims............................................................................... Course Objectives...................................................................... Working through this Course.................................................... Course Materials........................................................................ Study Units ............................................................................... Textbooks and References ........................................................ Assignment File........................................................................ Presentation Schedule............................................................... 1 1 2 2 2-3 3 3-4 4…
- 66264 Words
- 266 Pages
Powerful Essays -
References: 2. Al – Hamlāwī, A.M.A, (1999) ﺷ ّ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﻑ ﻓﻰ ﻓﻦ ﺍﻟﺼﺮﻑAl-Qāhirah, Maktabatu `şﺬ…
- 29492 Words
- 118 Pages
Powerful Essays -
1 1 2 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 8 9 9 9 10 10 10 11…
- 36923 Words
- 148 Pages
Powerful Essays -
Introduction……………………………………………..…………. What You Would Learn in this Course …………………..………. Course Aims………………………………………….….………... Course Objectives ……………………………………..………….. Working through this Course ………………………..…………….. Course Materials …………………………………….…………..... Study Units………………………………………….……………... Tutor-Marked Assignments ………….……………………………. Final Examination and Grading …………………………..………. Course Overview …………………………….…………………… How to Get the Most from this Course………….….……………… Summary ………………………………………………………………
- 69078 Words
- 277 Pages
Powerful Essays